Evolutionary aspects of self- and world consciousness in vertebrates

Know thyself (Jnana Yoga): Psychotherapeutic insights from the east

Humans have asked themselves the question "who am I" from ancient times. Vedic, upanishadic and buddhist philosophers have pointed out over millennia the illusive nature of the individual self, and posit either a no-self, or a universal Self. Vedantic scholars also posit the illusory nature of the universe (Maya) and suggest that the only reality is the knower (Brahman), a view resonating with modern concepts in quantum theory. On the other hand, western philosophers, notably influenced by the Cartesian dualism, have pursued an individualist view of the self. Recent psychological literature is convergent with eastern views and emphasizes the importance of understanding the self, metacognition and mindful practices to understand the mind and its afflictions. Several recent western psychotherapeutic models resonate with, and may have been motivated, at least in part, by ancient eastern philosophy and spiritual practices. More work is needed to develop and implement psychotherapeutic approaches using eastern insights, and to empirically test their effectiveness.

Frequent Preservation of Neurologic Function in Brain Death and Brainstem Death Entails False-Positive Misdiagnosis and Cerebral Perfusion

Some patients who have been diagnosed as "dead by neurologic criteria" continue to exhibit certain brain functions, most commonly, neuroendocrine functions. This preservation of neurologic function after the diagnosis of "brain death" or "brainstem death" is an ongoing source of controversy and concern in the medical, bioethics, and legal literatures. Most obviously, if some brain function persists, then it is not the case that all functions of the entire brain have ceased and hence, declaring such a patient to be "dead" would be a false positive, in any nation with so-called "whole brain death" laws. Furthermore, and perhaps more concerning, the preservation of any brain function necessarily entails the preservation of some amount of brain perfusion, thereby raising the concern as to whether additional areas of neural tissue may remain viable, including areas in the brainstem. These and other considerations cast significant doubt on the reliability of diagnosing either "brain death" or "brainstem death."

Circadian clock organization in the retina: From clock components to rod and cone pathways and visual function

Circadian (24-h) clocks are cell-autonomous biological oscillators that orchestrate many aspects of our physiology on a daily basis. Numerous circadian rhythms in mammalian and non-mammalian retinas have been observed and the presence of an endogenous circadian clock has been demonstrated. However, how the clock and associated rhythms assemble into pathways that support and control retina function remains largely unknown. Our goal here is to review the current status of our knowledge and evaluate recent advances. We describe many previously-observed retinal rhythms, including circadian rhythms of morphology, biochemistry, physiology, and gene expression. We evaluate evidence concerning the location and molecular machinery of the retinal circadian clock, as well as consider findings that suggest the presence of multiple clocks. Our primary focus though is to describe in depth circadian rhythms in the light responses of retinal neurons with an emphasis on clock control of rod and cone pathways. We examine evidence that specific biochemical mechanisms produce these daily light response changes. We also discuss evidence for the presence of multiple circadian retinal pathways involving rhythms in neurotransmitter activity, transmitter receptors, metabolism, and pH. We focus on distinct actions of two dopamine receptor systems in the outer retina, a dopamine D4 receptor system that mediates circadian control of rod/cone gap junction coupling and a dopamine D1 receptor system that mediates non-circadian, light/dark adaptive regulation of gap junction coupling between horizontal cells. Finally, we evaluate the role of circadian rhythmicity in retinal degeneration and suggest future directions for the field of retinal circadian biology.

Self-perception of cognitive functions in patients with neurological impairments as measured against a translated Cognitive Change Index

The primary purpose of the study was to compare the results of neuropsychological assessments with results obtained using a translated Cognitive Change Index (CCI) on patients with diagnosed brain pathology. Our study included 54 patients diagnosed with neurologic pathology (stroke, TBI, or brain tumor) at the University Rehabilitation Institute Soca (average age = 51 years, SD = 15 years). The results of neuropsychological evaluations and anamnestic data were also obtained for the clinical subsample. Confirmatory factor analysis of the translated CCI performed on responses of 151 normative elderly participants supported a one-factor structure of the questionnaire. Cronbach's α was 0.77 in the clinical sample. A significant correlation was found between lower scores for attention and visual abilities using objective measurement tools and a person's self-assessment of impairment in their own cognitive functions (score on CCI). Individuals can perceive that their attention and visual abilities are impaired when those abilities also score low in diagnostic tests.

