Peripheral Demyelinating Diseases: From Biology to Translational Medicine

Characterization of sciatic nerve myelin sheath during development in C57BL/6 mice

Myelin sheath plays important roles in information conduction and nerve injury repair in the peripheral nerve system (PNS). Enhancing comprehension of the structure and components of the myelin sheath in the PNS during development would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the developmental and regenerative processes. In this research, the structure of sciatic nerve myelin sheath in C57BL/6 mice from embryonic day 14 (E14) to postnatal 12 months (12M) was observed with transmission electron microscopy. Myelin structure appeared in the sciatic nerve as early as E14, and the number and thickness of myelin lamellar gradually increased with the development until 12M. Transcriptome analysis was performed to show the expressions of myelin-associated genes and transcriptional factors involved in myelin formation. The genes encoding myelin proteins (Mag, Pmp22, Mpz, Mbp, Cnp and Prx) showed the same expression pattern, peaking at postnatal day 7 (P7) and P28 after birth, whereas the negative regulators of myelination (c-Jun, Tgfb1, Tnc, Cyr61, Ngf, Egr1, Hgf and Bcl11a) showed an opposite expression pattern. In addition, the expression of myelin-associated proteins and transcriptional factors was measured by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. The protein expressions of MAG, PMP22, MPZ, CNPase and PRX increased from E20 to P14. The key transcriptional factor c-Jun co-localized with the Schwann cells Marker S100β and decreased after birth, whereas Krox20/Egr2 increased during development. Our data characterized the structure and components of myelin sheath during the early developmental stages, providing insights for further understanding of PNS development.

Exercise induced myelin protein zero improvement in neuropathic pain rats

PURPOSE

Aerobic exercise including swimming plays a suitable role in improving somatosensory injuries. Neuropathic pain is a debilitating condition that occurs following injury or diseases of somatosensory system. In the present study, we tried to investigate the effect of exercise on myelin protein zero of sciatic nerve injured rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty male rats (180-220 g) were divided into five groups (intact, sham, sham + exercise, neuropathy, and neuropathy + exercise). Right Sciatic nerve of anesthetized rats was exposed and loosely ligated (four ligations with 1 mm apart) using catgut chromic sutures to induce neuropathy. After 3 days of recovery, swimming exercise began (20 min/day/5 days a week/4 weeks). Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were detected using Von Frey filaments and plantar test, respectively. Sciatic nerve at the place of injury was dissected out to measure the myelin protein zero by western blot analysis. In the intact and sham groups, sciatic nerve removed at the place similar to injured group.

RESULTS

We found that neuropathy significantly (p < 0.05) reduced paw withdrawal mechanical and thermal thresholds and swimming exercise significantly (p < 0.05) increased paw withdrawal mechanical and thermal thresholds compared to the neuropathy group. Moreover, we found that MPZ level significantly (p < 0.01) decreased in neuropathy group against that in sham group, and exercise prominently (p < 0.05) reversed MPZ level towards control level.

CONCLUSIONS

Swimming exercise improves myelin protein zero level in neuropathic rats along with attenuating neuropathic pain. This is a promising approach in improving neuropathological disorders including Charcot-Marie-Tooth and Dejerine-Sottas disease.

Polycaprolactone/graphene oxide/acellular matrix nanofibrous scaffolds with antioxidant and promyelinating features for the treatment of peripheral demyelinating diseases

Peripheral demyelinating diseases entail damage to axons and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Because of poor prognosis and lack of a cure, this group of diseases has a global impact. The primary underlying cause of these diseases involves the inability of Schwann cells to remyelinate the damaged insulating myelin around axons, resulting in neuronal death over time. In the past decade, extensive research has been directed in the direction of Schwann cells focusing on their physiological and neuroprotective effects on the neurons in the peripheral nervous system. One cause of dysregulation in the remyelinating function of Schwann cells has been associated with oxidative stress. Tissue-engineered biodegradable scaffolds that can stimulate remyelination response in Schwann cells have been proposed as a potential treatment strategy for peripheral demyelinating diseases. However, strategies developed to date primarily focussed on either remyelination or oxidative stress in isolation. Here, we have developed a multifunctional nanofibrous scaffold with material and biochemical cues to tackle both remyelination and oxidative stress in one matrix. We developed a nanofibrous scaffold using polycaprolactone (PCL) as a foundation loaded with antioxidant graphene oxide (GO) and coated this bioscaffold with Schwann cell acellular matrix. In vitro studies revealed both antioxidant and remyelination properties of the developed bioscaffold. Based on the results, the developed multifunctional bioscaffold approach can be a promising biomaterial approach for treating demyelinating diseases.

Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Mature and Myelinating Schwann Cells

In the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells (SCs) play a crucial role in axonal growth, metabolic support of neurons, and the production of myelin sheaths. Expansion of SCs after extraction from human or animal nerves is a long and often low-yielding process. We established a rapid cell culture method using a defined serum-free medium to differentiate human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into SCs in only 21 days. The SC identity was characterized by expression of SRY-Box Transcription factor 10 (SOX10), S100b, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), P75, growth-associated protein 43 (GAP43), and early growth response 2 (EGR2) markers. The SC purity reached 87% as assessed by flow cytometry using the specific SOX10 marker, and 69% based on S100b expression. When SCs were cocultured with iPSC-derived motor neurons two-dimensionally or three-dimensionally (3D), they also expressed the markers of myelin MBP, MPZ, and gliomedin. Likewise, when they were seeded on the opposite side of a porous collagen sponge from motor neurons in the 3D model, they were able to migrate through it and colocalize with motor axons after 8 weeks of maturation. Moreover, they were shown by transmission electron microscopy to form myelin sheaths around motor axons. These results suggest that the use of autologous iPSC-derived SCs for clinical applications such as the repair of peripheral nerve damage, the treatment of spinal cord injuries, or for demyelinating diseases could be a valuable option. Impact Statement Peripheral nerve injuries can cause the complete paralysis of the upper or lower limbs, which considerably reduces the quality of life of patients. To repair this injury, many approaches have been developed by tissue engineering. Combining biomaterials with Schwann cells (SCs) has been shown to be an effective solution for stimulating nerve regeneration. However, the challenge faced concerns the strategy for obtaining autologous SCs to treat patients. A promising approach is to differentiate them from the patient's own cells, previously induced into pluripotent stem cells. We propose a fast culture method to generate functional SCs differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells.

