Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation

Effects of fMRI neurofeedback of right inferior frontal cortex on inhibitory brain activation in children with ADHD

We aimed to replicate previous effects of functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback (fMRI-NF) in right inferior frontal cortex (rIFC) on IFC activation during a Stop Task in a larger group of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The present double-blind, randomized controlled trial tested the effects of 15 runs of active versus sham fMRI-NF of rIFC on performance and activation associated with successful and failed inhibition versus Go trials during a tracking Stop task in 88 boys with ADHD (44 active; 44 sham), controlling for age and medication status. No significant group-by-time interaction effects were observed for performance or brain activation during the successful stop trials, and post hoc analysis showed very low numbers of active fMRI-NF learners. Nevertheless, during error monitoring, there was a significant group-by-time interaction effect on post-error reaction time slowing and in left IFC activation, which were both increased after active compared to sham fMRI-NF. The findings are in line with our previous observation of left IFC upregulation after fMRI-NF of rIFC relative to active fMRI-NF of parahippocampal gyrus. This highlights the potentially wider regional effects that fMRI-NF of a particular self-control target region has on other self-regulatory regions in ADHD. This article is part of the theme issue 'Neurofeedback: new territories and neurocognitive mechanisms of endogenous neuromodulation'.

Neurobiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: historical challenges and emerging frontiers

Extensive investigations spanning multiple levels of inquiry, from genetic to behavioural studies, have sought to unravel the mechanistic foundations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with the aspiration of developing efficacious treatments for this condition. Despite these efforts, the pathogenesis of ADHD remains elusive. In this Review, we reflect on what has been learned about ADHD while also providing a framework that may serve as a roadmap for future investigations. We emphasize that ADHD is a highly heterogeneous disorder with multiple aetiologies that necessitates a multifactorial dimensional phenotype, rather than a fixed dichotomous conceptualization. We highlight new findings that suggest a more brain-wide, 'global' view of the disorder, rather than the traditional localizationist framework, which asserts that a limited set of brain regions or networks underlie ADHD. Last, we underscore how underpowered studies that have aimed to associate neurobiology with ADHD phenotypes have long precluded the field from making progress. However, a new age of ADHD research with refined phenotypes, advanced methods, creative study designs and adequately powered investigations is beginning to put the field on a good footing. Indeed, the field is at a promising juncture to advance the neurobiological understanding of ADHD and fulfil the promise of clinical utility.

The Growing Little Brain: Cerebellar Functional Development from Cradle to School

Despite the cerebellum's crucial role in brain functions, its early development, particularly in relation to the cerebrum, remains poorly understood. Here, we examine cerebellocortical connectivity using over 1,000 high-quality resting-state functional MRI scans of children from birth to 60 months. By mapping cerebellar topography with fine temporal detail for the first time, we show the hierarchical and contralateral organization of cerebellocortical connectivity from birth. We observe dynamic shifts in cerebellar network gradients, which become more focal with age while maintaining stable anchor points similar to adults, highlighting the cerebellum's evolving yet stable role in functional integration during early development. Our findings provide the first evidence of cerebellar connections to higher-order networks at birth, which generally strengthen with age, emphasizing the cerebellum's early role in cognitive processing beyond sensory and motor functions. Our study provides insights into early cerebellocortical interactions, reveals functional asymmetry and sexual dimorphism in cerebellar development, and lays the groundwork for future research on cerebellum-related disorders in children.

Exploring the associations between symptom severity, metacognition, problematic social media use and cyberbullying in treatment naïve adolescents with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder

This study investigates the relationship between ADHD symptom severity, metacognition, problematic social media use, and cyberbullying/cybervictimization in treatment-naïve adolescents. Understanding these relationships is vital for enhancing ADHD intervention strategies. Using a cross-sectional design, 97 adolescents meeting DSM-5 criteria for ADHD without any comorbidity and 97 healthy controls were assessed. Measures included the Metacognitions Questionnaire for Children, Social Media Disorder Scale, Revised Cyberbullying Inventory-II, and Revised Conners' Parent Rating Scale-Short. The comparisons were performed with independent samples' t tests and the associations were estimated by using Pearson's bivariate correlations and multiple regression analyses. Results revealed that adolescents with ADHD exhibited higher levels of dysfunctional metacognitions, problematic social media use, cyberbullying, and cybervictimization compared to controls. Regression analysis showed significant positive associations between ADHD symptoms, specific metacognitions (e.g., positive meta-worry, cognitive monitoring), and problematic social media use. This study, the first of its kind among treatment-naïve ADHD adolescents, provides valuable insights into the relationship between ADHD symptoms and particular metacognitions (i.e. positive meta-worry, cognitive monitoring) and problematic social media use. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of ADHD in adolescence and may inform the development of targeted prevention and treatment strategies, particularly relevant given adolescents' susceptibility to social media's influence and their potential for cognitive flexibility in rehabilitation contexts.