The fetal pain paradox

Controversy exists as to when conscious pain perception in the fetus may begin. According to the hypothesis of cortical necessity, thalamocortical connections, which do not form until after 24-28 weeks gestation, are necessary for conscious pain perception. However, anesthesiologists and neonatologists treat age-matched neonates as both conscious and pain-capable due to observable and measurable behavioral, hormonal, and physiologic indicators of pain. In preterm infants, these multimodal indicators of pain are uncontroversial, and their presence, despite occurring prior to functional thalamocortical connections, has guided the use of analgesics in neonatology and fetal surgery for decades. However, some medical groups state that below 24 weeks gestation, there is no pain capacity. Thus, a paradox exists in the disparate acknowledgment of pain capability in overlapping patient populations. Brain networks vary by age. During the first and second trimesters, the cortical subplate, a unique structure that is present only during fetal and early neonatal development, forms the first cortical network. In the third trimester, the cortical plate assumes this function. According to the subplate modulation hypothesis, a network of connections to the subplate and subcortical structures is sufficient to facilitate conscious pain perception in the fetus and the preterm neonate prior to 24 weeks gestation. Therefore, similar to other fetal and neonatal systems that have a transitional phase (i.e., circulatory system), there is now strong evidence for transitional developmental phases of fetal and neonatal pain circuitry.

Awareness and consciousness in humans and animals – neural and behavioral correlates in an evolutionary perspective

Awareness or consciousness in the context of stimulus perception can directly be assessed in well controlled test situations with humans via the persons’ reports about their subjective experiences with the stimuli. Since we have no direct access to subjective experiences in animals, their possible awareness or consciousness in stimulus perception tasks has often been inferred from behavior and cognitive abilities previously observed in aware and conscious humans. Here, we analyze published human data primarily on event-related potentials and brain-wave generation during perception and responding to sensory stimuli and extract neural markers (mainly latencies of evoked-potential peaks and of gamma-wave occurrence) indicating that a person became aware or conscious of the perceived stimulus. These neural correlates of consciousness were then applied to sets of corresponding data from various animals including several species of mammals, and one species each of birds, fish, cephalopods, and insects. We found that the neural markers from studies in humans could also successfully be applied to the mammal and bird data suggesting that species in these animal groups can become subjectively aware of and conscious about perceived stimuli. Fish, cephalopod and insect data remained inconclusive. In an evolutionary perspective we have to consider that both awareness of and consciousness about perceived stimuli appear as evolved, attention-dependent options added to the ongoing neural activities of stimulus processing and action generation. Since gamma-wave generation for functional coupling of brain areas in aware/conscious states is energetically highly cost-intensive, it remains to be shown which animal species under which conditions of lifestyle and ecological niche may achieve significant advantages in reproductive fitness by drawing upon these options. Hence, we started our discussion about awareness and consciousness in animals with the question in how far these expressions of brain activity are necessary attributes for perceiving stimuli and responding in an adaptive way.

Towards an animal model of consciousness based on the platform theory

The evolution of intellectual capacities has brought forth a continuum of consciousness levels subserved by neuronal networks of varying complexity. Brain pathologies, neurodegenerative, and mental diseases affect conscious cognition and behavior. Although impairments in consciousness are among the most devastating consequences of neurological and mental diseases, valid and reliable animal models of consciousness, that could be used for preclinical research are missing. The platform theory holds that the brain enters a conscious operation mode, whenever mental representations of stimuli, associations, concepts, memories, and experiences are effortfully maintained (in working memory) and actively manipulated. We used the platform theory as a framework and evaluation standard to categorize behavioral paradigms with respect to the level of consciousness involved in task performance. According to the platform theory, a behavioral paradigm involves conscious cognitive operations, when the problem posed is unexpected, novel or requires the maintenance and manipulation of a large amount of information to perform cognitive operations on them. Conscious cognitive operations are associated with a relocation of processing resources and the redirection of attentional focus. A consciousness behavioral test battery is proposed that is composed of tests which are assumed to require higher levels of consciousness as compared to other tasks and paradigms. The consciousness test battery for rodents includes the following tests: Working memory in the radial arm maze, episodic-like memory, prospective memory, detour test, and operant conditioning with concurrent variable-interval variable-ratio schedules. Performance in this test battery can be contrasted with the performance in paradigms and tests that require lower levels of consciousness. Additionally, a second more comprehensive behavioral test battery is proposed to control for behavioral phenotypes not related to consciousness. Our theory could serve as a guidance for the decryption of the neurobiological basis of consciousness.