DAP12 deletion causes age-related motor function impairment but promotes functional recovery after sciatic nerve crush injury

DNAX activating protein of 12 kDa (DAP12)-deficiency mice showed impaired differentiation of oligodendrocytes and reduced myelin in the central nervous system. Whether DAP12 is expressed by Schwann cells and its roles in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) remains unknown. In this study, expression of DAP12 was detected in Schwann cells in vivo and in vitro. The DAP12-knockout (KO) mice showed age-related motor deficits and thinner myelin in the sciatic nerve than WT mice but significantly faster clinical recovery after sciatic nerve crush injury. In sciatic nerves of DAP12 KO and WT mice, proteomic profiles analysis identified 158 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) at 8-week-old, 29 DEPs at 54-week-old and 33 DEPs at two weeks after crush injury. Typically, of the DEPs at 54-week-old, up-regulated Lgmn and down-regulated RecK and Yap1 were associated with myelin loss in the sciatic nerve of DAP12 KO mice. Upregulation of nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase and haptoglobin were associated with the accumulation of macrophages in the crushed sciatic nerve of DAP12 KO mice. After crush injury, there were significantly more M1 macrophages at one-week and more M2 macrophages at two-week in sciatic nerve of DAP12 KO mice than WT mice, indicating that DAP12 deletion promotes the phenotype conversion of macrophages from M1 to M2. Collectively, our findings suggest that DAP12 may exert dual roles in the PNS including promoting the physiological myelin formation and maintenance of Schwann cells but delaying nerve repair after injury by modulating the recruitment of macrophages and phenotype conversion.

Deciphering the Role of Schwann Cells in Inflammatory Peripheral Neuropathies Post Alphavirus Infection

Old world alphaviruses (e.g., chikungunya) are known to cause severe acute and chronic debilitating arthralgia/arthritis. However, atypical neurological manifestations and, in particular, unexpected cases of acute inflammatory Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) have been associated with the arthritogenic alphaviruses. The pathogenesis of alphavirus-associated GBS remains unclear. We herein addressed for the first time the role of Schwann cells (SC) in peripheral neuropathy post-alphaviral infection using the prototypical ONNV alphavirus model. We demonstrated that human SC expressed the recently identified alphavirus receptor MxRA8 and granting viral entry and robust replication. A canonical innate immune response was engaged by ONNV-infected SC with elevated gene expression for RIG-I, MDA5, IFN-β, and ISG15 and inflammatory chemokine CCL5. Transcription levels of prostaglandin E2-metabolizing enzymes including cPLA2α, COX-2, and mPGES-1 were also upregulated in ONNV-infected SC. Counterintuitively, we found that ONNV failed to affect SC regenerative properties as indicated by elevated expression of the pro-myelinating genes MPZ and MBP1 as well as the major pro-myelin transcription factor Egr2. While ONNV infection led to decreased expression of CD55 and CD59, essential to control complement bystander cytotoxicity, it increased TRAIL expression, a major pro-apoptotic T cell signal. Anti-apoptotic Bcl2 transcription levels were also increased in infected SC. Hence, our study provides new insights regarding the remarkable immunomodulatory role of SC of potential importance in the pathogenesis of GBS following alphavirus infection.

Development of myelinating glia: An overview

Myelin is essential to nervous system function, playing roles in saltatory conduction and trophic support. Oligodendrocytes (OLs) and Schwann cells (SCs) form myelin in the central and peripheral nervous systems respectively and follow different developmental paths. OLs are neural stem-cell derived and follow an intrinsic developmental program resulting in a largely irreversible differentiation state. During embryonic development, OL precursor cells (OPCs) are produced in distinct waves originating from different locations in the central nervous system, with a subset developing into myelinating OLs. OPCs remain evenly distributed throughout life, providing a population of responsive, multifunctional cells with the capacity to remyelinate after injury. SCs derive from the neural crest, are highly dependent on extrinsic signals, and have plastic differentiation states. SC precursors (SCPs) are produced in early embryonic nerve structures and differentiate into multipotent immature SCs (iSCs), which initiate radial sorting and differentiate into myelinating and non-myelinating SCs. Differentiated SCs retain the capacity to radically change phenotypes in response to external signals, including becoming repair SCs, which drive peripheral regeneration. While several transcription factors and myelin components are common between OLs and SCs, their differentiation mechanisms are highly distinct, owing to their unique lineages and their respective environments. In addition, both OLs and SCs respond to neuronal activity and regulate nervous system output in reciprocal manners, possibly through different pathways. Here, we outline their basic developmental programs, mechanisms regulating their differentiation, and recent advances in the field.

