Catch-up growth and catch-up fat in children born small for gestational age

Concordance of weight status between mothers and children: a secondary analysis of the Pakistan Demographic and health survey VII

BACKGROUND

Familial concordance of weight status is an emerging field of study that may guide the development of interventions that operate beyond the individual and within the family context. There is a dearth of published data for concordance of weight status within Pakistani households.

METHODS

We assessed the associations between weight status of mothers and their children in a nationally representative sample of households in Pakistan using Demographic and Health Survey data from 2017-18. Our analysis included 3465 mother-child dyads, restricting to children under-five years of age with body mass index (BMI) information on their mothers. We used linear regression models to assess the associations between maternal BMI category (underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese) and child's weight-for-height z-score (WHZ), accounting for socio-demographic characteristics of mothers and children. We assessed these relationships in all children under-five and also stratified by age of children (younger than 2 years and 2 to 5 years).

RESULTS

In all children under-five and in children 2 to 5 years, maternal BMI was positively associated with child's WHZ. For all children under-five, children of normal weight, overweight, and obese women had WHZ scores that were 0.21 [95% CI (confidence interval): 0.04, 0.37], 0.43 [95% CI: 0.25, 0.62], and 0.51 [95% CI: 0.30, 0.71] units higher than children of underweight women, respectively. For children ages 2 to 5, children of normal weight, overweight, and obese women had WHZ scores that were 0.26 [95% CI: 0.08, 0.44), 0.50 [95% CI: 0.30, 0.71), and 0.61 [95% CI: 0.37, 0.84] units higher than children of underweight women, respectively. There was no association between maternal BMI and child WHZ for children under-two.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that the weight status of mother's is positively associated with that of their children, particularly after age 2. These associations further strengthen the call for research regarding interventions and policies aimed at healthy weight promotion among mothers and their children collectively, rather than focusing on individuals in isolation.

Small for gestational age: concept, diagnosis and neonatal characterization, follow-up and recommendations

Newborns who do not reach a weight appropriate for their gestational age and sex can be classified in different ways. This article defines the concepts of small for gestational age (SGA) and intrauterine growth restriction, as well as the underlying causes of these conditions, with the goal of establishing consensus definitions for these patients, in whom treatment with growth hormone throughout childhood may be indicated and who may be at risk of developing endocrine or metabolic disorders in puberty and adulthood. Most SGA children experience spontaneous catch-up growth that is usually completed by age 2 years. In SGA children who remain short, treatment with recombinant human growth hormone is effective, increasing adult height. Small for gestational age infants with rapid catch-up growth and marked weight gain are at increased risk of premature adrenarche, early puberty, polycystic ovary syndrome (girls), insulin resistance and obesity, all of which are risk factors for type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in adulthood. The SGA status can affect different areas of neurodevelopment and manifest at different stages in life; neurodevelopmental outcomes are better in SGA infants with spontaneous catch-up growth. Due to the potential risks associated with SGA, adequate characterization of these patients at birth is imperative, as it allows initiation of appropriate follow-up and early detection of abnormalities.

Comparison of growth patterns in the first year of life between term small for gestational age and appropriate for gestational age South Indian infants

BACKGROUND

Early life growth trajectories of Indian small for gestational age (SGA) infants are sparse. This study aimed to compare longitudinal growth in appropriate for gestational age (AGA) and SGA infants during their first year of life.

METHODS

Apparently healthy term infants (52 SGA, 154 AGA) were recruited at birth and followed up till 1 year. Parental, sociodemographic characteristics and feeding patterns were recorded. Anthropometric measurements were assessed at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age; Z scores and growth velocity at 3-month intervals were computed. Longitudinal measurements were compared between the two groups, using the two-way Friedmans test. Median regression with mixed effects was used to adjust covariates; p value <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULT

AGA infants had significantly higher median weight (kg) (2.87 (2.67, 3.04) vs 2.39 (2.25, 2.54)) at birth, (7.08 (6.50, 7.54) vs 6.49 (6.13, 6.78)) at 6 months, (8.64 (7.92, 9.14) vs 7.90 (7.36, 8.54)) at 12 months, median length (cm) ((48.10 (47.20, 49.30) vs 46.75 (45.43, 47.50)) at birth, (65.50 (64.23, 66.98) vs 63.33 (62.26, 65.28)) at 6 months, (73.30 (71.58, 74.66) vs 71.55 (70.00, 73.30)) at 12 months. SGA infants had comparable weight velocity at all intervals except 9-12 months (6.62 (6.45, 6.79) vs (6.70 (6.51, 6.85)), being significantly higher than AGA infants. Differences in skinfold thicknesses between groups were observed only at birth. Exclusivity of breast feeding was significantly higher at 3 months in AGA, compared to SGA infants (80.9% vs 57.8%). Length velocity was comparable at all ages between groups. Sexual dimorphism was observed in the growth velocities of both groups.

CONCLUSION

SGA infants grew in parallel to AGA infants, having significantly lower anthropometric measurements at all time points. However, growth velocities were similar; SGA infants had significantly higher weight velocity from 9 to 12 months. Longitudinal studies beyond 1 year of age, using body composition are needed to determine the quality of growth in Indian infants.

Appendicular Muscle Mass Index as the Most Important Determinant of Bone Mineral Content and Density in Small for Gestational Age Children

Preterm small for gestational age (SGA) children are at increased risk for low bone mineral content later in life; however, data on SGA children born at term are scarce. We included 44 SGA and 57 adequate for gestational age (AGA) children aged 6 to 11 years to compare bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) and to identify which anthropometric and biochemical values influence bone mineralization in these children. Fat mass, appendicular skeletal muscle mass index (ASMMI), BMC, and BMD were significantly lower in SGA children than in AGA (P ≤ .005). Appendicular muscle mass index correlated with BMC(TBLH,FN,L1-L4) and BMD(TBLH,FN,L1-L4) in both groups (r2 = 0.7, P < .05). In multivariate analysis, ASMMI was strongly associated with BMC and BMD in both groups. There were no differences in clinical biomarkers, calcium intake, and physical activity between the groups. Achieving adequate muscle mass contributes to adequate bone mineralization and a lower risk for low BMC and BMD in SGA children.

Astaxanthin and DHA Supplementation Modulates the Maternal Undernutrition-induced Impairment of Cognitive Behavior and Synaptic Plasticity in Adult Life of Offspring's -Exploring the Molecular Mechanism

Maternal nutrition was recognized as a significant part of brain growth and maturation in most mammalian species. Timely intervention with suitable nutraceuticals would provide long-term health benefits. We aim to unravel the molecular mechanisms of perinatal undernutrition-induced impairments in cognition and synaptic plasticity, employing animal model based on dietary nutraceutical supplementation. We treated undernourished dams at their gestational, lactational, and at both the time point with Astaxanthin (AsX) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and their pups were used as experimental animals. We evaluated the cognitive function by subjecting the pups to behavioral tests in their adult life. In addition, we assessed the expression of genes in the hippocampus related to cognitive function and synaptic plasticity. Our results showed downregulation of Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), cAMP response-element-binding protein (CREB), and uncoupling protein-2 (UCP2) gene expression in pups born to undernourished dams in their adult life, which AsX and DHA modulated. Maternal AsX and DHA supplementation ameliorated the undernutrition-induced learning impairment in novel object recognition (NOR) tests and partially baited radial arm maze (RAM) tasks in offspring's. The expressions of Synapsin-1 and PSD-95 decreased in perinatally undernourished groups compared to control and AsX-DHA treated groups at CA1, CA2, CA3, and DG. AsX and DHA supplementation upregulated BDNF, NT-3, CREB, and UCP2 gene expressions in perinatally undernourished rats, which are involved in intracellular signaling cascades like Ras, PI3K, and PLC. The results of our study give new insights into neuronal differentiation, survival, and plasticity, indicating that the perinatal period is the critical time for reversing maternal undernutrition-induced cognitive impairment in offspring's.

Growth trajectory of full-term small-for-gestational-age infants: a 3-year longitudinal study in China

OBJECTIVE

Small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants are at risk of impaired growth and developmental outcomes, even for those who were born at full term. The growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants from birth to 3 years old in East China.

METHODS

Full-term SGA infants were followed up from birth to 3 years old. The weight and length were measured at 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months. Rate of catch-up growth and rates of growth deviations including short stature, emaciation, underweight, overweight and obesity, were calculated at different time points. Latent class analysis was applied to describe growth trajectories from birth to 36 months.

RESULTS

A total of 816 full-term SGA infants were enrolled in this study and 303 had complete follow-up data at 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months. At 24 months, the rate of catch-up growth was 42.4% in girls and 48.6% in boys; while at 36 months, this rate was 43.3% in girls and 52.1% in boys. The latent class analysis identified two trajectories of weight and length in boys and girls. Girls showed different growth trajectories of weight since 12 months compared with boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reported a relatively low rate of catch-up growth in full-term SGA infants and has identified different growth trajectories of length and weight in boys and girls. We call for attention from health professionals on the growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants to eventually promote their health potentials.

Relationship of Glucagon-like Peptide 1 and Peptide YY with Catch-up Growth in Children Born Small for Gestational Age

Objective

Children born small for gestational age (SGA) are at a greater risk of developing insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Gastrointestinal peptides, some secreted by intestinal L cells, regulate glucose and lipid metabolism and act on the hypothalamus to regulate energy homeostasis. The aim of this study was to explore whether gastrointestinal peptides are involved in metabolic disorders in SGA, which remains unclear.