Sliding Scale Theory of Attention and Consciousness/Unconsciousness

Attention defined as focusing on a unit of information plays a prominent role in both consciousness and the cognitive unconscious, due to its essential role in information processing. Existing theories of consciousness invariably address the relationship between attention and conscious awareness, ranging from attention is not required to crucial. However, these theories do not adequately or even remotely consider the contribution of attention to the cognitive unconscious. A valid theory of consciousness must also be a robust theory of the cognitive unconscious, a point rarely if ever considered. Current theories also emphasize human perceptual consciousness, primarily visual, despite evidence that consciousness occurs in diverse animal species varying in cognitive capacity, and across many forms of perceptual and thought consciousness. A comprehensive and parsimonious perspective applicable to the diversity of species demonstrating consciousness and the various forms—sliding scale theory of attention and consciousness/unconsciousness—is proposed with relevant research reviewed. Consistent with the continuous organization of natural events, attention occupies a sliding scale in regards to time and space compression. Unconscious attention in the form of the “cognitive unconscious” is time and spaced diffused, whereas conscious attention is tightly time and space compressed to the present moment. Due to the special clarity derived from brief and concentrated signals, the tight time and space compression yields conscious awareness as an emergent property. The present moment enhances the time and space compression of conscious attention, and contributes to an evolutionary explanation of conscious awareness.

Consciousness Beyond Neural Fields: Expanding the Possibilities of What Has Not Yet Happened

In the field theories in physics, any particular region of the presumed space-time continuum and all interactions between elementary objects therein can be objectively measured and/or accounted for mathematically. Since this does not apply to any of the field theories, or any other neural theory, of consciousness, their explanatory power is limited. As discussed in detail herein, the matter is complicated further by the facts than any scientifically operational definition of consciousness is inevitably partial, and that the phenomenon has no spatial dimensionality. Under the light of insights from research on meditation and expanded consciousness, chronic pain syndrome, healthy aging, and eudaimonic well-being, we may conceive consciousness as a source of potential energy that has no clearly defined spatial dimensionality, but can produce significant changes in others and in the world, observable in terms of changes in time. It is argued that consciousness may have evolved to enable the human species to generate such changes in order to cope with unprecedented and/or unpredictable adversity. Such coping could, ultimately, include the conscious planning of our own extinction when survival on the planet is no longer an acceptable option.

Comparative connectomics of the primate social brain

Social interaction is thought to provide a selection pressure for human intelligence, yet little is known about its neurobiological basis and evolution throughout the primate lineage. Recent advances in neuroimaging have enabled whole brain investigation of brain structure, function, and connectivity in humans and non-human primates (NHPs), leading to a nascent field of comparative connectomics. However, linking social behavior to brain organization across the primates remains challenging. Here, we review the current understanding of the macroscale neural mechanisms of social behaviors from the viewpoint of system neuroscience. We first demonstrate an association between the number of cortical neurons and the size of social groups across primates, suggesting a link between neural information-processing capacity and social capabilities. Moreover, by capitalizing on recent advances in species-harmonized functional MRI, we demonstrate that portions of the mirror neuron system and default-mode networks, which are thought to be important for representation of the other's actions and sense of self, respectively, exhibit similarities in functional organization in macaque monkeys and humans, suggesting possible homologies. With respect to these two networks, we describe recent developments in the neurobiology of social perception, joint attention, personality and social complexity. Together, the Human Connectome Project (HCP)-style comparative neuroimaging, hyperscanning, behavioral, and other multi-modal investigations are expected to yield important insights into the evolutionary foundations of human social behavior.

The Neural Correlates of Access Consciousness and Phenomenal Consciousness Seem to Coincide and Would Correspond to a Memory Center, an Activation Center and Eight Parallel Convergence Centers

An increasing number of authors suggest that the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) have no selective, executive, or metacognitive function. It is believed that attention unconsciously selects the contents that will become conscious. Consciousness would have only the fundamental function of transforming the selected contents into a format easily used by high-level processors, such as working memory, language, or autobiographical memory. According to Dehaene, the neural correlates (NC) of access consciousness (AC; cognitive consciousness) constitute a widespread network in the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices. While Tononi localized the correlates of phenomenal consciousness (PC; subjective consciousness) to a posterior “hot zone” in the temporo-parietal cortex. A careful examination of the works of these two groups leads to the conclusion that the correlates of access and PC coincide. The two consciousnesses are therefore two faces of the same single consciousness with both its cognitive and subjective contents. A review of the literature of the pathology called “neglect” confirms that the common correlates include 10: a memory center, an activation center, and eight parallel centers. From study of the “imagery” it can be deduced that these eight parallel centers would operate as points of convergence in the third person linking the respective eight sensory-motor-emotional areas activated by external perceptions and the corresponding memories of these perceptions deposited in the memory center. The first four centers of convergence appear in the most evolved fish and gradually reach eight in humans.