Models and methods to study Schwann cells

Schwann cells (SCs) are fundamental components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) of all vertebrates and play essential roles in development, maintenance, function, and regeneration of peripheral nerves. There are distinct populations of SCs including: (1) myelinating SCs that ensheath axons by a specialized plasma membrane, called myelin, which enhances the conduction of electric impulses; (2) non-myelinating SCs, including Remak SCs, which wrap bundles of multiple axons of small caliber, and perysinaptic SCs (PSCs), associated with motor axon terminals at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). All types of SCs contribute to PNS regeneration through striking morphological and functional changes in response to nerve injury, are affected in peripheral neuropathies and show abnormalities and a diminished plasticity during aging. Therefore, methodological approaches to study and manipulate SCs in physiological and pathophysiological conditions are crucial to expand the present knowledge on SC biology and to devise new therapeutic strategies to counteract neurodegenerative conditions and age-derived denervation. We present here an updated overview of traditional and emerging methodologies for the study of SCs for scientists approaching this research field.

Campylobacter jejuni and Postinfectious Autoimmune Diseases: A Proof of Concept in Glycobiology

Glycans, one of the most diverse groups of macromolecules, are ubiquitous constituents of all cells and have many critical functions, including the interaction between microbes and their hosts. One of the best model organisms to study the host-pathogen interaction, the gastrointestinal pathogen Campylobacter jejuni dedicates extensive resources to glycosylation and exhibits a diverse array of surface sugar-coated displays. The first bacterium where N-linked glycosylation was described, C. jejuni can additionally modify proteins by O-linked glycosylation, has extracellular capsular polysaccharides that are important for virulence and represent the major determinant of the Penner serotyping scheme, and has outer membrane lipooligosaccharides that participate in processes such as colonization, survival, inflammation, and immune evasion. In addition to causing gastrointestinal disease and extraintestinal infections, C. jejuni was also linked to postinfectious autoimmune neuropathies, of which Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS) are the most extensively characterized ones. These postinfectious autoimmune neuropathies occur when specific bacterial surface lipooligosaccharides mimic gangliosides in the host nervous system. C. jejuni provided the first proof of concept for the involvement of molecular mimicry in the pathogenesis of an autoimmune disease and, also, for the ability of a bacterial polymorphism to shape the clinical presentation of the postinfectious autoimmune neuropathy. The scientific journey that culminated with elucidating the mechanistic details of the C. jejuni-GBS link was the result of contributions from several fields, including microbiology, structural biology, glycobiology, genetics, and immunology and provides an inspiring and important example to interrogate other instances of molecular mimicry and their involvement in autoimmune disease.

Involvement of trigeminal axons in nose-to-brain delivery of glucagon-like peptide-2 derivative

In our previous study, we created a glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) derivative with the functional sequence PAS-CPP to achieve efficient uptake by the respiratory epithelium and trigeminal nerve. By using octaarginine for cell penetrating peptides (CPP) and FFLIPKG, a reverse sequence of a part of the cathepsin D sequence for the penetration accelerating sequence (PAS), we found that the derivative was taken up by the cells through macropinocytosis and efficiently escaped from the endosomes and exited the cells. Moreover, it showed drug effects by intranasal (in.) administration at the same dose as intracerebroventricular (icv.) administration, which is direct drug administration into the brain. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the cause of the drug effect of in. administered PAS-CPP-GLP-2 at the same dose as that by icv. Administration. The present results suggested that although icv. Administered PAS-CPP-GLP-2 entered the cerebrospinal fluid, it barely penetrated the perivascular space of the brain, and therefore, only a small amount of the administered dose may have reached the site of action in the brain. In contrast, it was qualitatively suggested that in. administered PAS-CPP-GLP-2 migrates from the trigeminal nerve to the central nervous system via the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus and then through the trigeminal lemniscus. The present results show that nose-to-brain delivery by trigeminal axons, which is assumed to be a transcellular pathway, may be possible. As the drug can be delivered into the nerve, it is expected to be applied not only as a central delivery route but also for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Emerging Role of Neuron-Glia in Neurological Disorders: At a Glance

Based on the diverse physiological influence, the impact of glial cells has become much more evident on neurological illnesses, resulting in the origins of many diseases appearing to be more convoluted than previously happened. Since neurological disorders are often random and unknown, hence the construction of animal models is difficult to build, representing a small fraction of people with a gene mutation. As a result, an immediate necessity is grown to work within in vitro techniques for examining these illnesses. As the scientific community recognizes cell-autonomous contributions to a variety of central nervous system illnesses, therapeutic techniques involving stem cells for treating neurological diseases are gaining traction. The use of stem cells derived from a variety of sources is increasingly being used to replace both neuronal and glial tissue. The brain's energy demands necessitate the reliance of neurons on glial cells in order for it to function properly. Furthermore, glial cells have diverse functions in terms of regulating their own metabolic activities, as well as collaborating with neurons via secreted signaling or guidance molecules, forming a complex network of neuron-glial connections in health and sickness. Emerging data reveals that metabolic changes in glial cells can cause morphological and functional changes in conjunction with neuronal dysfunction under disease situations, highlighting the importance of neuron-glia interactions in the pathophysiology of neurological illnesses. In this context, it is required to improve our understanding of disease mechanisms and create potential novel therapeutics. According to research, synaptic malfunction is one of the features of various mental diseases, and glial cells are acting as key ingredients not only in synapse formation, growth, and plasticity but also in neuroinflammation and synaptic homeostasis which creates critical physiological capacity in the focused sensory system. The goal of this review article is to elaborate state-of-the-art information on a few glial cell types situated in the central nervous system (CNS) and highlight their role in the onset and progression of neurological disorders.