Methods

The secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) were investigated in prepubertal children born SGA, the differences between catch-up growth and persistent short stature were compared, and correlation with glucose and lipid metabolism was analyzed. GLP-1, PYY, insulin-like growth factor 1, glucose, insulin, and lipid concentrations were analyzed in prepubertal children aged 4-10 years, stratified into three groups: short-SGA (SGA-s), catch-up growth SGA, and normal growth appropriate for gestational age (AGA).

Results

Fasting GLP-1 and PYY concentrations were significantly lower in the SGA group than in the AGA group (p<0.05), and the GLP-1 level in infants born SGA with catch-up growth was lower than that in the SGA-s group (p<0.05). In the SGA population, GLP-1 showed a weak negative correlation with catch-up growth (r=-0.326) and positive correlation with fasting insulin (r=0.331).

Conclusion

Lower GLP-1 concentrations may be associated with abnormal glucose metabolism in prepubertal children born SGA with catch-up growth. This is indirect evidence that impaired intestinal L cell function may be involved in the development of metabolic complications in SGA children.

Small for gestational age and anthropometric body composition from early childhood to adulthood: the Aboriginal Birth Cohort study

Background

In Australia the estimated rate of small for gestational age (SGA) births is 9% among non-Indigenous births compared to 14% among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. There is limited research investigating the effect of being born SGA on body composition later in life in Indigenous Australians.

Methods

Using data from the Aboriginal Birth Cohort longitudinal study, we compared the body composition of those born SGA to non-SGA by analysing anthropometric measures (height, weight, waist circumference, fat percentage [FAT%], body mass index [BMI], waist-to-height ratio, and A body shape index [ABSI]) collected at four follow-up periods (from childhood to adult). For cross-sectional analyses, linear regression models were employed to assess factors associated with anthropometric measures. For longitudinal analyses linear mixed models were employed to assess differences in anthropometric measures among SGA versus non-SGA individuals while adjusting for repeated measures.

Results

The analytic baseline cohort were those who participated in Wave 2 (n = 570). In cross-sectional analyses, across all waves those born SGA had smaller anthropometric z-scores compared to non-SGA individuals (β ranging from -0.50 to -0.25). Participants residing in urban environments were significantly larger in Waves 2 to 4 (β ranged 0.26 to 0.65). Those born SGA had higher ABSI scores in Waves 2 and 4 (β 0.26 and 0.37, respectively). In longitudinal analyses, those born SGA had smaller measures of body composition across the life course; these differences were larger in urban communities. In remote communities those born SGA had significantly higher ABSI scores during adolescence and young adulthood, and this difference was not observed in urban communities.

Conclusion

Indigenous Australians born SGA are smaller anthropometrically later in life compared to their non-SGA counterparts. In remote communities, those born SGA had higher levels of central adiposity compared to non-SGA.

Methylation Status of IGF-Axis Genes in the Placenta of South Indian Neonates with Appropriate and Small for Gestational Age

OBJECTIVE

Altered methylation patterns of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-axis genes in small for gestational age (SGA) have been reported in different populations. In the present study, we analyzed the methylation status of IGF-axis genes in the placenta of appropriate for gestational age (AGA) and SGA neonates of South Indian women.

METHODS

Placental samples were collected from AGA (n = 40) and SAG (n = 40) neonates. The methylation of IGF-axis genes promoter was analyzed using MS-PCR.

RESULTS

IGF2, H19, IGF1, and IGFR1 genes promoter methylation was 2.5, 1.5, 5, and 7.5% lower in SGA compared to AGA, respectively. Co-methylation of IGF-axis genes promoter was 40% and 20% in AGA and SGA, respectively. IGF-axis gene promoter methylation significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the levels of IGFBP3 protein, birth weight, mitotic index, gestational weeks, and IGFR1 and IGFR2 gene expression.

CONCLUSION

IGF-axis genes methylation was lower in SGA than in AGA, and the methylation significantly influenced the IGF-axis components.

Muscle Fiber, Connective Tissue and Meat Quality Characteristics of Pork from Low Birth Weight Pigs as Affected by Diet-Induced Increased Fat Absorption and Preferential Muscle Marbling

This study investigated how birth weight differences in piglets affected carcass and muscle fiber properties as well as meat quality at slaughter. Within litters, piglets were grouped according to their birth weight as either normal (NBW; 1.62-1.73 kg) or low (LBW; 1.18-1.29 kg). At 5 weeks of age, NBW piglets were randomly transitioned to control (C) or isocaloric high fat diets derived from non-dairy (HF), while LBW piglets were randomly transitioned to high fat diets derived from non-dairy (HF) or dairy sources (HFHD). Piglets were reared in individual pens under standardized housing and feeding conditions. Live weight was recorded weekly, and pigs were slaughtered at 12 weeks of age. Hot carcass weights, dressing percentages, lean meat yield, and primal cut proportions were determined. The m. longissimus thoracis was collected from the right side of the carcass for measurement of physical and chemical properties of meat and muscle fiber characteristics. Results indicated that LBW pigs compensated for their live weight compared to NBW pigs at 6 weeks of age. The mean muscle fiber diameter of LBW-HFHD group is significantly higher than NBW-C and NBW-HF group, and the type I muscle fiber diameter is significantly higher than NBW-C group. Dairy fat inclusion in LBW pig diet reduced carcass back fat thickness. This increased the calculated lean meat yield to be comparable to that of NBW pigs fed a commercial diet. Incorporating dairy-sourced high-fat into LBW pigs' diets appears to be an effective strategy for producing carcasses equivalent to NBW pigs.

Childhood growth outcomes 2 years after hypertensive versus normotensive pregnancy: a P4 study

BACKGROUND

Intrauterine exposure to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, including gestational hypertension (GH) and preeclampsia (PE), may influence infant growth and have long-term health implications. This study aimed to compare growth outcomes of infants exposed to a normotensive pregnancy (NTP), GH, or PE from birth to 2 years.

METHODS

Infants were children of women enroled in the prospective Postpartum Physiology, Psychology and Paediatric (P4) cohort study who had NTP, GH or PE. Birth, 6-month (age-corrected) and 2-year (age-corrected) weight z-scores, change in weight z-scores, rapid weight gain (≥0.67 increase in weight z-score) and conditional weight gain z-scores were calculated to assess infant growth (NTP = 240, GH = 19, PE = 66).

RESULTS

Infants exposed to PE compared to NTP or GH had significantly lower birth weight and length z-scores, but there were no differences in growth outcomes at 6 months or 2 years. GH and PE-exposed infants had significantly greater weight z-score gain [95% CI] (PE = 0.93 [0.66-1.18], GH = 1.03 [0.37-1.68], NTP = 0.45 [0.31-0.58], p < 0.01) and rapid weight gain (GH = 63%, PE = 59%, NTP = 42%, p = 0.02) from birth to 2 years, which remained significant for PE-exposed infants after confounder adjustment.

CONCLUSION

In this cohort, GH and PE were associated with accelerated infant weight gain that may increase future cardiometabolic disease risk.

IMPACT

Preeclampsia exposed infants were smaller at birth, compared with normotensive pregnancy and gestational hypertension exposed infants, but caught up in growth by 2 years of age. Both preeclampsia and gestational hypertension exposed infants had significantly accelerated weight gain from birth to 2 years, which remained significant for preeclampsia exposed infants after adjustment for confounders including small for gestational age. Monitoring of growth patterns in infants born following exposure to a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy may be indicated to prevent accelerated weight gain trajectories and obesity.

Longitudinal growth of children born with gastroschisis or omphalocele

Normal childhood growth is an indicator of good health, but data addressing the growth of children born with abdominal wall defects (AWDs) are limited. The detailed growth phenotypes of children born with gastroschisis or omphalocele are described and compared to peers without AWDs from birth to adolescence. Data from 183 gastroschisis and 144 omphalocele patients born between 1993 and 2017 were gathered from Finnish nationwide registers and electronic health records. Weight (n = 3033), length/height (n = 2034), weight-for-length (0-24 months, n = 909), and body mass index measures (2-15 years, n = 423) were converted into sex- and age-specific Z-scores. Linear mixed models were used for comparisons. Intrauterine growth failure was common in infants with gastroschisis. Birth weight Z-scores in girls and boys were - 1.2 (0.2) and - 1.3 (0.2) and length Z-scores - 0.7 (0.2) and - 1.0 (0.2), respectively (p < 0.001 for all comparisons to infants without AWDs). During early infancy, growth failure increased in infants with gastroschisis, and thereafter, catch-up growth was prominent and faster in girls than in boys. Gastroschisis children gained weight and reached their peers' weights permanently at 5 to 10 years. By 15 years or older, 30% of gastroschisis patients were overweight. Infants with omphalocele were born with a normal birth size but grew shorter and weighing less than the reference population until the teen-age years.

CONCLUSION

Children with gastroschisis and omphalocele have distinct growth patterns from fetal life onwards. These growth trajectories may also provide some opportunities to modulate adult health.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Intrauterine and postnatal growth failure can be seen frequently in gastroschisis and they often show significant catch-up growth later in infancy. It is assumed that part of the children with gastroschisis will become overweight during later childhood.