The SEEKING Drive and Its Fixation: A Neuro-Psycho-Evolutionary Approach to the Pathology of Addiction

Neuro-ethological studies conducted by Panksepp and his colleagues have provided an understanding of how the activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic (ML DA) system leads to the emotional disposition to SEEK/Explore, which is involved in all appetitive motivated behavior and mental activity. In pathological addiction phenomena, this emotional disposition “fixes” itself on certain obsessive-compulsive habits, losing its versatility and its natural predisposition to spontaneous and unconditioned activation. Overall, the result is a consistent disinterest in everything that is not the object of addiction. From a neuro-psycho-evolutionary point of view, the predisposition to develop addictive behavior can be attributed to a loss of “functional autonomy” of the SEEKING/Explorative disposition. Indeed, as shown by animal and human studies, the tendency to be conditioned by situations and contexts that provide an immediate reward can be closely related to a deficit in the tonic endogenous activity of the ML DA-SEEKING system.

Neural correlates of consciousness and related disorders: From phenotypic descriptors of behavioral and relative consciousness to cortico-subcortical circuitry

We report a review of medical aspects of the consciousness. The behavioral dimension, phenotypic descriptors, relative consciousness and neural correlates of consciousness and related disorders were addressed successively in a holistic and chronological approach. Consciousness is relative, specific to each individual across time and space. Historically defined as the perception of the self and the environment, it cannot be separated from behaviors, entailing an idea of conscious behavior with metapractic and metagnostic aspects. Observation of spontaneous and evoked overt behavior distinguishes three main types of disorder of consciousness (DoC): coma, vegetative state or unresponsive wakefulness, and minimally conscious or relationally impoverished state. Modern functional exploration techniques, such as imaging, increase the understanding of DoCs and consciousness. Whether consciousness is a superior function and/or an instrumental function is discussed. Neural correlates can be subdivided into two wakefulness pathways (superior thalamic cholinergic and inferior extra-thalamic), and cortico-subcortical circuitry. The deep brain structures are those described in the well-known sensorimotor, associative and limbic loops, as illustrated in the mesolimbic model of DoC. The cortices can be segregated into several overlapping networks: (1) a global workspace including thalamo-cortical loops; (2) the default mode network (DMN) and related intrinsic connectivity networks (i.e., central executive, medial DMN and salience networks); (3) a 3-fold network comprising the fronto-parietal control system and its dorsal and ventral attentional sub-networks, the fronto-parietal executive control network, and the cingulo-opercular salience network; (4) the internal and external cortices, respectively medial, turned toward the self, and lateral, turned toward the environment. The network dynamics is the reflection of consciousness, notably anticorrelations such as the decrease in activity of the posterior cingulate-precuneus regions during attentional tasks. Thanks to recent advances in DoC pathophysiology, further significative therapeutic progress is expected, taking into account the societal context. This depends notably on the dissemination of medical knowledge and its transfer to a wider public.

An Overview of Studies Demonstrating that ex vivo Neuronal Networks Display Multiple Complex Behaviors: Emergent Properties of Nearest-Neighbor Interactions of Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurons

The responsiveness of the human nervous system ranges from the basic sensory interpretation and motor regulation to so-called higher-order functions such as emotion and consciousness. Aspects of higher-order functions are displayed by other mammals and birds. In efforts to understand how neuronal interaction can generate such a diverse functionality, murine embryonic cortical neurons were cultured on Petri dishes containing multi-electrode arrays that allowed recording and stimulation of neuronal activity. Despite the lack of major architectural features that govern nervous system development in situ, this overview of multiple studies demonstrated that these 2-dimensional ex vivo neuronal networks nevertheless recapitulate multiple key aspects of nervous system development and activity in situ, including density-dependent, the spontaneous establishment of a functional network that displayed complex signaling patterns, and responsiveness to environmental stimulation including generation of appropriate motor output and long-term potentiation. These findings underscore that the basic interplay of excitatory and inhibitory neuronal activity underlies all aspects of nervous system functionality. This reductionist system may be useful for further examination of neuronal function under developmental, homeostatic, and neurodegenerative conditions.