Interference of default mode on attention networks in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and its association with genetic variants and treatment outcomes

AIMS

Altered brain functional connectivity has been proposed as the neurobiological underpinnings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and the default mode interference hypothesis is one of the most popular neuropsychological models. Here, we explored whether this hypothesis is supported in adults with ADHD and the association with high-risk genetic variants and treatment outcomes.

METHODS

Voxel-based whole-brain connectome analysis was conducted on resting-state functional MRI data from 84 adults with ADHD and 89 healthy controls to identify functional connectivity substrates corresponding to ADHD-related alterations. The candidate genetic variants and 12-week cognitive behavioral therapy data were leveraged from the same population to assess these associations.

RESULTS

We detected breakdowns of functional connectivity in the precuneus and left middle temporal gyrus in adults with ADHD, with exact contributions from decreased connectivity within the default mode, dorsal and ventral attention networks, as well as increased connectivity among them with the middle temporal gyrus serving as a crucial 'bridge'. Additionally, significant associations between the altered functional connectivity and genetic variants in both MAOA and MAOB were detected. Treatment restored brain function, with the amelioration of connectivity of the middle temporal gyrus, accompanied by improvements in ADHD core symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the interference of default mode on attention in adults with ADHD and its association with genetic risk variants and clinical management, providing insights into the underlying pathogenesis of ADHD and potential biomarkers for treatment evaluation.

Cool and hot executive function problems in young children: linking self-regulation processes to emerging clinical symptoms

Self-regulation (SR) difficulties are implicated in a wide range of disorders which develop in childhood, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiance disorder (ODD), anxiety and depression. However, the integration of the existing research evidence is challenging because of varying terminology and the wide range of tasks used, as well as the heterogeneity and comorbidity within and across diagnostic categories. The current study used the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework to guide the examination of different SR processes in young children showing a wide range of symptomatology. Children (aged 4-8) referred by teachers for moderate-to-high conduct, hyperactivity and/or emotional problems at school (assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) subscales; n = 212), and children in SDQ typical ranges (n = 30) completed computerised cognitive control and decision-making tasks. Parents completed questionnaires to assess ADHD, ODD, anxiety and depression symptoms (n = 191). Compared to children with no teacher-reported difficulties, those with moderate-to-high problems showed poorer visuomotor control and decision-making. A factor analysis revealed that task variables adhered to RDoC dimensions and predicted variance in specific disorders: difficulties in cognitive control predicted ADHD symptoms, low reward-seeking was associated with depression and high reward-seeking was associated with ODD. This study highlights how the assessment of cognitive processes positioned within the RDoC framework can inform our understanding of disorder-specific and transdiagnostic difficulties in SR which are associated with diverse clinical symptoms in children.

Role of visual brainwave entrainment on the resting state brainwaves of children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The relationship between brainwave oscillations and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-related cognitive challenges is a trending proposition in the field of Cognitive Neuroscience. Studies suggest the role of brainwave oscillations in the symptom expressions of ADHD-diagnosed children. Intervention studies have further suggested the scope of brain stimulation techniques in improving cognition. The current manuscript explored the effect of changes in the brainwaves post-sensory entrainment on cognitive performance of children. We calculated each participant's brainwave difference and ratios of theta, alpha, and beta power after the entrainment sessions. Further, we explored possible correlations between these values and the psychometric scores. The beta resting state showed the strongest association with selective attention performance of all participants. Theta-beta ratio (TBR) showed an inverse correlation with selective attention and working memory performances. The theta frequency was associated with decreased working performance in children without ADHD. Our findings also suggest a predominant role of TBR than the theta-alpha ratio in determining the cognitive performance of children with ADHD. The individual differences in the entrainment reception were attributed to the participant's age, IQ, and their innate baseline frequencies. The implications of our findings can initiate substantiating brainwave-based entrainment sessions as a therapeutic modality to improve cognition among children.