Nox, Nox, Are You There? The Role of NADPH Oxidases in the Peripheral Nervous System

Significance: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to multiple aspects of peripheral nervous system (PNS) biology ranging from physiological processes (e.g., axonal outgrowth and regeneration) to pathophysiology (e.g., nerve degeneration). Although ROS are derived from multiple sources, NADPH oxidase (Nox) family members are dedicated to ROS generation. Noxs are expressed in the PNS, and their overexpression is associated with detrimental effects on nerve function and contributes, at least in part, to peripheral neuropathies. Recent Advances: Of the seven members, studies mostly focused on Nox1, Nox2, and Nox4, which are expressed in the PNS in a cell-specific manner. We have also recently identified human Nox5 in sural nerve biopsies. When maintained at homeostatic levels, Noxs regulate several aspects of peripheral nerve health, most notably neurite outgrowth and axonal regeneration following nerve lesion. While Nox2 and Nox4 dysregulation is a major source of oxidative stress in PNS disorders, including neuropathic pain and diabetic peripheral neuropathy, recent evidence also implicates Nox1 and Nox5. Critical Issues: Although there is compelling evidence for a direct role of Noxs on nerve function, little is known about their subcellular localization, intercellular regulation, and interaction. These, together with redox signaling, are considered crucial components of nerve redox status. In addition, the lack of isoform-specific inhibitors limits conclusions about the physiological role of Noxs in the PNS and their therapeutic potential in peripheral neuropathies. Future Directions: Future research using isoform-specific genetic and pharmacological approaches are therefore needed to better understand the significance of Nox enzymes in PNS (patho) physiology. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 613-630.

[Introduction to Myelin Research]

Myelin is a multilamellar membrane structure formed by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It has been recognized as an insulator that is essential for the rapid and efficient propagation of action potentials by saltatory conduction. However, recently many studies have shown that myelin and myelin-forming cells interact with axons and regulate the nervous system far more actively than previously thought. For example, myelination changes axons dynamically and divides them into four distinct functional domains: node of Ranvier, paranode, juxtaparanode, and internode. Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels are clustered at the node, while K⁺ channels are at the juxtaparanode, and segregation of these channels by paranodal axoglial junction is necessary for proper axonal function. My research experience began at the neurology ward of the Niigata University Medical Hospital, where I saw a patient with peripheral neuropathy of unknown etiology more than 37 years ago. In the patient's serum, we found an autoantibody against a glycolipid enriched in the PNS. Since then, I have been interested in myelin because of its beautiful structure and unique roles in the nervous system. In this review, our recent studies related to CNS and PNS myelin are presented.

An electroceutical approach enhances myelination via upregulation of lipid biosynthesis in the dorsal root ganglion

As the myelin sheath is crucial for neuronal saltatory conduction, loss of myelin in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) leads to demyelinating neuropathies causing muscular atrophy, numbness, foot deformities and paralysis. Unfortunately, few interventions are available for such neuropathies, because previous pharmaceuticals have shown severe side effects and failed in clinical trials. Therefore, exploring new strategies to enhance PNS myelination is critical to provide solution for such intractable diseases. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of electrical stimulation (ES) to enhance myelination in the mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) - an ex vivo model of the PNS. Mouse embryonic DRGs were extracted at E13 and seeded onto Matrigel-coated surfaces. After sufficient growth and differentiation, screening was carried out by applying ES in the 1-100 Hz range at the beginning of the myelination process. DRG myelination was evaluated via immunostaining at the intermediate (19 DIV) and mature (30 DIV) stages. Further biochemical analyses were carried out by utilizing RNA sequencing, qPCR and biochemical assays at both intermediate and mature myelination stages. Imaging of DRG myelin lipids was carried out via time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). With screening ES conditions, optimal condition was identified at 20 Hz, which enhanced the percentage of myelinated neurons and average myelin length not only at intermediate (129% and 61%) but also at mature (72% and 17%) myelination stages. Further biochemical analyses elucidated that ES promoted lipid biosynthesis in the DRG. ToF-SIMS imaging showed higher abundance of the structural lipids, cholesterol and sphingomyelin, in the myelin membrane. Therefore, promotion of lipid biosynthesis and higher abundance of myelin lipids led to ES-mediated myelination enhancement. Given that myelin lipid deficiency is culpable for most demyelinating PNS neuropathies, the results might pave a new way to treat such diseases via electroceuticals.

Schwann cell-derived exosomes: Janus-faced mediators of regeneration and disease

The phenotypic plasticity of Schwann cells (SCs) has contributed to the regenerative potential of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), but also pathological processes. This double-sided effect has led to an increasing attention to the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) or exosomes in SCs to examine the intercellular communication between SCs and their surroundings. Here, we first describe the current knowledge of SC and EV biology, which forms the basis for the updates on advances in SC-derived exosomes research. We seek to explore in-depth the exosome-mediated molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of SCs and their microenvironment. This review concludes with potential applications of SC-derived exosomes as delivery vehicles for therapeutics and biomarkers. The goal of this review is to emphasize the crucial role of SC-derived exosomes in the functional integration of the PNS, highlighting an emerging area in which there is much to explore and re-explore.