Consciousness and the rabbit holes of delirium

Delirium is a common disorder in hospitalized older adults and the defining characteristic is a disturbance of consciousness. Unfortunately, there are currently no testable measures of consciousness as pertains to its disruption in delirium. Not surprisingly rates of recognition of delirium suffer. Arguably, a greater understanding of the quantum of consciousness may improve delirium diagnosis through better diagnostic tools. Candidate dimensions of consciousness derived from fields of psychology, psychiatry, and philosophy are discussed and relevance to delirium explored. Based upon existing literature in the field of consciousness we identify the pre-reflective state, experiential awareness, and functional networks as candidate sites that may be affected in delirium. Opportunities for clinical instrument development and how these tools can be tested are discussed. We conclude that consciousness content may not hold to a unitary measurement, but facets of its integrity that are impacted in delirium are open to further exploration. Disorders in pre-reflective status, experiential awareness, and functional networks may represent the measurable "rabbit holes" of consciousness disturbance.

Towards a comparative science of emotion: Affect and consciousness in humans and animals

The componential view of human emotion recognises that affective states comprise conscious, behavioural, physiological, neural and cognitive elements. Although many animals display bodily and behavioural changes consistent with the occurrence of affective states similar to those seen in humans, the question of whether and in which species these are accompanied by conscious experiences remains controversial. Finding scientifically valid methods for investigating markers for the subjective component of affect in both humans and animals is central to developing a comparative understanding of the processes and mechanisms of affect and its evolution and distribution across taxonomic groups, to our understanding of animal welfare, and to the development of animal models of affective disorders. Here, contemporary evidence indicating potential markers of conscious processing in animals is reviewed, with a view to extending this search to include markers of conscious affective processing. We do this by combining animal-focused approaches with investigations of the components of conscious and non-conscious emotional processing in humans, and neuropsychological research into the structure and functions of conscious emotions.

Genetic architecture of subcortical brain structures in 38,851 individuals

Subcortical brain structures are integral to motion, consciousness, emotions and learning. We identified common genetic variation related to the volumes of the nucleus accumbens, amygdala, brainstem, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, putamen and thalamus, using genome-wide association analyses in almost 40,000 individuals from CHARGE, ENIGMA and UK Biobank. We show that variability in subcortical volumes is heritable, and identify 48 significantly associated loci (40 novel at the time of analysis). Annotation of these loci by utilizing gene expression, methylation and neuropathological data identified 199 genes putatively implicated in neurodevelopment, synaptic signaling, axonal transport, apoptosis, inflammation/infection and susceptibility to neurological disorders. This set of genes is significantly enriched for Drosophila orthologs associated with neurodevelopmental phenotypes, suggesting evolutionarily conserved mechanisms. Our findings uncover novel biology and potential drug targets underlying brain development and disease.

Origin and evolution of human consciousness

The study of the origin and evolution of consciousness presents several problems. The first problem concerns terminology. The word consciousness comes from the Latin term conscĭentĭa that means "knowledge shared with others." However, the term consciousness also refers to several other aspects involving both its levels (sleep, coma, dreams and waking state) and contents (subjective, phenomenal and objective). A second issue is the problem of other minds, namely, the possibility to establish whether others have minds very like our own. Moreover, human consciousness has been linked to three different forms of memory: procedural/implicit, semantic and episodic. All these different aspects of consciousness will be discussed in the first part of the chapter. In the second part, we discuss different neuroscientific theories on consciousness and examine how research from developmental psychology, clinical neurology (epilepsy, coma, vegetative state and minimal state of consciousness), neuropsychology (blindsight, agnosia, neglect, split-brain and ocular rivalry), and comparative neuropsychophysiology contribute to the study of consciousness. Finally, in the last part of the chapter we discuss the distinctive features of human consciousness and in particular the ability to travel mentally through time, the phenomenon of joint intentionality, theory of mind and language.