A quantitative analysis of fidgeting in ADHD and its relation to performance and sustained attention on a cognitive task

Introduction

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder where hyperactivity often manifests as fidgeting, a non-goal-directed motoric action. Many studies demonstrate fidgeting varies under different conditions as a self-regulating mechanism for attention and alertness during cognitively demanding tasks. Fidgeting has also been associated with reaction time variability. However, a lack of standard variables to define and quantify fidgeting can lead to discrepancies in data and interpretability issues across studies. Furthermore, little is known about fidgeting in adults with ADHD compared to youth. This study aims to design a framework to quantify meaningful fidgeting variables and to apply them to test the relation between fidgeting and performance on a cognitive task, the Flanker, in adults with ADHD.

Method

Our study included 70 adult participants diagnosed with ADHD, aged 18-50 years (30.5 ± 7.2 years). Screening included a structured clinical interview, childhood, current self and current observer ratings of ADHD symptoms. Actigraphy devices were attached to the left wrist and right ankle during completion of a cognitive control, attention task (the Flanker). Laboratory testing was subsequently completed on a single day. The relation between task performance, reaction time variability and fidgeting was examined.

Results and Discussion

Our analysis revealed increased fidgeting during correct trials as defined by our new variables, consistent with previous observations. Furthermore, differences in fidgeting were observed between early and later trials while the percentage of correct trials were not significantly different. This suggests a relation between the role of fidgeting and sustaining attention. Participants with low reaction time variability, that is, those with more consistent reaction times, fidgeted more during later trials. This observation supports the theory that fidgeting aids arousal and improves sustained attention. Finally, a correlation analysis using ADHD-symptom rating scales validated the relevance of the fidget variables in relation to ADHD symptom severity. These findings suggest fidgeting may be a compensatory mechanism that aids in sustained attention for those with ADHD, although alternative explanations exist.

Conclusion

Our study suggests that fidgeting may aid in sustained attention during the attention-demanding, cognitive control processes for adults with ADHD, with more fidgeting observed during correct trials and among participants with lower reaction time variability. Furthermore, the newly defined fidget variables were validated through a significant correlation with ADHD rating scales. By sharing our implementation of fidget variables, we hope to standardize and encourage further quantitative research into the role of fidgeting in ADHD.

The effects of chronic administration of stimulant and non-stimulant medications on executive functions in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with executive function deficits that are improved with medications. However, meta-analyses of stimulant effects on cognition have mostly tested single-dose effects, and there is no meta-analysis of non-stimulant effects. This systematic review and meta-analysis tested the clinically more relevant longer-term effects of Methylphenidate (20 studies; minimum 1 week) and Atomoxetine (8 studies; minimum 3 weeks) on reaction time, attention, inhibition, and working memory, searching papers on PubMed, Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, and PsycINFO. The meta-analysis of 18 studies in 1667 subjects showed that methylphenidate was superior to placebo in all cognitive domains with small to medium effect sizes (Hedges g of 0.34-0.59). The meta-analysis of atomoxetine included 7 studies in 829 subjects and showed no effects in working memory, but superior effects in the other domains with medium to large effect sizes (Hedge's g of 0.36-0.64). Meta-regression analysis showed no drug differences on cognitive effects. The meta-analyses show for the first time that chronic Methylphenidate and Atomoxetine have comparable effects of improving executive functions in people with ADHD.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) improves emotion regulation in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) typically exhibit difficulties in emotion regulation. It has been shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) are crucially involved in these deficient processes. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of electrical stimulation over the left dlPFC and right vmPFC on emotion regulation in children with ADHD. Twenty-four children with ADHD completed the Emotional Go/No-Go and Emotional 1-Back tasks while undergoing transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in three separate sessions, each with a different electrode placement: anodal dlPFC (F3)/cathodal vmPFC (Fp2), anodal vmPFC (Fp2)/cathodal dlPFC (F3), and sham stimulation. During both real tDCS conditions, the accuracy of pre-potent inhibitory control and working memory performance improved, but not speed. This study provides evidence that the left dlPFC and the right vmPFC are involved in emotion regulation in ADHD.

Could Nature Contribute to the Management of ADHD in Children? A Systematic Review

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder that is typically managed with pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions. In the general population, exposure to nature has been found to have robust beneficial effects on cognitive performance, including attention. With inattention being a factor of the symptomatology of individuals with ADHD, this provides a rationale to investigate the potential benefits of exposure to nature for this population. Four electronic databases (PubMED, PsycINFO, Embase, and Web of Science) were searched for empirical studies investigating the effects of nature on ADHD prevalence and/or symptom severity in populations of school-aged children. Key characteristics, methodologies, and outcomes of included studies were extracted and evaluated. Out of the 458 studies identified, 7 met the inclusion criteria. Despite the large heterogeneity in methodological approaches, the included articles consistently reported that exposure to nature is associated with reduced ADHD diagnoses and symptom severity. Furthermore, when several covariates, such as age, gender, annual household income, parental income, and education level, as well as several pre-natal factors, were controlled for, the relationship between nature and ADHD remained significant. The reviewed literature provides strong support for the benefits of exposure to nature on ADHD in school-aged children.