WHAT IS NEW

 • The longitudinal growth of girls and boys with gastroschisis or omphalocele is described separately until the teenage years. The risk of gaining excessive weight in puberty was confirmed in girls with gastroschisis.

Maternal weight trajectories and associations with infant growth in South African women

BACKGROUND

Despite the close relationship between pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), gestational weight gain (GWG) and postpartum weight (PPW), these factors are often studied separately. There are no data characterising longitudinal weight trajectories among pregnant and postpartum women in urban African populations. We examined maternal weight trajectories from pregnancy through to 12 months postpartum, factors associated with higher weight trajectory class membership and associations of weight trajectories with infant growth at 12 months.

METHODS

Data from 989 women were examined for weight trajectories from first antenatal care visit in pregnancy to 12 months postpartum using latent-class growth models. Baseline factors associated with class membership were assessed using multinomial logistic regression. Of the enrolled women, 613 of their infants were assessed for growth at 12 months. Anthropometry measurements for mothers and infants were conducted by a trained study nurse. Associations between maternal weight trajectory class and infant weight-for-age (WAZ), length-for-age (LAZ), weight-for-length (WLZ) at 12 months of age were analysed using linear regression.

RESULTS

Four distinct classes of maternal weight trajectories were identified. The classes included consistent low (29%), consistent medium (37%), medium-high (24%) and consistent high (10%) trajectories. Similar to trends observed with medium-high trajectory, baseline factors positively associated with consistent high class membership included age (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.01-1.09), pre-pregnancy BMI (OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.97-2.56), stage 1 hypertension (OR 3.28, 95% CI 1.68-6.41), haemoglobin levels (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.11-1.74) and parity (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.15-1.67); living with HIV (OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.30-0.74) was inversely associated. In adjusted analyses, compared to consistent medium weight trajectory, consistent low weight trajectory (mean difference -0.41, 95% CI -0.71;-0.12) was associated with decreased, and consistent high weight trajectory (mean difference 1.21, 95% CI 0.59-1.83) with increased infant WAZ at 12 months of age.

CONCLUSION

Identification of unique longitudinal weight trajectory groupings might inform comprehensive efforts targeted at improving healthy maternal weight and infant outcomes.

A retrospective study on the physical growth of twins in the first year after birth

Objectives

This study analyzed the physical growth of small for gestational age (SGA) and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) twins up to one year after birth.

Methods

Weight, length, and head circumference data of 0-1 year-old twins were collected from the Child Health Care System from 2010 to 2019. Physical data were presented as Z-scores. Five parameters - growth level of weight, body length, head circumference, growth velocity, and body proportion (weight for length) were compared in twins.

Results

A total of 3,909 cases were collected (22.61% SGA, 77.39% AGA). 1. In both groups, WAZ (Weight for age z-score), HCZ (Head circumference for age z-score), and LAZ (Length for age z-score) increased more rapidly in the first 6 months. By one year of age, WAZ, HCZ, and LAZ had reached the normal range, but none had reached the average level of normal singleton children. 2. The mean values of WAZ, HCZ, and LAZ in the AGA group were between -1 and 0, and between -2 and - 1 in the SGA group, in the first year after birth. The SGA group lagged significantly behind the AGA group. The LAZ score of SGA and AGA was lower than the WAZ and HCZ scores. 3. The proportion of preterm AGA was the largest in twins, and the growth rate of preterm AGA was the fastest. Preterm twins had greater growth potential than term twins. However, the growth level of preterm SGA was always low. 4. The WFLZ (Weight for length z-score) in each group was approximately close to 0. The WFLZ of SGA was smaller than that of AGA twins at most time points. After 4 months of age, the WFLZ of twins had a downward trend. The WFLZ of preterm SGA approached -1 at approximately 1 year old.

Conclusion

The physical growth of SGA and AGA in twins in the first year can reach the normal range but cannot reach the average level of normal singleton children. More attention should be paid to SGA in twins, especially preterm SGA. We should give proper nutritional guidance after 4 months of age to ensure the appropriate body proportion (weight for length) of SGA in twins.

Clinical trial registration

www.chictr.org.cn, CTR2000034761.

Size at birth predicts later brain volumes

We aimed to investigate whether gestation at birth, birth weight, and head circumference at birth are still associated with brain volume and white matter microstructure at 9-10 years in children born late-preterm and at term. One hundred and eleven children born at ≥ 36 weeks gestation from the CHYLD Study cohort underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging at 9 to 10 years. Images were analysed using FreeSurfer for volumetric data and tract-based spatial statistics for diffusion data. Of the cohort, 101 children were included for volumetric analysis [boys, 49(49%); median age, 9.5 (range: 8.9-12.4) years]. Shorter gestation at birth, lower birthweight, and smaller birth head circumference were associated with smaller brain volumes at 9 to 10 years, both globally and regionally. Amongst the perinatal factors studied, head circumference at birth was the strongest predictor of later brain volumes. Gestation at birth and absolute birthweight were not associated with diffusion metrics of white matter skeleton. However, lower birthweight z-score was associated with higher fractional anisotropy and lower radial diffusivity. Our findings suggest that even in children born late preterm and at term, growth before birth and timing of birth are still associated with brain development in mid-childhood.

Growth trajectories during infancy have a significant impact on body composition in childhood

Evidence supports that growth trajectory during infancy has a major impact on body composition. We aimed to examine body composition in children born small for gestational age (SGA) or appropriate for gestational age (AGA) adjusted for postnatal growth velocity. We enrolled 365 children, 75 SGA and 290 AGA, aged 7 to 10 years, examining anthropometrics, skinfold thickness, and body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis. Growth velocity was defined as rapid or slow (weight gain > or <0.67 z-scores, respectively). Gestational age, sex, delivery mode, gestational diabetes, hypertension, nutrition, exercise, parental body mass index (BMI), and socioeconomic status were considered. At a mean of 9 years of age, SGA compared with AGA-born children, had significantly lower lean mass. BMI was negatively associated with SGA status (beta = 0.80, P = .046), after adjusting for birth weight, delivery mode, and breastfeeding. The lean mass index was negatively associated with SGA status (beta = 0.39, P = .018), after adjusting for the same factors. SGA-born participants with slow growth velocity had significantly lower lean mass in comparison to AGA-born counterparts. SGA-born children with rapid compared with those with slow growth velocity had significantly higher absolute fat mass. BMI was negatively associated with a slow postnatal growth pattern (beta = 0.59, P = .023), and the lean mass index was negatively associated with a slow postnatal growth pattern (beta = 0.78, P = .006), after adjusting for the same factors. In conclusion, SGA-born children presented a lower lean mass in comparison to AGA-born counterparts, whereas BMI and lean mass index were negatively associated with slow postnatal growth velocity.

The association of intrauterine and postnatal growth patterns and nutritional status with toddler body composition

BACKGROUND

Growth patterns may be indicative of underlying changes in body composition. However, few studies have assessed the association of growth and body composition in poorly resourced regions experiencing the double-burden of malnutrition exists. Thus, the aims of this study were to investigate the association of intrauterine and postnatal growth patterns with infant body composition at 2 years in a middle-income country.

METHODS

Participants were from the International Atomic Energy Agency Multicentre Body Composition Reference study. Fat mass (FM), fat free mass (FFM), Fat mass index (FMI), fat free mass index (FFMI), and percentage fat mass (%FM) were measured in 113 infants (56 boys and 57 girls), from Soweto, South Africa, using deuterium dilution from 3 to 24 months. Birthweight categories were classified using the INTERGROWTH-21 standards as small (SGA), appropriate (AGA), and large-for gestational age (LGA). Stunting (> -2 SDS) was defined using the WHO child growth standards. Birthweight z-score, conditional relative weight and conditional length at 12 and 24 mo were regressed on body composition at 24 mo.

RESULTS

There were no sex differences in FM, FFM, FMI and FFMI between 3 and 24 mo. SGA and AGA both had significantly higher %FM than LGA at 12 mo. LGA had higher FM at 24 mo. Children with stunting had lower FM (Mean = 1.94, 95% CI; 1.63-2.31) and FFM (Mean = 5.91, 95% CI; 5.58-6.26) at 12 mo than non-stunting, while the reverse was true for FFMI (Mean = 13.3, 95% CI; 12.5-14.2) at 6 mo. Birthweight and conditionals explained over 70% of the variance in FM. CRW at both 12 and 24 mo was positively associated with FM and FMI. CRW at 12 mo was also positively associated with FMI, while CH at 24 mo was negatively associated with both FFMI and FMI in boys.

CONCLUSION

Both LGA and SGA were associated with higher body fat suggesting that both are disadvantaged nutritional states, likely to increase the risk of obesity. Growth patterns through infancy and toddler period (1-2 years) are indicative of body fat, while growth patterns beyond infancy are less indicative of fat-free mass.