A Review on SARS-CoV-2-Induced Neuroinflammation, Neurodevelopmental Complications, and Recent Updates on the Vaccine Development

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a devastating viral infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The incidence and mortality of COVID-19 patients have been increasing at an alarming rate. The mortality is much higher in older individuals, especially the ones suffering from respiratory distress, cardiac abnormalities, renal diseases, diabetes, and hypertension. Existing evidence demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 makes its entry into human cells through angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) followed by the uptake of virions through cathepsin L or transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2). SARS-CoV-2-mediated abnormalities in particular cardiovascular and neurological ones and the damaged coagulation systems require extensive research to develop better therapeutic modalities. As SARS-CoV-2 uses its S-protein to enter into the host cells of several organs, the S-protein of the virus is considered as the ideal target to develop a potential vaccine. In this review, we have attempted to highlight the landmark discoveries that lead to the development of various vaccines that are currently under different stages of clinical progression. Besides, a brief account of various drug candidates that are being tested to mitigate the burden of COVID-19 was also covered. Further, in a dedicated section, the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on neuronal inflammation and neuronal disorders was discussed. In summary, it is expected that the content covered in this article help to understand the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and the impact on neuronal complications induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection while providing an update on the vaccine development.

Pharmacological Screening of Viola odorata L. for Memory-Enhancing Effect via Modulation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Biomarkers

Purpose: Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The present study aimed to characterize and then investigate the memory-enhancing potential of Viola odorata methanolic extract in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)–treated mice.

Methods:V. odorata characterization was done by using the GCMS technique. Neuroinflammation was induced by the intracerebroventricular administration of LPS at a dose of 12 µg. Animals were divided randomly into six groups (n = 10). Group I was normal control, which was given vehicle. Group II was disease control, which received LPS (12 µg) via the intracerebroventricular route. Group III was standard, which was administered with donepezil (3 µg) orally for 21 days. Groups IV–VI were the treatment groups, which were administered with the extract at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg dose levels orally respectively for 21 days. Groups III–VI received LPS (12 µg) on the first day along with their treatments. During the treatment, the animals were assessed for memory retention by employing different behavioral paradigms namely elevated plus maze, passive avoidance, foot shock and open field. Various mediators [endogenous antioxidants, neurotransmitters, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)] involved in the pathogenesis of AD were quantified by using the UV spectrophotometric method.

Results: Extract-treated groups showed a remarkable improvement in cognitive impairment in all behavioral paradigms. Oxidative stress biomarkers, that is, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione were raised dose-dependently in the treatment groups with a dose-dependent decrease in the malonaldehyde and AChE levels in the brains of the treated animals. The treatment groups showed decreased levels of inflammatory biomarkers, that is, tumor necrosis factor–alpha, nuclear factor kappa light-chain enhancer of activated β-cells, and cyclo-oxygenase, which supports the therapeutic effectiveness of the treatment.

Conclusion: Based on behavioral, oxidative stress biomarker, and neuroinflammatory data, it is concluded that V. odorata possesses memory-enhancing activity and may prove a beneficial role in the management of AD.

The Effects of Insulin on Immortalized Rat Schwann Cells, IFRS1

Schwann cells play an important role in peripheral nerve function, and their dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic neuropathy and other demyelinating diseases. The physiological functions of insulin in Schwann cells remain unclear and therefore define the aim of this study. By using immortalized adult Fischer rat Schwann cells (IFRS1), we investigated the mechanism of the stimulating effects of insulin on the cell proliferation and expression of myelin proteins (myelin protein zero (MPZ) and myelin basic protein (MBP). The application of insulin to IFRS1 cells increased the proliferative activity and induced phosphorylation of Akt and ERK, but not P38-MAPK. The proliferative potential of insulin-stimulated IFRS1 was significantly suppressed by the addition of LY294002, a PI3 kinase inhibitor. The insulin-stimulated increase in MPZ expression was significantly suppressed by the addition of PD98059, a MEK inhibitor. Furthermore, insulin-increased MBP expression was significantly suppressed by the addition of LY294002. These findings suggest that both PI3-K/Akt and ERK/MEK pathways are involved in insulin-induced cell growth and upregulation of MPZ and MBP in IFRS1 Schwann cells.

Decoding Neuromuscular Disorders Using Phenotypic Clusters Obtained From Co-Occurrence Networks

Neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) represent an important subset of rare diseases associated with elevated morbidity and mortality whose diagnosis can take years. Here we present a novel approach using systems biology to produce functionally-coherent phenotype clusters that provide insight into the cellular functions and phenotypic patterns underlying NMDs, using the Human Phenotype Ontology as a common framework. Gene and phenotype information was obtained for 424 NMDs in OMIM and 126 NMDs in Orphanet, and 335 and 216 phenotypes were identified as typical for NMDs, respectively. ‘Elevated serum creatine kinase’ was the most specific to NMDs, in agreement with the clinical test of elevated serum creatinine kinase that is conducted on NMD patients. The approach to obtain co-occurring NMD phenotypes was validated based on co-mention in PubMed abstracts. A total of 231 (OMIM) and 150 (Orphanet) clusters of highly connected co-occurrent NMD phenotypes were obtained. In parallel, a tripartite network based on phenotypes, diseases and genes was used to associate NMD phenotypes with functions, an approach also validated by literature co-mention, with KEGG pathways showing proportionally higher overlap than Gene Ontology and Reactome. Phenotype-function pairs were crossed with the co-occurrent NMD phenotype clusters to obtain 40 (OMIM) and 72 (Orphanet) functionally coherent phenotype clusters. As expected, many of these overlapped with known diseases and confirmed existing knowledge. Other clusters revealed interesting new findings, indicating informative phenotypes for differential diagnosis, providing deeper knowledge of NMDs, and pointing towards specific cell dysfunction caused by pleiotropic genes. This work is an example of reproducible research that i) can help better understand NMDs and support their diagnosis by providing a new tool that exploits existing information to obtain novel clusters of functionally-related phenotypes, and ii) takes us another step towards personalised medicine for NMDs.