Novel genome-wide associations for effort valuation and psychopathology in children and adults

The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative was established by the US National Institute of Mental Health as a multilevel, disorder-agnostic framework for analysis of human psychopathology through designated domains and constructs, including the "Positive Valence Systems" domain focused on reward-related behavior. This study investigates the reward valuation subconstruct of "effort" and its association with genetic markers, functional neurobiological pathways, and polygenic risk scores for psychopathology in 1215 children aged 6-12 and their parents (n = 1044). All participants completed the effort expenditure for rewards task (EEfRT), which assesses "effort" according to two quantitative measures: hard-task choice and reward sensitivity. Genetic association analyses were undertaken in MAGMA, utilizing EEfRT outcome variables as genome-wide association studies phenotypes to compute SNP and gene-level associations. Genome-wide association analyses found two distinct genetic loci that were significantly associated with measures of reward sensitivity and a separate genetic locus associated with hard task choice. Gene-set enrichment analysis yielded significant associations between "effort" and multiple gene sets involved in reward processing-related pathways, including dopamine receptor signaling, limbic system and forebrain development, and biological response to cocaine. These results serve to establish "effort" as a relevant construct for understanding reward-related behavior at the genetic level and support the RDoC framework for assessing disorder-agnostic psychopathology.

Subcortico-Cortical Dysconnectivity in ADHD: A Voxel-Wise Mega-Analysis Across Multiple Cohorts

OBJECTIVE

A large body of functional MRI research has examined a potential role for subcortico-cortical loops in the pathogenesis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but has produced inconsistent findings. The authors performed a mega-analysis of six neuroimaging data sets to examine associations between ADHD diagnosis and traits and subcortico-cortical connectivity.

METHODS

Group differences were examined in the functional connectivity of four subcortical seeds in 1,696 youths with ADHD diagnoses (66.39% males; mean age, 10.83 years [SD=2.17]) and 6,737 unaffected control subjects (47.05% males; mean age, 10.33 years [SD=1.30]). The authors examined associations between functional connectivity and ADHD traits (total N=9,890; 50.3% males; mean age, 10.77 years [SD=1.96]). Sensitivity analyses were used to examine specificity relative to commonly comorbid internalizing and non-ADHD externalizing problems. The authors further examined results within motion-matched subsamples, and after adjusting for estimated intelligence.

RESULTS

In the group comparison, youths with ADHD showed greater connectivity between striatal seeds and temporal, fronto-insular, and supplementary motor regions, as well as between the amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, compared with control subjects. Similar findings emerged when ADHD traits were considered and when alternative seed definitions were adopted. Dominant associations centered on the connectivity of the caudate bilaterally. Findings were not driven by in-scanner motion and were not shared with commonly comorbid internalizing and externalizing problems. Effect sizes were small (largest peak d, 0.15).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this large-scale mega-analysis support established links with subcortico-cortical circuits, which were robust to potential confounders. However, effect sizes were small, and it seems likely that resting-state subcortico-cortical connectivity can capture only a fraction of the complex pathophysiology of ADHD.

Efficacy and safety of transcranial pulse stimulation in young adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot, randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial

Background

This is the first study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of transcranial pulse stimulation (TPS) for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among young adolescents in Hong Kong.

Methods

This double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled trial included a TPS group and a sham TPS group, encompassing a total of 30 subjects aged 12-17 years who were diagnosed with ADHD. Baseline measurements SNAP-IV, ADHD RS-IV, CGI and executive functions (Stroop tests, Digit Span) and post-TPS evaluation were collected. Both groups were assessed at baseline, immediately after intervention, and at 1-month and 3-month follow-ups. Repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to analyze data.

Results

The TPS group exhibited a 30% reduction in the mean SNAP-IV score at postintervention that was maintained at 1- and 3-month follow-ups.

Conclusion

TPS is an effective and safe adjunct treatment for the clinical management of ADHD.

Clinical trial registration

ClinicalTrials.Gov, identifier NCT05422274.