Concordance of weight status between mothers and children: A secondary analysis of the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey VII

Familial concordance of nutritional status is an emerging field of study that may guide the development of interventions that operate beyond the individual and within the family context. Little published data exist for concordance of nutritional status within Pakistani households. We assessed the associations between weight status of mothers and their children in a nationally representative sample of households in Pakistan using Demographic and Health Survey data. Our analysis included 3465 mother-child dyads, restricting to children under-five years of age with body mass index (BMI) information on their mothers. We used linear regression models to assess the associations between maternal BMI category (underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese) and child's weight-for-height z-score (WHZ), accounting for socio-demographic characteristics of mothers and children. We assessed these relationships in all children under-five and also stratified by age of children (younger than 2 years and 2 to 5 years). In all children under-five and in children 2 to 5 years, maternal BMI was positively associated with child's WHZ, while there was no association between maternal BMI and child WHZ for children under-two. The findings indicate that the weight status of mother's is positively associated with that of their children. These associations have implications for interventions aimed at healthy weights of families.

The Role of Insulin-like Growth Factor-Axis and Mitotic Index in South Indian Neonates with Small for Gestational Age

OBJECTIVE

IGF-axis and mitotic capacity of cells play a vital role in fetal growth. We compared IGF1, IGF2, and IGFBP3 protein levels, mitotic indices, IGFR1 and IGFR2 mRNA expression in appropriate for gestational age (AGA) and small for gestational age (SGA) neonates of Indian women.

METHODS

Cord blood (n = 80) and placental samples (n = 40) were collected from AGA and SGA neonates. Plasma IGF1, IGF2, and IGFBP3 proteins were measured by ELISA. IGFR1 and IGFR2 mRNA expression in the placenta were analyzed by qRT-PCR. Cord blood was cultured in vitro and mitotic index was obtained.

RESULTS

IGF1 (p = 1), and IGF2 (p = 0.69) protein levels did not differ, whereas IGFBP3 (p = 0.02) was significantly less in SGA compared to AGA neonates. Down-regulation of IGFR1 (3.9-folds) and IGFR2 (2.8-folds) mRNA and reduced mitotic index of lymphocytes was observed in SGA (p = 0.001) compared to AGA neonates.

CONCLUSION

Our results showed that, SGA neonates displayed down-regulated IGFR1 and IGFR2 mRNA, decreased IGFBP3 protein and mitotic index.

Maternal precarious employment and child overweight/obesity in the United States

Precarious employment has increased in the United States and is now recognized as an important social determinant of health. Women are disproportionately employed in precarious jobs and are largely responsible for caretaking, which could deleteriously affect child weight. We utilized data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth adult and child cohorts (1996-2016; N = 4453) and identified 13 survey indicators to operationalize 7 dimensions of precarious employment (score range: 0-7, 7 indicating the most precarious): material rewards, working-time arrangements, stability, workers' rights, collective organization, interpersonal relations, and training. We estimated the association between maternal precarious employment and incident child overweight/obesity (BMI ≥85th percentile) using adjusted Poisson models. Between 1996 and 2016, the average age-adjusted precarious employment score among mothers was 3.7 (Standard Error [SE] = 0.02) and the average prevalence of children with overweight/obesity was 26.2% (SE = 0.5%). Higher maternal precarious employment was associated with a 10% higher incidence of children having overweight/obesity (Confidence Interval: 1.05, 1.14). A higher incidence of childhood overweight/obesity may have important implications at the population-level, due to the long-term health consequences of child obesity into adulthood. Policies to reduce employment precariousness should be considered and monitored for impacts on childhood obesity.

Characterization of placental endocrine function and fetal brain development in a mouse model of small for gestational age

Conditions such as small for gestational age (SGA), which is defined as birthweight less than 10th percentile for gestational age can predispose to neurodevelopmental abnormalities compared to babies with normal birthweight. Fetal growth and birthweight depend on placental function, as this organ transports substrates to the developing fetus and it acts as a source of endocrine factors, including steroids and prolactins that are required for fetal development and pregnancy maintenance. To advance our knowledge on the aetiology of fetal growth disorders, the vast majority of the research has been focused on studying the transport function of the placenta, leaving practically unexplored the contribution of placental hormones in the regulation of fetal growth. Here, using mice and natural variability in fetal growth within the litter, we compared fetuses that fell on or below the 10th percentile (classified as SGA) with those that had adequate weight for their gestational age (AGA). In particular, we compared placental endocrine metabolism and hormone production, as well as fetal brain weight and expression of developmental, growth and metabolic genes between SGA and AGA fetuses. We found that compared to AGA fetuses, SGA fetuses had lower placental efficiency and reduced capacity for placental production of hormones (e.g. steroidogenic gene Cyp17a1, prolactin Prl3a1, and pregnancy-specific glycoproteins Psg21). Brain weight was reduced in SGA fetuses, although this was proportional to the reduction in overall fetal size. The expression of glucose transporter 3 (Slc2a3) was reduced despite the abundance of AKT, FOXO and ERK proteins were similar. Developmental (Sv2b and Gabrg1) and microglia genes (Ier3), as well as the pregnancy-specific glycoprotein receptor (Cd9) were lower in the brain of SGA versus AGA fetuses. In this mouse model of SGA, our results therefore demonstrate that placental endocrine dysfunction is associated with changes in fetal growth and fetal brain development.

The effect of foetal and early childhood growth on metabolic derangements of Sri Lankan children

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown that delayed prenatal growth followed by accelerated postnatal growth plays a significant role on the onset of adult metabolic diseases. The present study aimed to identify the effects of intrauterine and later growth on metabolic derangements among children in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

METHODS

A school-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 5-15-year-old children selected using a two-stage probability-proportionate-to-size cluster sampling technique. Birth-weight (BW) was extracted from records (denotes prenatal growth) and body mass index(BMI)-Z score and fat mass(FM) measured to denote the current growth of children. Fasting and random blood glucose, lipid profile and blood pressure(BP) were measured. The sample was stratified by age (5-< 10 and 10-15 years); was further categorized into tertiles of BW and BMI-Z scores. Based on these two parameters, metabolic parameters were evaluated within each age category.

RESULTS

The sample comprised 833(494 boys) healthy school children. Metabolic parameters did not significantly differ by sex or across BW tertiles of each BMI-Z score tertile. However, significant changes in some metabolic parameters were noted across the BMI-Z score tertiles of each BW tertile. Children belonging to the lowest BW and highest BMI-Z score tertiles had worst metabolic profiles, while those in the lowest BW as well as BMI-Z score tertile were protected. Excessive fat deposition seemed to move children to higher BMI-Z score tertiles.

CONCLUSION

Poor prenatal growth is not the sole risk factor for abnormal metabolic profile found in childhood. Those who gain fat, denoted by weight, during early childhood are at a higher risk of developing metabolic abnormalities than those who do not. This favours the accelerated postnatal growth hypothesis.

Catch-Up Growth as a Risk Factor for Rapid Weight Gain, Earlier Menarche and Earlier Pubertal Growth Spurt in Girls Born Small for Gestational Age (SGA)-A Longitudinal Study

Most children born small for gestational age (SGA) have rapid postnatal growth. Despite its positive aspects, catch-up growth may affect the level of adipose tissue in the pre-pubertal and pubertal periods and therefore affect the age of puberty. The aim of this study was to determine the associations between size at birth, catch-up growth in infancy, BMI in peripubertal period, age at menarche, and the parameters of adolescent growth spurt of body height in girls born SGA. For 297 girls (22.6% SGA; 77.4% appropriate for gestational age (AGA)) complete body weight and height measurements and age at menarche were obtained. Adolescent growth spurt parameters were estimated using the JPA2 model (AUXAL SSI 3.1). Calculations were made in the Statistica 13 program using the Kruskal-Wallis and Kaplan-Meier tests. Girls born SGA with catch-up had the highest BMIs at the age of 8 years (H = 94.22, p < 0.001) and at menarche (H = 58.21, p < 0.001), experienced menarche earliest (H = 21.77, p < 0.001), same as the onset (H = 6.54, p = 0.012) and peak height velocity (H = 11.71, p = 0.003) of their adolescent growth spurt compared to SGA girls without catch-up and AGA girls. In SGA girls, catch-up growth has far-reaching consequences such as increased risk of fat accumulation and a rapid transition to puberty.

Growth Patterns of Children With Short Stature in Adulthood According to Auxological Status and Maturity at Birth

CONTEXT

Prematurity carries a risk for impaired postnatal growth and long-term growth restriction. Especially children born SGA seem vulnerable for poor growth, as a persistent short stature can be observed in app 10-15% of these children.

OBJECTIVE

In this study we aimed to recognize differences in growth patterns of children according to sex, maturity, and auxological status at birth facilitating earlier identification of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) children with adult short stature.

METHODS

The growth data of 44 791 infants born between January 1, 1980, and December 30, 2012, among 2 pediatric cohorts with follow-up through December 31, 2020, were analyzed. A total of 5698 children with birth data had measurements at near final height (nfh) and at least 2 further points.

RESULTS

Preterm children (gestational age < 37 weeks) had a significantly lower mean nfh SDS than term children (preterm, -0.61; term, -0.18) and a higher likelihood of nfh < third percentile (preterm, 20.5%; term, 12.2%). SGA born children also had a lower mean nfh SD score (SDS) than children born appropriate for gestational age (AGA) (SGA, -1.06; AGA, -0.15) and a higher likelihood of nfh < third percentile (SGA, 28.2%; AGA 10.1%). Of 1204 SGA children, 672 (56%) showed successful catch-up growth (CUG) to nfh greater than or equal to the 10th percentile (SGA-CU), and 532 children (44%) did not (SGA-S). The difference in their mean nfh SDS (SGA-CU, -0.12; SGA-S -2.26) can only partly be explained by the differences in mean mid-parental height SDS (SGA-CU, -0.3; SGA-S, -1.19). During the first year, SGA-CU showed higher CUG (SGA-CU, +1.2 SDS; SGA-S, +0.45 SDS), which helps to discriminate between groups earlier.