A Protein-Based, Water-Insoluble, and Bendable Polymer with Ionic Conductivity: A Roadmap for Flexible and Green Electronics

Proteins present an ecofriendly alternative to many of the synthetic components currently used in electronics. They can therefore in combination with flexibility and electroactivity uncover a range of new opportunities in the field of flexible and green electronics. In this study, silk-based ionic conductors are turned into stable thin films by embedding them with 2D nanoclay platelets. More specifically, this material is utilized to develop a flexible and ecofriendly motion-sensitive touchscreen device. The display-like sensor can readily transmit light, is easy to recycle and can monitor the motion of almost any part of the human body. It also displays a significantly lower sheet resistance during bending and stretching regimes than the values typically reported for conventional metallic-based conductors, and remains fully operational after mechanical endurance testing. Moreover, it can operate at high frequencies in the kilohertz (kHz) range under both normal and bending modes. Notably, our new technology is available through a simple one-step manufacturing technique and can therefore easily be extended to large-scale fabrication of electronic devices.

A Protein-Based, Water-Insoluble, and Bendable Polymer with Ionic Conductivity: A Roadmap for Flexible and Green Electronics

Proteins present an ecofriendly alternative to many of the synthetic components currently used in electronics. They can therefore in combination with flexibility and electroactivity uncover a range of new opportunities in the field of flexible and green electronics. In this study, silk-based ionic conductors are turned into stable thin films by embedding them with 2D nanoclay platelets. More specifically, this material is utilized to develop a flexible and ecofriendly motion-sensitive touchscreen device. The display-like sensor can readily transmit light, is easy to recycle and can monitor the motion of almost any part of the human body. It also displays a significantly lower sheet resistance during bending and stretching regimes than the values typically reported for conventional metallic-based conductors, and remains fully operational after mechanical endurance testing. Moreover, it can operate at high frequencies in the kilohertz (kHz) range under both normal and bending modes. Notably, our new technology is available through a simple one-step manufacturing technique and can therefore easily be extended to large-scale fabrication of electronic devices.

The 'Self' Aspects: the Sense of the Existence, Identification, and Location

The present article is limited to research studies focused on understanding the phenomenon and construction of the concept of 'Self.' When we look at one's experience of the Self, as a whole, it involves various components associated with different aspects like self-identification, self-location and the sense of the existence of oneself or the sense of Self. While exploring the Self phenomenon, many scientific studies consider only partial aspects of the experience, and hence any understanding resulting from such an evaluation makes it difficult to comment on the nature of the Self. We emphasize that while studying the Self, to understand it totally, one would need to include all the components of the Self. In this connection, we raise the following two theses: a) Ontologically, the Self is conceived as a sentient entity, the bearer of the "what it is like to be" type of feeling, and b) Phenomenologically, we do not have a direct apprehension of the Self, but experience various aspects of the Self through the Senses of Existence, Identification, and Location.

The "Instinct" of Imagination. A Neuro-Ethological Approach to the Evolution of the Reflective Mind and Its Application to Psychotherapy

Recent neuro-psychoanalytic literature has emphasized the view that our subjective identity rests on ancient subcortical neuro-psychic processes expressing unthinking forms of experience, which are “affectively intense without being known” (Solms and Panksepp, 2012). Devoid of internal representations, the emotional states of our “core-Self” (Panksepp, 1998b) are entirely “projected” towards the external world and tend to be discharged through instinctual action-patterns. However, due to the close connections between the subcortical and the cortical midline brain, the emotional drives may also find a way to be reflected within an intrinsic self-referential processing, evident when the organism is not actively engaged with the external world. Thanks to such endogenous functioning, the core-Self emotional dispositions are not overtly executed, but they are organized within coherent dynamic mental structures, called “feeling-toned complexes” by C. G. Jung and “unconscious phantasies” by Melanie Klein. The intrinsic self-referential dynamism of the “brainmind” originated from REM sleep arousal and then evolved in the resting-state activity of a complex of cortico-limbic midline brain structures (CMS), also called Default Mode Network (DMN). From our neuro-ethological perspective, it is sustained by an “introverted” SEEKING activity leading to the subjective exploration of internally constructed virtual scenarios. This “mind wandering” function, implicated in dreaming, fantasy processing, remembering and thinking, is the essence of the imaginative function and constitutes the first form of reflection, where intentions and drives gain a primordial form of conscious (but not self-conscious) representation. During postnatal development, this original (“archetypal”) imaginative function is slowly attuned in a relational “transitional” space and may be expressed first in non-verbal and eventually in abstract-verbal social communicative patterns. Our view has noticeable implications for psychotherapy. Instead of trying to directly modify interpersonal, extrinsic relationships (a top-down approach), dysfunctional emotional-relational patterns may be modified by a process in which the patient is helped to let-go of the perceived feeling-objects in favor of an immersion, via the actual feeling, from the superficial level of perception towards a void feeling-state, empty of images. Only starting from this “anoetic” feeling-state, the deep imaginal creative and re-structuring self-referential activity may be reactivated by a process of spontaneous imagination.