Efficacy and safety of established and off-label ADHD drug therapies for cognitive impairment or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in bipolar disorder: A systematic review by the ISBD Targeting Cognition Task Force

BACKGROUND

Abnormalities in dopamine and norepinephrine signaling are implicated in cognitive impairments in bipolar disorder (BD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This systematic review by the ISBD Targeting Cognition Task Force therefore aimed to investigate the possible benefits on cognition and/or ADHD symptoms and safety of established and off-label ADHD therapies in BD.

METHODS

We included studies of ADHD medications in BD patients, which involved cognitive and/or safety measures. We followed the procedures of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) 2020 statement. Searches were conducted on PubMed, Embase and PsycINFO from inception until June 2023. Two authors reviewed the studies independently using the Revised Cochrane Collaboration's Risk of Bias tool for Randomized trials.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies were identified (N = 2136), investigating armodafinil (k = 4, N = 1581), methylphenidate (k = 4, N = 84), bupropion (k = 4, n = 249), clonidine (k = 1, n = 70), lisdexamphetamine (k = 1, n = 25), mixed amphetamine salts (k = 1, n = 30), or modafinil (k = 2, n = 97). Three studies investigated cognition, four ADHD symptoms, and 10 the safety. Three studies found treatment-related ADHD symptom reduction: two involved methylphenidate and one amphetamine salts. One study found a trend towards pro-cognitive effects of modafinil on some cognitive domains. No increased risk of (hypo)mania was observed. Five studies had low risk of bias, eleven a moderate risk, and one a serious risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Methylphenidate or mixed amphetamine salts may improve ADHD symptoms in BD. However, there is limited evidence regarding the effectiveness on cognition. The medications produced no increased mania risk when used alongside mood stabilizers. Further robust studies are needed to assess cognition in BD patients receiving psychostimulant treatment alongside mood stabilizers.

The efficacy of real versus sham external Trigeminal Nerve Stimulation (eTNS) in youth with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) over 4 weeks: a protocol for a multi-centre, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group, phase IIb study (ATTENS)

BACKGROUND

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), if severe, is usually treated with stimulant or non-stimulant medication. However, users prefer non-drug treatments due to side effects. Alternative non-medication treatments have so far only shown modest effects. External trigeminal nerve stimulation (eTNS) is a minimal risk, non-invasive neuromodulation device, targeting the trigeminal system. It was approved for ADHD in 2019 by the USA Food and Drug administration (FDA) based on a small proof of concept randomised controlled trial (RCT) in 62 children with ADHD showing improvement of ADHD symptoms after 4 weeks of nightly real versus sham eTNS with minimal side effects. We present here the protocol of a larger confirmatory phase IIb study testing efficacy, longer-term persistency of effects and underlying mechanisms of action.

METHODS

A confirmatory, sham-controlled, double-blind, parallel-arm, multi-centre phase IIb RCT of 4 weeks of eTNS in 150 youth with ADHD, recruited in London, Portsmouth, and Southampton, UK. Youth with ADHD will be randomized to either real or sham eTNS, applied nightly for 4 weeks. Primary outcome is the change in the investigator-administered parent rated ADHD rating scale. Secondary outcomes are other clinical and cognitive measures, objective hyperactivity and pupillometry measures, side effects, and maintenance of effects over 6 months. The mechanisms of action will be tested in a subgroup of 56 participants using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before and after the 4-week treatment.

DISCUSSION

This multi-centre phase IIb RCT will confirm whether eTNS is effective in a larger age range of children and adolescents with ADHD, whether it improves cognition and other clinical measures, whether efficacy persists at 6 months and it will test underlying brain mechanisms. The results will establish whether eTNS is effective and safe as a novel non-pharmacological treatment for ADHD.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN82129325 on 02/08/2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN82129325 .

Impaired Cortico-Thalamo-Cerebellar Integration Across Schizophrenia, Bipolar II, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Patients Suggests Potential Neural Signatures for Psychiatric Illness