CONCLUSION

Final growth outcome was influenced by prematurity and auxological status at birth, but not by sex. Height/length SDS increments during year 1 are instrumental to discern SGA children with later normal or short stature. While observing CUG until year 2 and 3 can add specificity, discrimination thereafter becomes difficult.

Early-life weight gain patterns of term small-for-gestational-age infants and the predictive ability for later childhood overweight/obesity: A prospective cohort study

Objectives

We aimed to identify the weight gain patterns of small-for-gestational age (SGA) infants in early life and to explore the predictive value for later overweight/obesity in childhood.

Methods

We obtained data from a prospective cohort including term SGA infants born between January 2006 and November 2015 who received regular health care from birth to 5 years in West China Second University Hospital, Chengdu, China. A latent class growth analysis (LCGA) was applied to group children with similar growth trajectory patterns. Multiple logistic regression was performed to examine the association between weight gain patterns and later overweight/obesity.

Results

A total of 296 term SGA infants were finally included. Five weight gain trajectories were identified, including excessive rapid catch-up growth (ERCG) (class 1, 10.9%), rapid catch-up growth (RCG) (class 2, 17.9%), appropriate catch-up growth (ACG) (class 3, 53.0%), slow catch-up growth (SCG) (class 4, 13.4%) and almost no catch growth (NCG) (class 5, 4.8%). SGA infants in class 1 and class 2 had a higher BMI according to age- and sex-specific Z scores from 2-5 years of age. In addition, 25% of SGA infants in class 1 and 13.2% of SGA infants in class 2 were found to be overweight/obese at 2-5 years of age. After adjusting for confounders, we found that extremely rapid weight gain (class 1) in the first 2 years of life increased the risk of overweight/obesity by 2.1 times at 2 to 5 years of age (aOR=2.1, 95% CI: 1.3~4.8; P<0.05). Furthermore, the increment of ΔWAZ between 0 and 4 mo was prominently related to the risk of overweight/obesity at 2 to 5 years for term SGA infants (aOR=3.2, 95% CI: 1.7~8.1; P<0.001). A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve showed the area under curve (AUC) was 0.7, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) from 0.6 to 0.8 (P<0.001).

Conclusions

The extremely rapid weight gain pattern of term SGA infants in the first 2 years of life increased the risk of overweight/obesity at 2 to 5 years of age. It suggests monitoring weight gain across the infant period represents a first step towards primary prevention of childhood obesity.

Pituitary-Gland-Based Genes Participates in Intrauterine Growth Restriction in Piglets

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a major problem associated with piglet growth performance. The incidence of IUGR is widespread in Rongchang pigs. The pituitary gland is important for regulating growth and metabolism, and research has identified genes associated with growth and development. The pituitary gland of newborn piglets with normal birth weight (NBW group, n = 3) and (IUGR group, n = 3) was collected for transcriptome analysis. A total of 323 differentially expression genes (DEGs) were identified (|log2(fold-change)| > 1 and q value < 0.05), of which 223 were upregulated and 100 were downregulated. Gene Ontology (GO) functional and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses showed that the DEGs were mainly related to the extracellular matrix, regulation of the multicellular organismal process, tissue development and angiogenesis, which participate in the growth and immune response in IUGR piglets. Moreover, 7 DEGs including IGF2, THBS1, ITGA1, ITGA8, EPSTI1, FOSB, and UCP2 were associated with growth and immune response. Furthermore, based on the interaction network analysis of the DEGs, two genes, IGF2 and THBS1, participated in cell proliferation, embryonic development and angiogenesis. IGF2 and THBS1 were also the main genes participating in the IUGR. This study identified the core genes involved in IUGR in piglets and provided a reference for exploring the effect of the pituitary gland on piglet growth.

Maternal childhood trauma is associated with offspring body size during the first year of life

Maternal childhood trauma (MCT) is an important factor affecting offspring size at birth. Whether the effect of MCT persists during the subsequent development remains unclear. We present the results of a semi-longitudinal investigation examining the physical growth of infants born to mothers with high (HCT) and low (LCT) childhood trauma during the first year of life. One hundred healthy mother-infant dyads were included based on following criteria: exclusive breastfeeding, birth on term with appropriate weight for gestational age. MCT was assessed using the Early Life Stress Questionnaire. The weight, length, and head circumference of the infant were taken at birth, 5 and 12 months postpartum. Separate MANCOVA models were run for infant size at each age. We found an association between MCT and infant size at 5 and 12 months. The children of mothers with HCT had higher weight and greater head circumference than the children of mothers with LCT. These results suggest that MCT might contribute to developmental programming of offspring growth during the first year of life. From an evolutionary perspective, the larger size of HCT mother's offspring might represent an adaptation to potentially harsh environmental conditions. This effect might be mediated by epigenetic changes to DNA and altered breast milk composition.

Developmental Programming of Fertility in Cattle-Is It a Cause for Concern?

Cattle fertility remains sub-optimal despite recent improvements in genetic selection. The extent to which an individual heifer fulfils her genetic potential can be influenced by fetal programming during pregnancy. This paper reviews the evidence that a dam's age, milk yield, health, nutrition and environment during pregnancy may programme permanent structural and physiological modifications in the fetus. These can alter the morphology and body composition of the calf, postnatal growth rates, organ structure, metabolic function, endocrine function and immunity. Potentially important organs which can be affected include the ovaries, liver, pancreas, lungs, spleen and thymus. Insulin/glucose homeostasis, the somatotropic axis and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis can all be permanently reprogrammed by the pre-natal environment. These changes may act directly at the level of the ovary to influence fertility, but most actions are indirect. For example, calf health, the timing of puberty, the age and body structure at first calving, and the ability to balance milk production with metabolic health and fertility after calving can all have an impact on reproductive potential. Definitive experiments to quantify the extent to which any of these effects do alter fertility are particularly challenging in cattle, as individual animals and their management are both very variable and lifetime fertility takes many years to assess. Nevertheless, the evidence is compelling that the fertility of some animals is compromised by events happening before they are born. Calf phenotype at birth and their conception data as a nulliparous heifer should therefore both be assessed to avoid such animals being used as herd replacements.

Association of birthweight centiles and early childhood development of singleton infants born from 37 weeks of gestation in Scotland: A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Birthweight centiles beyond the traditional thresholds for small or large babies are associated with adverse perinatal outcomes but there is a paucity of data about the relationship between birthweight centiles and childhood development among children born from 37 weeks of gestation. This study aims to establish the association between birthweight centiles across the whole distribution and early childhood development among children born from 37 weeks of gestation.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

This is a population-based cohort study of 686,284 singleton infants born from 37 weeks of gestation. The cohort was generated by linking pregnancy and delivery data from the Scottish Morbidity Records (2003 to 2015) and the child developmental assessment at age 2 to 3.5 years. The main outcomes were child's fine motor, gross motor, communication, and social developmental concerns measured with the Ages and Stages Questionnaires-3 (ASQ-3) and Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social & Emotional-2 (ASQ:SE-2), and for a subset of children with additional specialist tools such as the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) if the ASQ3/SE indicate these are necessary. The ASQ score for each domain was categorised as "concern" and "no concern." We used multivariate cubic regression splines to model the associations between birthweight centiles and early childhood developmental concerns. We used multivariate Poisson regression models, with cluster robust errors, to estimate the relative risks (RRs) of developmental concerns below and above the established thresholds. We adjusted for maternal age, early pregnancy body mass index (BMI), parity, year of delivery, gestational age at delivery, smoking history, substance misuse in pregnancy, alcohol intake, ethnicity, residential area deprivation index, maternal clinical conditions in pregnancy (such as diabetes and pre-eclampsia), induction of labour, and child's sex. Babies born from 37 weeks of gestation with birthweight below the 25th centile, compared to those between the 25th and 74th centile, were at higher risk of developmental concerns. Those born between the 10th and 24th centile had an RR of 1.07 (95% CI: 1.03 to 1.12, p < 0.001), between the 3rd and 9th centile had an RR: 1.18 (95% CI: 1.12 to 1.25, p < 0.001), and <3rd centile had an RR of 1.37 (95% CI: 1.24 to 1.50, p < 0.001). There was no substantial increase in the risk of early childhood developmental concerns for larger birthweight categories of 75th to 89th (RR: 1.01; 95% CI: 0.97 to 1.05; p = 0.56), 90th to 96th (RR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.94 to 1.05; p = 0.86), and ≥97th centiles (RR: 1.04; 95% CI: 0.97 to 1.12; p = 0.27), referent to birthweight between 25th and 74th centile. The percentage of developmental concerns attributable to birthweight between the 10th and 24th centile was more than that of birthweight <3rd centile (p = 0.023) because this group includes more of the population. Approximately 2.50% (95% CI: 1.26 to 3.61) of social skills concerns and 3.00% (95% CI: 1.33 to 4.67) of fine motor developmental concerns were attributable to birthweight between the 10th and 24th centile compared to 0.90% (95% CI: 0.48 to 1.26) and 2.30% (95% CI: 1.73 to 2.67) respectively for birthweight <3rd centile. We acknowledge the limitation of ASQ as a screening tool, the subjective nature of developmental assessments (particularly for speech) among young children, and inability to control for early childhood illness and upbringing factors may have an impact on our findings.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed that from 37 weeks of gestation birthweight below the 25th centile was associated with child developmental concerns, with an association apparent at higher centiles above the conventional threshold defining small for gestational age (SGA, 3rd or 10th centile). Mild to moderate SGA is an unrecognised potentially important contributor to the prevalence of developmental concerns. Closer surveillance, appropriate parental counselling, and increased support during childhood may reduce the risks associated with lower birthweight centiles.