Autism Pathogenesis: The Superior Colliculus

After been exposed to the visual input, in the first year of life, the brain experiences subtle but massive changes apparently crucial for communicative/emotional and social human development. Its lack could be the explanation of the very high prevalence of autism in children with total congenital blindness. The present theory postulates that the superior colliculus is the key structure for such changes for several reasons: it dominates visual behavior during the first months of life; it is ready at birth for complex visual tasks; it has a significant influence on several hemispheric regions; it is the main brain hub that permanently integrates visual and non-visual, external and internal information (bottom-up and top-down respectively); and it owns the enigmatic ability to take non-conscious decisions about where to focus attention. It is also a sentinel that triggers the subcortical mechanisms which drive social motivation to follow faces from birth and to react automatically to emotional stimuli. Through indirect connections it also activates simultaneously several cortical structures necessary to develop social cognition and to accomplish the multiattentional task required for conscious social interaction in real life settings. Genetic or non-genetic prenatal or early postnatal factors could disrupt the SC functions resulting in autism. The timing of postnatal biological disruption matches the timing of clinical autism manifestations. Astonishing coincidences between etiologies, clinical manifestations, cognitive and pathogenic autism theories on one side and SC functions on the other are disclosed in this review. Although the visual system dependent of the SC is usually considered as accessory of the LGN canonical pathway, its imprinting gives the brain a qualitatively specific functions not supplied by any other brain structure.

Understanding the emergence of microbial consciousness: From a perspective of the Subject-Object Model (SOM)

Microorganisms demonstrate conscious-like intelligent behaviour, and this form of consciousness may have emerged from a quantum mediated mechanism as observed in cytoskeletal structures like the microtubules present in nerve cells which apparently have the architecture to quantum compute. This paper hypothesises the emergence of proto-consciousness in primitive cytoskeletal systems found in the microbial kingdoms of archaea, bacteria and eukarya. To explain this, we make use of the Subject-Object Model (SOM) of consciousness which evaluates the rise of the degree of consciousness to conscious behaviour in these systems supporting the hypothesis of emergence and propagation of conscious behaviour during the pre-Cambrian part of Earth's evolutionary history. Consciousness as proto-consciousness or sentience computed via primitive cytoskeletal structures substantiates as a driver for the intelligence observed in the microbial world during this period ranging from single-cellular to collective intelligence as a means to adapt and survive. The growth in complexity of intelligence, cytoskeletal system and adaptive behaviours are key to evolution, and thus supports the progression of the Lamarckian theory of evolution driven by quantum mediated proto-consciousness to consciousness as described in the SOM of consciousness.

Episodic memory and consciousness in antisocial personality disorder and conduct disorder

Episodic memory is one of the most significant sources of information of humans. It entails cooperative and linguistic skills and, as Mahr & Csibra (M&C) note, the capacity to ground veridical beliefs about the past. In some psychiatric disorders (antisocial personality disorder and conduct disorder), it was found that the habit of lying is associated with episodic memory and consciousness deficits.

The Affective Core of the Self: A Neuro-Archetypical Perspective on the Foundations of Human (and Animal) Subjectivity

Psychologists usually considered the "Self" as an object of experience appearing when the individual perceives its existence within the conscious field. In accordance with such a view, the self-representing capacity of the human mind has been related to corticolimbic learning processes taking place within individual development. On the other hand, Carl Gustav Jung considered the Self as the core of our personality, in its conscious and unconscious aspects, as well as in its actual and potential forms. According to Jung, the Self originates from an inborn dynamic structure integrating the essential drives of our "brain-mind," and leading both to instinctual behavioral actions and to archetypal psychological experiences. Interestingly, recent neuroethological studies indicate that our subjective identity rests on ancient neuropsychic processes that humans share with other animals as part of their inborn constitutional repertoire. Indeed, brain activity within subcortical midline structures (SCMSs) is intrinsically related to the emergence of prototypical affective states, that not only influence our behavior in a flexible way, but alter our conscious field, giving rise to specific feelings or moods, which constitute the first form of self-orientation in the world. Moreover, such affective dynamics play a central role in the organization of individual personality and in the evolution of all other (more sophisticated) psychological functions. Therefore, on the base of the convergence between contemporary cutting-edge scientific research and some psychological intuitions of Jung, we intend here to explore the first neuroevolutional layer of human mind, that we call the affective core of the Self.