Cannabidiol and Other Cannabinoids in Demyelinating Diseases

A growing body of preclinical evidence indicates that certain cannabinoids, including cannabidiol (CBD) and synthetic derivatives, may play a role in the myelinating processes and are promising small molecules to be developed as drug candidates for management of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), stroke and traumatic brain injury (TBI), which are three of the most prevalent demyelinating disorders. Thanks to the properties described for CBD and its interesting profile in humans, both the phytocannabinoid and derivatives could be considered as potential candidates for clinical use. In this review we will summarize current advances in the use of CBD and other cannabinoids as future potential treatments. While new research is accelerating the process for the generation of novel drug candidates and identification of druggable targets, the collaboration of key players such as basic researchers, clinicians and pharmaceutical companies is required to bring novel therapies to the patients.

CSF sphingomyelin: a new biomarker of demyelination in the diagnosis and management of CIDP and GBS

OBJECTIVE

To validate sphingomyelin (SM) dosage in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients affected by chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) and Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) as a reliably assessable biomarker.

METHODS

We prospectively enrolled 184 patients from six Italian referral centres, in whom CSF SM levels were quantified by a fluorescence-based assay optimised and patented in our laboratory.

RESULTS

We confirmed increased levels of SM in the CSF of patients affected by typical CIDP (n=35), atypical CIDP (n=18) and acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy, AIDP (n=12) compared with patients affected by non-demyelinating neurological diseases, used as controls (n=85) (p<0.0001, p=0.0065 and p<0.0001, respectively). In patients with CIDP classified for disease stage, SM was higher in active CIDP compared with both controls and stable CIDP (p<0.0001), applying for a selective tool to treatment tailoring or withdrawal. SM was also increased in AIDP compared with axonal GBS, discerning the demyelinating from axonal variant of the disease. SM did not correlate with CSF protein levels, stratifying patients independently from commonly used CSF indexes, and displaying high specificity to avoid potential misdiagnosis. Finally, SM correlated with the main clinical scores and some neurophysiological parameters in patients with CIDP and AIDP.

CONCLUSIONS

CSF SM is a diagnostic and staging wet biomarker for acquired demyelinating neuropathies and may effectively improve the management of patients affected by GBS and CIDP.

Blood Biomarkers for Detection of Brain Injury in COVID-19 Patients

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus attacks multiple organs of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients, including the brain. There are worldwide descriptions of neurological deficits in COVID-19 patients. Central nervous system (CNS) symptoms can be present early in the course of the disease. As many as 55% of hospitalized COVID-19 patients have been reported to have neurological disturbances three months after infection by SARS-CoV-2. The mutability of the SARS-COV-2 virus and its potential to directly affect the CNS highlight the urgency of developing technology to diagnose, manage, and treat brain injury in COVID-19 patients. The pathobiology of CNS infection by SARS-CoV-2 and the associated neurological sequelae of this infection remain poorly understood. In this review, we outline the rationale for the use of blood biomarkers (BBs) for diagnosis of brain injury in COVID-19 patients, the research needed to incorporate their use into clinical practice, and the improvements in patient management and outcomes that can result. BBs of brain injury could potentially provide tools for detection of brain injury in COVID-19 patients. Elevations of BBs have been reported in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of COVID-19 patients. BB proteins have been analyzed in CSF to detect CNS involvement in patients with infectious diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculous meningitis. BBs are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for diagnosis of mild versus moderate traumatic brain injury and have identified brain injury after stroke, cardiac arrest, hypoxia, and epilepsy. BBs, integrated with other diagnostic tools, could enhance understanding of viral mechanisms of brain injury, predict severity of neurological deficits, guide triage of patients and assignment to appropriate medical pathways, and assess efficacy of therapeutic interventions in COVID-19 patients.

A 3D disease and regeneration model of peripheral nervous system-on-a-chip

Demyelinating diseases involve loss of myelin sheaths and eventually lead to neurological problems. Unfortunately, the precise mechanisms remain unknown, and there are no effective therapies. To overcome these limitations, a reliable and physiologically relevant in vitro model is required. Here, we present a three-dimensional peripheral nervous system (PNS) microfluidic platform that recapitulates the full spectrum of myelination, demyelination, and remyelination using primary Schwann cells (SCs) and motor neurons (MNs). The platform enables reproducible hydrogel patterning and long-term stable coculture of MNs and SCs over 40 days in vitro based on three distinct design factors. Furthermore, the on-demand detachable substrate allows in-depth biological analysis. We demonstrated the possibility of mimicking segmental demyelination by lysophosphatidylcholine, and recovery of myelin structure by application of two drugs: benzatropine or methylcobalamin. This 3D PNS disease-on-a-chip may serve as a potential platform for understanding the pathophysiology of demyelination and screening drugs for remyelination.