Prenatal programming of developmental trajectories for obesity risk and early pubertal timing

The thrifty phenotype and fetal overnutrition hypotheses are two developmental hypotheses that originated from the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) perspective. The DOHaD posits that exposures experienced prenatally and early in life may influence health outcomes through altering form and function of internal organs related to metabolic processes. Obesity risk and early pubertal timing might be influenced by similar mechanisms. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis is primarily characterized by experiencing a deprivation of nutrients during gestation paired with an energy rich postnatal environment. The fetal overnutrition hypothesis says that obesity experienced prenatally will be associated with increased lifetime risk of obesity in the offspring. Both hypotheses were tested by examining developmental pathways from genetic and prenatal risk through early growth trajectories (birth to 7 years) to pubertal timing at age 11 years. Participants included 361 children adopted at birth (57% male; 57% non-Hispanic White, 11% Black, 9% Hispanic; adoptive family income Mdn = $70,000-$100,000, birth family income Mdn = < $15,000). Associations between boys' childhood body mass index (BMI) and pubertal timing were confounded by genetics, prenatal risk, and early growth. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis was partially supported for boys' childhood BMI (at ages 4 to 7 years). Both hypotheses were partially supported for girls' childhood BMI but not pubertal timing. A novel Gene × Prenatal Risk interaction showed that genetic risk predicted girls' childhood BMI most strongly at adequate compared with at excessive levels of gestational weight gain. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Paediatric asthma and non-allergic comorbidities: A review of current risk and proposed mechanisms

It is increasingly recognized that children with asthma are at a higher risk of other non-allergic concurrent diseases than the non-asthma population. A plethora of recent research has reported on these comorbidities and progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms for comorbidity. The goal of this review was to assess the most recent evidence (2016-2021) on the extent of common comorbidities (obesity, depression and anxiety, neurodevelopmental disorders, sleep disorders and autoimmune diseases) and the latest mechanistic research, highlighting knowledge gaps requiring further investigation. We found that the majority of recent studies from around the world demonstrate that children with asthma are at an increased risk of having at least one of the studied comorbidities. A range of potential mechanisms were identified including common early life risk factors, common genetic factors, causal relationships, asthma medication and embryologic origins. Studies varied in their selection of population, asthma definition and outcome definitions. Next, steps in future studies should include using objective measures of asthma, such as lung function and immunological data, as well as investigating asthma phenotypes and endotypes. Larger complex genetic analyses are needed, including genome-wide association studies, gene expression-functional as well as pathway analyses or Mendelian randomization techniques; and identification of gene-environment interactions, such as epi-genetic studies or twin analyses, including omics and early life exposure data. Importantly, research should have relevance to clinical and public health translation including clinical practice, asthma management guidelines and intervention studies aimed at reducing comorbidities.

A review of infant growth and psychomotor developmental outcomes after intrauterine exposure to preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy with serious health implications for mother and their offspring. The uteroplacental vascular insufficiency caused by preeclampsia is associated with epigenetic and pathological changes in the mother and fetus. However, the impact of preeclampsia in infancy (birth to 2 years), a time of rapid development influenced by pre- and postnatal factors that can predict future health outcomes, remains inconclusive. This narrative review of 23 epidemiological and basic science studies assessed the measurement and impact of preeclampsia exposure on infant growth and psychomotor developmental outcomes from birth to 2 years. Studies assessing infant growth report that preeclampsia-exposed infants have lower weight, length and BMI at 2 years than their normotensive controls, or that they instead experience accelerated weight gain to catch up in growth by 2 years, which may have long-term implications for their cardiometabolic health. In contrast, clear discrepancies remain as to whether preeclampsia exposure impairs infant motor and cognitive development, or instead has no impact. It is additionally unknown whether any impacts of preeclampsia are independent of confounders including shared genetic factors that predispose to both preeclampsia and childhood morbidity, perinatal factors including small for gestational age or preterm birth and their sequelae, and postnatal environmental factors such childhood nutrition. Further research is required to account for these variables in larger cohorts born at term, to help elucidate the independent pathophysiological impact of this clinically heterogenous and dangerous disease.

Longitudinal effects of growth restriction on the murine gut microbiome and metabolome

Undernutrition-induced growth restriction in the early stages of life increases the risk of chronic disease in adulthood. Although metabolic impairments have been observed, few studies have characterized the gut microbiome and gut-liver metabolome profiles of growth-restricted animals during early-to-mid-life development. To induce growth restriction, mouse offspring were either born to gestational undernutrition (GUN) or suckled from postnatal undernutrition (PUN) dams fed a protein-restricted diet (8% protein) or control diet (CON; 20% protein) until weaning at postnatal age of 21 days (PN21). At PN21, all mice were fed the CON diet until adulthood (PN80). Livers were collected at PN21 and PN80, and fecal samples were collected weekly starting at PN21 (postweaning week 1) until PN80 (postweaning week 5) for gut microbiome and metabolome analyses. PUN mice exhibited the most alterations in gut microbiome and gut and liver metabolome compared with CON mice. These mice had altered fecal microbial β-diversity (P = 0.001) and exhibited higher proportions of Bifidobacteriales [linear mixed model (LMM) P = 7.1 × 10^-6), Clostridiales (P = 1.459 × 10^-5), Erysipelotrichales (P = 0.0003), and lower Bacteroidales (P = 4.1 × 10^-5)]. PUN liver and fecal metabolome had a reduced total bile acid pool (P < 0.01), as well as lower abundance of riboflavin (P = 0.003), amino acids [i.e., methionine (P = 0.0018), phenylalanine (P = 0.0015), and tyrosine (P = 0.0041)], and higher excreted total peptides (LMM P = 0.0064) compared with CON. Overall, protein restriction during lactation permanently alters the gut microbiome into adulthood. Although the liver bile acids, amino acids, and acyl-carnitines recovered, the fecal peptides and microbiome remained permanently altered into adulthood, indicating that inadequate protein intake in a specific time frame in early life can have an irreversible impact on the microbiome and fecal metabolome.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Undernutrition-induced early-life growth restriction not only leads to increased disease risk but also permanently alters the gut microbiome and gut-liver metabolome during specific windows of early-life development.

A Non-Obese Hyperglycemic Mouse Model that Develops after Birth with Low Birthweight

The number of low birthweight (LBW) infants weighing below 2500 g has not decreased in Japan. This study aimed to develop an adult non-obese hyperglycemic mouse model born with LBW to study the pathogenesis. At 16.5 days of gestation, transient intrauterine ischemia (blocked blood flow in both uterine arteries for 15 min) was performed in a subgroup of pregnant mice (group I). Non-occluded dams were used as sham controls (group C). After birth, female pups in each group were weaned at 4 weeks of age and reared on the normal diet until 8 weeks of age (n = 7). Fasting blood glucose levels, serum immunoreactive insulin (IRI), and body composition were then measured. Metabolite analyses was performed on the liver tissues. Birthweight was significantly lower in group I compared with group C. Pups from group I remained underweight with low fat-free mass and showed hyperglycemia with high serum IRI and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance levels, indicating insulin resistance. Metabolite analyses showed significantly reduced adenosine triphosphate and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide production and increased lactic acid in group I. The pathogenesis of our non-obese hyperglycemic mouse model may be due to increased myogenic insulin resistance based on mitochondrial dysfunction and reduced lean body mass.

Mutations in GHR and IGF1R Genes as a Potential Reason for the Lack of Catch-Up Growth in SGA Children

The aim of this review was to describe all of the mutations in the growth hormone receptor (GHR) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF1R) genes that have been discovered so far, and their possible impact on final body height, as well as their relationship with catch-up growth in children born small for gestational age (SGA). Mutations in the GHR gene were found to cause a body height below −2 SD, from the mean for sex and age, whereas the mutations in the IGF1R gene were associated with low body height and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and with being born SGA. After birth, when the child’s growth is not restricted by the intrauterine environment, the infant may develop its developmental potential and experience catch-up growth, which makes it possible to catch up with peers born appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Despite this, catch-up growth does not apply to all, but only to about 85% of SGA children, and its mechanism is unknown. It is possible that SGA children who did not experience catch-up growth are carriers of mutations in the GHR and/or IGF1R genes

Outcomes in extremely low birth weight (≤500 g) preterm infants: A Western Australian experience

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Extremely preterm (EP) infant survival has significantly improved with advanced neonatal care; however outcomes of infants born with birth weight (BW) ≤500 g remain poor. We aimed to review outcomes of this cohort in our institution.

METHODS

Retrospective study of all inborn preterm infants born at ≥22 weeks gestational age (GA) and weighing ≤500 g between January 2001-December 2017. Outcomes included short-term morbidity, mortality, neurodevelopmental impairment and growth up to five years of age.