Neurobiology as Information Physics

This article reviews thermodynamic relationships in the brain in an attempt to consolidate current research in systems neuroscience. The present synthesis supports proposals that thermodynamic information in the brain can be quantified to an appreciable degree of objectivity, that many qualitative properties of information in systems of the brain can be inferred by observing changes in thermodynamic quantities, and that many features of the brain's anatomy and architecture illustrate relatively simple information-energy relationships. The brain may provide a unique window into the relationship between energy and information.

Understanding of anesthesia - Why consciousness is essential for life and not based on genes

Anesthesia and consciousness represent 2 mysteries not only for biology but also for physics and philosophy. Although anesthesia was introduced to medicine more than 160 y ago, our understanding of how it works still remains a mystery. The most prevalent view is that the human brain and its neurons are necessary to impose the effects of anesthetics. However, the fact is that all life can be anesthesized. Numerous theories have been generated trying to explain the major impact of anesthetics on our human-specific consciousness; switching it off so rapidly, but no single theory resolves this enduring mystery. The speed of anesthetic actions precludes any direct involvement of genes. Lipid bilayers, cellular membranes, and critical proteins emerge as the most probable primary targets of anesthetics. Recent findings suggest, rather surprisingly, that physical forces underlie both the anesthetic actions on living organisms as well as on consciousness in general.

Alien Mindscapes-A Perspective on the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

Advances in planetary and space sciences, astrobiology, and life and cognitive sciences, combined with developments in communication theory, bioneural computing, machine learning, and big data analysis, create new opportunities to explore the probabilistic nature of alien life. Brought together in a multidisciplinary approach, they have the potential to support an integrated and expanded Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI (1) ), a search that includes looking for life as we do not know it. This approach will augment the odds of detecting a signal by broadening our understanding of the evolutionary and systemic components in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI), provide more targets for radio and optical SETI, and identify new ways of decoding and coding messages using universal markers.

KEY WORDS

SETI-Astrobiology-Coevolution of Earth and life-Planetary habitability and biosignatures. Astrobiology 16, 661-676.

Determination of Death: A Scientific Perspective on Biological Integration

Human life is operationally defined by the onset and cessation of organismal function. At postnatal stages of life, organismal integration critically and uniquely requires a functioning brain. In this article, a distinction is drawn between integrated and coordinated biologic activities. While communication between cells can provide a coordinated biologic response to specific signals, it does not support the integrated function that is characteristic of a living human being. Determining the loss of integrated function can be complicated by medical interventions (i.e., "life support") that uncouple elements of the natural biologic hierarchy underlying our intuitive understanding of death. Such medical interventions can allow living human beings who are no longer able to function in an integrated manner to be maintained in a living state. In contrast, medical intervention can also allow the cells and tissues of an individual who has died to be maintained in a living state. To distinguish between a living human being and living human cells, two criteria are proposed: either the persistence of any form of brain function or the persistence of autonomous integration of vital functions. Either of these criteria is sufficient to determine a human being is alive.

On the time course of short-term forgetting: a human experimental model for the sense of balance

The primary aim of this study was to establish whether the decline of the memory of an angular displacement, detected by the semicircular canals, is best characterized by an exponential function or by a power function. In 27 subjects a conflict was created between the semicircular canals and the graviceptive systems. Subjects were seated, facing forwards, in the gondola of a large centrifuge. The centrifuge was accelerated from stationary to 2.5Gz. While the swing out of the gondola (66°) during acceleration constitutes a frontal plane angular-displacement stimulus to the semicircular canals, the graviceptive systems persistently signal that the subject is upright. During 6 min at 2.5Gz the perceived head and body position was recorded; in darkness the subject repeatedly adjusted the orientation of a luminous line so that it appeared to be horizontal. Acceleration of the centrifuge induced a sensation of tilt which declined with time in a characteristic way. A three-parameter exponential function (Y = Ae(-bt) + C) and a power function (Y = At(-b) + C) were fitted to the data points. The inter-individual variability was considerable. In the vast majority of cases, however, the exponential function provided a better fit (in terms of RMS error) than the power function. The mean exponential function was: y = 27.8e(-0.018t) + 0.5°, where t is time in seconds. Findings are discussed with connection to possible underlying neural mechanisms; in particular, the head-direction system and short-term potentiation and persistent action potential firing in the hippocampus are considered.