Adenosine A2B receptor: A pathogenic factor and a therapeutic target for sensorineural hearing loss

Over 466 million people worldwide are diagnosed with hearing loss (HL). About 90% of HL cases are sensorineural HL (SNHL) with treatments limited to hearing aids and cochlear implants with no FDA-approved drugs. Intriguingly, ADA-deficient patients have been reported to have bilateral SNHL, however, its underlying cellular and molecular basis remain unknown. We report that Ada^-/- mice, phenocopying ADA-deficient humans, displayed SNHL. Ada^-/- mice cochlea with elevated adenosine caused substantial nerve fiber demyelination and mild hair cell loss. ADA enzyme therapy in these mice normalized cochlear adenosine levels, attenuated SNHL, and prevented demyelination. Additionally, ADA enzyme therapy rescued SNHL by restoring nerve fiber structure in Ada^-/- mice post two-week drug withdrawal. Moreover, elevated cochlear adenosine in untreated mice was associated with enhanced Adora2b gene expression. Preclinically, ADORA2B-specific antagonist treatment in Ada^-/- mice significantly improved HL, nerve fiber density, and myelin compaction. We also provided genetic evidence that ADORA2B is detrimental for age-related SNHL by impairing cochlear myelination in WT aged mice. Overall, understanding purinergic molecular signaling in SNHL in Ada^-/- mice allows us to further discover that ADORA2B is also a pathogenic factor underlying aged-related SNHL by impairing cochlear myelination and lowering cochlear adenosine levels or blocking ADORA2B signaling are effective therapies for SNHL.

Key Developments in the Potential of Curcumin for the Treatment of Peripheral Neuropathies

Peripheral neuropathies (PN) can be triggered after metabolic diseases, traumatic peripheral nerve injury, genetic mutations, toxic substances, and/or inflammation. PN is a major clinical problem, affecting many patients and with few effective therapeutics. Recently, interest in natural dietary compounds, such as polyphenols, in human health has led to a great deal of research, especially in PN. Curcumin is a polyphenol extracted from the root of Curcuma longa. This molecule has long been used in Asian medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties. However, like numerous polyphenols, curcumin has a very low bioavailability and a very fast metabolism. This review addresses multiple aspects of curcumin in PN, including bioavailability issues, new formulations, observations in animal behavioral tests, electrophysiological, histological, and molecular aspects, and clinical trials published to date. The, review covers in vitro and in vivo studies, with a special focus on the molecular mechanisms of curcumin (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-endoplasmic reticulum stress (anti-ER-stress), neuroprotection, and glial protection). This review provides for the first time an overview of curcumin in the treatment of PN. Finally, because PN are associated with numerous pathologies (e.g., cancers, diabetes, addiction, inflammatory disease...), this review is likely to interest a large audience.

Magnetisation transfer ratio combined with magnetic resonance neurography is feasible in the proximal lumbar plexus using healthy volunteers at 3T

Magnetic resonance neurography (MRN) has been used extensively to study pathological conditions affecting the peripheral nervous system (PNS). However, tissue damage is assessed qualitatively with little information regarding the underlying pathophysiological processes involved. Magnetisation transfer ratio (MTR) is a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging method which is sensitive to tissue macromolecular content and may therefore have an important role in the study of pathologies affecting the PNS. This study explored the feasibility of obtaining reliable MTR measurements in the proximal lumbar plexus of healthy volunteers using MRN to identify and segment each lumbar segment (L2-L5) and regions (preganglionic, ganglionic and postganglionic). Reproducibility of the MTR measurements and of the segmentation method were assessed from repeated measurements (scan-rescan), and from the reanalysis of images (intra- and inter-rater assessment), by calculating the coefficient of variation (COV). In all segments combined (L2-L5), mean (± SD) MTR was 30.5 (± 2.4). Scan-rescan, intra- and inter-rater COV values were 3.2%, 4.4% and 5.3%, respectively. One-way analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference in MTR between the preganglionic and postganglionic regions in all lumbar segments. This pilot study in healthy volunteers demonstrates the feasibility of obtaining reliable MTR measurements in the proximal lumbar plexus, opening up the possibility of studying a broad spectrum of neurological conditions in vivo.

Abelmoschus Esculentus (L.) Moench's Peel Powder Improves High-Fat-Diet-Induced Cognitive Impairment in C57BL/6J Mice

Okra peel exhibits numerous therapeutic effects. This study explores the potential ameliorative effects of okra peel powder on high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced hypercholesterolemia and cognitive deficits. Thirty-six C57BL/6J male mice were randomly divided into six groups (n = 6 per group): (i) control, mice fed with a normal diet; (ii) HFD, mice fed with HFD; (iii) HFD-SIM, mice fed with HFD and given simvastatin (20 mg/kg/day); (iv) HFD-OP1; (v) HFD-OP2; (vi) HFD-OP3, mice fed with HFD and okra peel (200, 400, or 800 mg/kg/day, respectively). Following 10 weeks of treatments, the mice were subjected to the Morris water maze (MWM). Parameters such as weekly average body weight, food intake, and blood lipid profiles were also recorded. The HFD group showed a profound increase in total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein concentration compared to the control group. All okra-treated and HFD-SIM groups performed better than the HFD group during acquisition trials, whereas only the HFD-OP1 produced a significantly higher number of entries into the platform zone during the probe trial. In sum, all three okra doses improved the learning ability of the mice. However, only the lowest dose of okra significantly improved the spatial reference memory retention.

Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy relapse after mexiletine withdrawal in a patient with concomitant myotonia congenita: A case report on a potential treatment option

INTRODUCTION

we report on the first case of a woman affected by chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) and recessive myotonia congenita (MC), treated with mexiletine. We aimed at describing the possible role of mexiletine in CIDP management.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 44-year-old female affected by CIDP and MC, gained beneficial effects for CIDP symptoms (muscle weakness, cramps, and fatigue) and relapses, after mexiletine intake (200 mg twice a day). The patient presented with detrimental effects after mexiletine drop out, with a worsening of CIDP symptoms.

INTERVENTIONS

The patient reported a nearly complete remission of muscle stiffness and weakness up to 3 years since mexiletine intake. Then, she developed an allergic reaction with glottis edema, maybe related to mexiletine intake, as per emergency room doctors' evaluation, who suggested withdrawing the drug.