RESULTS

Of a total 438 eligible infants, 92 livebirths were admitted to intensive care [median (range) GA: 24 (22-30) weeks; median (IQR) BW: 427.5 (380-499) grams]. Majority [78/92 (84.7%)] were small for gestational age (SGA). In 50% of non-survivors, median (IQR) age of death was 3.5 (1-17.5) days with no late deaths. Medical morbidities were common. Follow-up, including standardised cognitive assessments, was available for 41/46 (89%) infants. At a median age of 5.06 years, 17/41 (41.5%) had moderate-severe disability; non-statistically higher in SGA compared to appropriate for gestational age/AGA (48.6% vs. 33.3%) group. Cerebral palsy (4/41; 10%), deafness needing amplification (1/41; 2.4%) were noted. Weight (32/41, 78%) and height (27/41, 66%) of most children remained at >2 SD below normal.

CONCLUSIONS

In a cohort of preterm infants weighing ≤500 g at birth, 50% survived after admission to intensive care. Medical morbidities were common and 54% were free from moderate to severe disability at five years. SGA infants had higher rates (48.6%) of moderate to severe disability. Ongoing suboptimal growth in childhood is common.

Identification of neurodevelopmental transition patterns from infancy to early childhood and risk factors predicting descending transition

It is unclear whether neurodevelopmental progress from infancy to early childhood remains stable. Moreover, little is known about the risk factors, if any, affecting neurodevelopmental descending transition patterns and the relationship between these patterns and later childhood adaptive behaviours. We used data of 875 children from the Hamamatsu Birth Cohort Study in Japan. Children’s neurodevelopment at 18 and 32 months and adaptive behaviours at 40 months were evaluated. Perinatal factors and infant overweight status at 18 months were investigated to identify descending-transition-associated risk factors. In the latent transition analysis, ultimately, three classes were identified for each time-point, resulting in nine transition patterns; among them, 10.4% of children showed descending class shifts (normal to delayed class). Such decelerated growth was predicted by maternal pre-pregnancy overweight status (odds ratio [OR] 2.49; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.23, 5.02), low maternal educational history (OR 1.20; 95% CI 1.04, 1.36), and infant overweight status at 18 months (OR 5.89; 95% CI 1.26, 27.45). Children with descending transition showed poor functioning in adaptive behaviours at the age of 40 months. To prevent subsequent poor adaptive functioning, it may be necessary to consider that a certain percentage of children show decelerated growth.

Blood Acylated Ghrelin Concentrations in Healthy Term Newborns: A Prospective Cohort Study

Objective

The effect of ghrelin, a growth hormone (GH) secretagogue on growth of neonates, has been studied in the past, but not fully clarified. We aimed to investigate the relationship between ghrelin and growth parameters at birth and at the age of three months in healthy term infants. Methodology. This was a prospective observational study carried out in a tertiary care hospital. Eighty-four infants born at gestational ages between 37 and 42 weeks and classified as term small for gestational age (SGA) and appropriate for gestational age (AGA) were included in the study. Estimation of acylated ghrelin (AG) concentrations was done in the cord blood at birth and in venous blood at the age of 3 months in all the infants. The correlation between AG concentrations and growth parameters at birth and at 3 months was studied.

Results

AG concentrations were significantly higher in SGA (236.16 ± 152.4 pg/ml) than AGA neonates (59.45 ± 20.95 pg/ml) at birth. Concentrations were observed to be negatively correlated with birth weight (r = −0.34, p value 0.03), birth length, and head circumference (r = −0.509 and -0.376, respectively) in SGA neonates. However, at 3 months, AG concentrations did not correlate with changes in anthropometric parameters in both the groups.

Conclusion

Cord acylated ghrelin concentrations are higher in SGA neonates, and the concentrations are inversely proportional to the birth weight. Hence, its role as a surrogate marker for intrauterine nutrition can be suggested. However, its concentrations do not correlate with anthropometric parameters in early postnatal growth, suggesting it may not have a direct role in postnatal growth.

Growth of exclusively breastfed small for gestational age term infants in the first six months of life: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Compared to their appropriate-for-gestational-age (AGA) peers, small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants are prone to growth deficits. As the first 6 months of exclusive breastfeeding is generally recommended, it is essential to understand how this intervention might impact SGA infants' growth. This study aims to assess growth of exclusively breastfed SGA term infants in the first 6 months of life.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study was conducted on term infants born in Dr. Sardjito General Hospital and two private hospitals in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. SGA was defined as birth weight less than the 10th percentile according to Fenton criteria. Weight, length, and head circumference (HC) were measured at birth and monthly until 6 months old.

RESULTS

A total of 39 AGA and 17 SGA term infants who were exclusively breastfed in their first 6 months were included and followed. In SGA compared to AGA, birth weight, length, and HC (mean ± SD) were significantly lower (p < 0.001). During the first 6 months, the SGAs grew in weight and length in parallel with the AGAs. At sixth months of age, the weight and length (mean ± SD) of the SGAs were significantly lower compared to the AGAs (p < 0.001). However, HC (mean ± SD) of SGAs grew significantly faster than the AGAs (p < 0.005). At sixth months of age, there were no significant differences in HC between the two groups (p = 0.824).

CONCLUSIONS

In the first 6 months, exclusively breastfed SGA term infants, in contrast to weight and length, only show catch up growth in HC, leading to HC comparable to their AGA peers at the age of 6 months.

Cardiovascular outcome of former late-onset small-for-gestational-age children at 1 year of age: CURIOSA study

OBJECTIVE

Late-onset small-for-gestational-age (SGA) fetuses usually show normal uterine artery Doppler and were long considered to have a good peri- and postnatal outcome. Recently, these fetuses were identified to have a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The aim of our study was to evaluate former SGA children concerning their cardiovascular risk and nutrition behavior at the age of 1 year.

METHODS

We performed a prospective longitudinal cohort study at the University Hospital "Klinikum rechts der Isar" of the Technical University of Munich. Singleton pregnancies from 32 weeks with suspicion of SGA and healthy control pregnancies were included.

RESULTS

A total of 100 former SGA children and 113 controls with normal weight (AGA) were examined at 1 year of age. Drop-out for 1-year follow-up was 27%. SGA children had significantly higher systolic (92.8 ± 9.8 mmHg vs. 87.5 ± 10.7 mmHg, p = 0.001), diastolic (63.1 ± 8.5 mmHg vs. 60.0 ± 10.3 mmHg, p = 0.028) and mean (73.0 ± 7.8 vs. 69.2 ± 9.7 mmHg, p = 0.004) blood pressure than AGA children. Comparing two breastfeeding periods (0-4 months vs. > 7 months), a downward trend in blood pressure values for longer breastfeeding periods was shown.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that even late-onset small-for-gestational-age fetuses seem to have cardiovascular problems, although they were previously thought to be "healthy". Up to now, blood pressure measurement is not part of indicated health checks in former SGA or even fetal growth-restricted children which should be changed. Further studies are needed to investigate cardiovascular prevention programs in children.

Growth patterns and nutritional status of small for gestational age infants in Malaysia during the first year of life

Purpose

This study aimed to identify small for gestational age (SGA) infants' growth patterns, nutritional status, and associated factors.

Methods

This prospective cohort study was conducted at primary-care child health clinics in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The sample consisted of infants who fulfilled the criteria and were born in 2019. The anthropometric data of infants were assessed at birth and at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months.

Results

A total of 328 infants were analysed. In total, 27.7%(n=91) of the subjects were SGA infants, and 237 of them were not. Significant differences in the median weight-for-age and length-for-age z-scores were observed between SGA and non-SGA infants at birth, 1 month, 6 months, and 12 months. There was a significant difference between the growth patterns of SGA and non-SGA infants. Birth weight and sex significantly predicted the nutritional status(stunting and underweight) of SGA infants during their first year of life.

Conclusion

SGA infants can catch up to achieve normal growth during their first year of life. Even though the nutritional status of SGA infants trends worse than non-SGA infants, adequate infant birth weight monitoring and an emphasis on nutritional advice are crucial for maintaining well-being.

Relationship between Birth Weight, Early Growth Rate, and Body Composition in 5- to 7-Year-Old Children

BACKGROUND

Programing of body composition during intrauterine growth may contribute to the higher risk for cardio-metabolic disease in individuals born small or large for gestational age (SGA, LGA). Compensations of intrauterine growth by catch-up or catch-down postnatal growth may lead to adverse consequences like a thin-fat phenotype.

METHODS

The impact of (i) birth weight as well as (ii) the interaction between birth weight and catch-up or catch-down growth during the first 2 years of life on fat-free mass index (FFMI) and fat mass index (FMI) in 3,204 5-7-year-old children were investigated using Hattori's body composition chart. Body composition results were compared to appropriate for gestational age (AGA) birth weight with the same body mass index (BMI).

RESULTS

In total, 299 children at age 5-7 years were categorized as SGA, 2,583 as AGA, and 322 as LGA. When compared to AGA-children, BMI at 5-7 years of age was higher in LGA-children (15.5 vs. 16.2 kg/m2; p < 0.001) but not different in SGA-children. Compared to AGA with the same BMI, LGA was associated with higher FMI and a lower FFMI in 5-7-year-old girls. This phenotype was also seen for both sexes with catch-down growth during the first 2 years of life whereas catch-up growth prevented the higher FMI and lower FFMI per BMI. By contrast, SGA was associated with a higher FFMI and lower FMI in 5-7-year-old boys compared to AGA boys with the same BMI. This phenotype was also seen with catch-down growth in both genders whereas catch-up growth in girls led to more gain in FMI per BMI.