OUTCOMES

The patient significantly worsened after the medication drop out concerning both CIDP and MC symptoms.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report on the association of CIDP and MC in the same patient. Such diseases may share some clinical symptoms related to a persistent sodium currents increase, which maybe due either to the over-expression of sodium channels following axonal damage due to demyelination or to the chloride channel genes mutations. This is the possible reason why mexiletine maybe promising to treat CIDP symptoms.

Hydroxytyrosol Promotes Proliferation of Human Schwann Cells: An In Vitro Study

Recent advances in phytomedicine have explored some potential candidates for nerve regeneration, including hydroxytyrosol (HT). This study was undertaken to explore the potential effects of HT on human Schwann cells' proliferation. Methods: The primary human Schwann cell (hSC) was characterized, and the proliferation rate of hSC supplemented with various concentrations of HT was determined via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Cell cycle analysis and protein expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and p75 nerve growth factor receptor (p75 NGFR) were evaluated via the immunofluorescence technique. Results: In vitro culture of hSCs revealed spindle-like, bipolar morphology with the expression of specific markers of hSC. Hydroxytyrosol at 10 and 20 ng/mL significantly increased the proliferation of hSCs by 30.12 ± 5.9% and 47.8 ± 6.7% compared to control (p < 0.05). Cell cycle analysis showed that HT-treated hSCs have a higher proliferation index (16.2 ± 0.2%) than the control (12.4 ± 0.4%) (p < 0.01). In addition, HT significantly increased the protein expression of GFAP and p75NGFR (p < 0.05). Conclusion: HT stimulates the proliferation of hSCs in vitro, indicated by a significant increase in the hSC proliferation index and protein expression of hSCs' proliferation markers, namely p75 NGFR and GFAP.

Zebrafish brain RNA sequencing reveals that cell adhesion molecules are critical in brain aging

Brain aging is a complex process, which involves multiple pathways including various components from cellular to molecular. This study aimed to investigate the gene expression changes in zebrafish brains through young-adult to adult, and adult to old age. RNA sequencing was performed on isolated neuronal cells from zebrafish brains. The cells were enriched in progenitor cell markers, which are known to diminish throughout the aging process. We found 176 statistically significant, differentially expressed genes among the groups, and identified a group of genes based on gene ontology descriptions, which were classified as cell adhesion molecules. The relevance of these genes was further tested in another set of zebrafish brains, human healthy, and Alzheimer's disease brain samples, as well as in Allen Brain Atlas data. We observed that the expression change of 2 genes, GJC2 and ALCAM, during the aging process was consistent in all experimental sets. Our findings provide a new set of markers for healthy brain aging and suggest new targets for therapeutic approaches to neurodegenerative diseases.

Pharmacotherapy of Alzheimer's Disease: Seeking Clarity in a Time of Uncertainty

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is recognized as a major health hazard that mostly affects people older than 60 years. AD is one of the biggest medical, economic, and social concerns to patients and their caregivers. AD was ranked as the 5th leading cause of global deaths in 2016 by the World Health Organization (WHO). Many drugs targeting the production, aggregation, and clearance of Aβ plaques failed to give any conclusive clinical outcomes. This mainly stems from the fact that AD is not a disease attributed to a single-gene mutation. Two hallmarks of AD, Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), can simultaneously induce other AD etiologies where every pathway is a loop of consequential events. Therefore, the focus of recent AD research has shifted to exploring other etiologies, such as neuroinflammation and central hyperexcitability. Neuroinflammation results from the hyperactivation of microglia and astrocytes that release pro-inflammatory cytokines due to the neurological insults caused by Aβ plaques and NFTs, eventually leading to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal death. This review will report the failures and side effects of many anti-Aβ drugs. In addition, emerging treatments targeting neuroinflammation in AD, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), that restore calcium dyshomeostasis and microglia physiological function in clearing Aβ plaques, respectively, will be deliberately discussed. Other novel pharmacotherapy strategies in treating AD, including disease-modifying agents (DMTs), repurposing of medications used to treat non-AD illnesses, and multi target-directed ligands (MTDLs) are also reviewed. These approaches open new doors to the development of AD therapy, especially combination therapy that can cater for several targets simultaneously, hence effectively slowing or stopping AD.

Rehabilitation of anterior pituitary dysfunction combined with extrapontine myelinolysis: A case report

BACKGROUND

Extramedullary myelinolysis is a rare demyelinating disease, often caused by rapid increases in serum sodium concentration in patients with hyponatremia. Clinical manifestations are neuropsychiatric symptoms, limb weakness, and dysarthria. Because of its poor prognosis and high disability rate, it poses a huge burden on the global economy, societies, and families. This article reports rehabilitation in a patient with pituitary dysfunction combined with extramedullary myelinolysis.

CASE SUMMARY

A 27-year-old Chinese man developed anorexia, vomiting, and limb weakness and was diagnosed with pituitary insufficiency. He had low serum sodium, slow movement, muscle weakness, and muscle tone abnormalities after sodium supplementation, involuntary limb shaking, ataxia, and dysarthria. According to the symptoms and signs and imaging reports, he was diagnosed with extramedullary myelinolysis. After treatment with hormone therapy and neurotrophic drugs, motor and speech function did not improve, so he was treated in the rehabilitation department for 4 wk. The patient's physical status was improved substantially during his stay at the rehabilitation department.

CONCLUSION

Patients with extramedullary myelinolysis who actively participate in rehabilitation intervention can significantly improve their activities of daily living.