CONCLUSION

LGA with a compensatory catch-down postnatal growth may be a risk factor for the development of disproportionate gain in fat over lean mass whereas SGA with a catch-down postnatal growth seems to favor the subsequent accretion of lean over fat mass. A higher propensity of lean mass accretion during postnatal growth in boys compared to girls explains sex differences in these phenotypes.

The association between growth patterns and blood pressure in children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study of seven provinces in China

Aimed to investigate the associations between different growth patterns with high blood pressure, and further examine the mediation effect of BMI between growth patterns and high blood pressure among children and adolescents. A total of 31581 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years were selected based on the stratified cluster sampling method. Logistics regression models were used to calculate the odds rations (ORs) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) of the association between different growth patterns and high blood pressure. Mediation effect analyses were applied to estimate the effect of BMI on the increase of blood pressure levels in different growth patterns. In different sex and ages, compared to reference group of normal growth, blood pressure levels and prevalence of high blood pressure of the catch-up growth were higher, but that of the catch-down growth were lower. The prevalence of high blood pressure was 11.69%, 16.06%, and 9.68% in normal growth, catch-up growth, and catch-down growth, respectively. In total, compared with the normal growth pattern, the ORs (95%CI) of high blood pressure, high systolic blood pressure and high diastolic blood pressure in the catch-up growth were 1.171(1.073,1.280), 1.110(1.001,1.230) and 1.141(1.025,1.270) (p < .05), respectively. Additionally, the mediation effect of current BMI existed in the association between blood pressure levels and different growth patterns, particularly in boys. Our findings suggested that different growth patterns after birth could modify blood pressure, and the potential risks of high blood pressure could be increased by catch-up growth at childhood and adolescence.

Evaluation of Agreement of Overweight Screening Criteria in Adolescents: Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys

Background

The increasing prevalence of overweight children and childhood obesity has led to early development of obesity-related diseases, including diabetes. Screening tests for type 2 diabetes in children indicate overweight as a major risk factor. Three overweight screening criteria have been considered: body mass index (BMI) >85th percentile (overweight 1, OW1), weight for height >85th percentile (OW2), and weight >120% of ideal for height (OW3). This study was conducted to evaluate the agreement in these screening criteria and the impact of increased use of screening methods.

Methods

Data were obtained from 965 Korean adolescents (521 boys and 444 girls). The subjects were classified into overweight and normal weight groups by the three above criteria. The agreement between criteria was evaluated using Cohen’s kappa value. Furthermore, we studied the relationships between the criteria and parameters of height, weight, BMI, and z score, based on the 2007 Korean growth chart.

Results

Totals of 188, 139, and 115 adolescents were classified as OW1, OW2, and OW3, respectively. The kappa values were 0.798, 0.710, and 0.891 for OW1 and OW2, OW1 and OW3, and OW2 and OW3, respectively. Weight, weight-z, BMI, and BMI-z were greater among subjects in all overweight groups compared to the normal weight group. However, the heights of the subjects did not differ between the three groups.

Conclusion

Active assessment of overweight status using OW1 could be improved by including more adolescents and focusing on the variability of individual growth and disease risk, even though substantial agreement was observed among the three overweight screening criteria.

The Effect of Growth Rate during Infancy on the Risk of Developing Obesity in Childhood: A Systematic Literature Review

The prevalence of childhood obesity has been trending upwards over the last few decades. Recent evidence suggests that infant growth rate has the potential to increase the risk of obesity development during childhood. This systematic literature review aimed to summarise the existing evidence on the relationship between infant growth rate and subsequent childhood obesity. Studies were sought for that assessed the effect of infant growth rate on outcomes of overweight, obesity, BMI, waist circumference or body composition measures among a population group of children aged 2 to 12 years old. Data sources included PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science and MedLine. Twenty-four studies were identified as eligible and included in this review, out of 2302 publications. The ADA Quality Checklist was used to assess the quality of individual studies. Ten studies received a positive result and 14 studies a neutral result. A narrative synthesis was completed to present study characteristics and results. Several independent positive associations were determined between rapid growth at different stages during infancy and overweight, obesity, BMI, waist circumference and body composition in childhood. Further investigation is required to determine if a specific period of infancy carries greater associations of risk with childhood outcomes. Determining an ideal rate of infants' growth as a means to minimise the future risk of childhood obesity should be the focus of future research that will also inform early life obesity prevention strategies. Registration no.: CRD42021244029.

Short- and Long-Term Implications of Small for Gestational Age

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) describes a fetus' inability to attain adequate weight gain based on genetic potential and gestational age and is the second most common cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality after prematurity. Infants who have suffered fetal growth restriction are at the greatest risks for short- and long-term complications. This article specifically details the neurologic and cardiometabolic sequalae associated with fetal growth restriction, as well as the purported mechanisms that underlie their pathogenesis. We end with a brief discussion about further work that is needed to gain a more complete understanding of fetal growth restriction.

The effect of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure on adolescent body mass index and waist-to-height ratio at 12-13 years

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence suggests that prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) has the potential to impact on a wide range of physical outcomes in offspring, including metabolism and body composition, although the evidence to-date is primarily from preclinical studies. The current clinical study examined the association between heavy PAE and indirect measures of adiposity in adolescence.

METHODS

Analyses drew on data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, a national prospective cohort of children and their families from birth to adolescence. Participants included children with heavy PAE (≥70 g/week; n = 46), measured via maternal self-report of alcohol use during pregnancy and a comparison group of children without any PAE (n = 782), frequency matched on sex, ethnicity and socio-economic position. Body mass index (BMI) z-scores, waist-to-height ratios and proportion overweight/obese were calculated from height, weight and waist circumference measured at age 12-13 years. Two (PAE) × two (sex) ANCOVA and logistic regression models were performed, controlling for matching variables, adolescent age, pubertal status and birthweight; maternal age at birth and smoking during pregnancy.

RESULTS

Female adolescents with heavy PAE during late pregnancy had significantly higher BMI z-scores (M = 0.75, SD = 0.69) and proportion overweight/obese (38.5%) than females not exposed to any prenatal alcohol (M = 0.29, SD = 1.07, P = 0.04; 23.8%, P = 0.03, respectively). There was no significant effect of heavy PAE on male adolescent BMI z-scores and proportion overweight/obese or adolescent waist-to-height ratios (all P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Heavy PAE had a sex-specific effect on measures of adiposity in early adolescence, with girls more likely to have increased BMI and overweight/obesity status. Further longitudinal follow-up of children exposed to PAE is required to confirm if maternal alcohol consumption is a risk factor for later life obesity.

Infant weight gain and DXA-measured adolescent adiposity: data from the Japan Kids Body-composition Study

Background

Rapid weight gain in early life is associated with adiposity later in life. However, there is limited information on the association between weight gain and body fat mass measured using precise methods. This study aimed to investigate whether weight gain is associated with body fat mass measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in adolescents.

Methods

Participants of this retrospective cohort study were 423 adolescents born at full-term who were enrolled in the Japan Kids Body-composition Study. Anthropometric measurements related to pregnancy, delivery, and child health were obtained from the Japanese Maternal and Child Health Handbook. Fat mass in adolescents was measured with a DXA scanner. Weight gain was defined as the change in body weight from birth to age 1.5 years. Associations between birthweight and fat mass, and between weight gain and fat mass, were evaluated using multiple regression analysis.

Results

There was a significant positive association between weight gain from birth to age 1.5 years and fat mass in adolescents (boys: standardized regression coefficient (β) = 0.253, p < 0.01; girls: β = 0.246, p < 0.01), but not between birthweight standardized for gestational age and fat mass.

Conclusion

Children with a greater change in weight from birth to age 1.5 years tended to have increased fat mass in adolescence. Weight gain in early life has a greater impact on fat mass in adolescents than birthweight.

Maternal curcumin supplementation ameliorates placental function and fetal growth in mice with intrauterine growth retardation†

Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) is a serious reproductive problem in humans. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of daily maternal curcumin supplementation during pregnancy on placental function and fetal growth in a mouse model of IUGR fed the low-protein (LP) diet. Pregnant mice were divided into four groups: (1) normal protein (19% protein) diet (NP); (2) LP (8% protein) diet; (3) LP diet + 100 mg/kg curcumin (LPL); (4) LP diet +400 mg/kg curcumin (LPH). The results showed that the LP group decreased fetal weight, placental weight, placental efficiency, serum progesterone level, placental glutathione peroxidase activity activity, blood sinusoids area, and antioxidant gene expression of placenta. In addition, in comparison with the NP group, LP diet increased serum corticosterone level, placental malondialdehyde content, and apoptotic index. Daily curcumin administration decreased the placental apoptosis, while it increased placental efficiency, placental redox balance, blood sinusoids area, and antioxidant-related protein expression in fetal liver. The antioxidant gene expression of placenta and fetal liver was normalized to the NP level after curcumin administration. In conclusion, daily curcumin supplementation could improve maternal placental function and fetal growth in mice with IUGR.