Understanding aberrant functional changes between brain regions has shown promise for characterizing and differentiating the symptoms associated with progressive psychiatric disorders. The functional integration between the thalamus and cerebellum significantly influences learning and memory in cognition. Observed in schizophrenic patients, dysfunction within the corticalthalamocerebellar (CTC) circuitry is linked to challenges in prioritizing, processing, coordinating, and responding to information. This study explored whether abnormal CTC functional network connectivity patterns are present across schizophrenia (SCHZ) patients, bipolar II disorder (BIPOL) patients, and ADHD patients by examining both task- and task-free conditions compared to healthy volunteers (HC). Leveraging fMRI data from 135 participants (39 HC, 27 SCHZ patients, 38 BIPOL patients, and 31 ADHD patients), we analyzed functional network connectivity (FNC) patterns across 115 cortical, thalamic, subcortical, and cerebellar regions of interest (ROIs). Guiding our investigation: First, do the brain regions of the CTC circuit exhibit distinct abnormal patterns at rest in SCHZ, ADHD, and BIPOL? Second, do working memory tasks in these patients engage common regions of the circuit in similar or unique patterns? Consistent with previous findings, our observations revealed FNC patterns constrained in the cerebellar, thalamic, striatal, hippocampal, medial prefrontal and insular cortices across all three psychiatric cohorts when compared to controls in both task and task-free conditions. Post hoc analysis suggested a predominance in schizophrenia and ADHD patients during rest, while the task condition demonstrated effects across all three disorders. Factor-by-covariance GLM MANOVA further specified regions associated with clinical symptoms and trait assessments. Our study provides evidence suggesting that dysfunctional CTC circuitry in both task-free and task-free conditions may be an important broader neural signature of psychiatric illness.

Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis A6 attenuates hippocampal damage and memory impairments in an ADHD rat model

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly accompanied by learning and memory deficits. This study aimed to demonstrate the effects of probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis A6 (BAA6) on behaviour and memory function in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). The results showed that BAA6 treatment ameliorated spatial working memory deficits and inhibited hippocampal neuron loss in SHRs. The levels of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and norepinephrine, and the brain derived neurotrophic factor increased and that of glutamate decreased in the brain tissue of SHRs after BAA6 administration. Moreover, BAA6 reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, and increased the levels of anti-inflammatory IL-10 and antioxidant glutathione in SHRs. 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing showed that BAA6 treatment changed the gut microbiota composition. BAA6 promoted beneficial Lactobacillus, Romboutsia, Blautia, and Turicibacter, and decreased the enrichment of bacterial genera such as Dietzia, Sporosarcina, Brevibacterium, NK4A214_group, Atopostipes, and Facklamia negatively associated with neurotransmitter release and anti-inflammatory effects in SHRs. Together, these results suggested that BAA6 improved memory function by ameliorating hippocampal damage, abnormal neurotransmitter release and cerebral inflammation by reshaping the gut microbiota in SHRs. This study provides a scientific basis for the development and application of BAA6 as a promising dietary intervention to reduce the risk of ADHD.

The Associations Between Sleep and Externalizing and Internalizing Problems in Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Empirical Findings, Clinical Implications, and Future Research Directions

Sleep problems are common in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Externalizing and internalizing problems contribute to dysfunction in youth with ADHD and are amplified by disrupted sleep. This objective of this article is to synthesize empirical studies that examined the associations between sleep and internalizing or externalizing problems in individuals with ADHD. The main findings are that sleep problems precede, predict, and significantly contribute to the manifestation of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems among children and adolescents with ADHD. Clinicians should assess sleep and integrate sleep interventions into the management of youth with ADHD.

Inattention symptom severity and cognitive processes in children at risk of ADHD: the moderating role of separation anxiety

Impairments in cognitive processes and their associations with dimensional measures of inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity and anxiety were examined in children at risk of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Children referred by teachers for exhibiting ADHD-type problems (n = 116; 43 meeting full diagnostic criteria for ADHD; 4-8 years) completed computerized tasks measuring episodic memory, response inhibition, visuomotor control and sustained attention, while parents were interviewed (DAWBA) to assess ADHD and anxiety symptoms. Of the 116 children assessed, 72% exhibited impaired cognitive processes; 47% had impaired visuomotor control, 37% impaired response inhibition, and 35% had impaired episodic memory. Correlational and hierarchical regression analyses using our final analytic sample (i.e., children who completed all cognitive tasks and a vocabulary assessment, n = 114) showed that poorer task performance and greater within-subject variability were significantly associated with more severe inattention symptoms but not with hyperactivity-impulsivity severity. Symptoms of separation anxiety, which were reported in over half of the sample, moderated associations between inattention and episodic memory, and between inattention and inhibition. Only children without separation anxiety showed significant correlations between ADHD symptoms and poor performance. However, separation anxiety had no moderating effect on associations between inattention and visuomotor control or sustaining attention. Children exhibiting signs of ADHD show impairments across a range of cognitive tasks. Further research to improve our understanding of these processes may be useful in the development of early interventions. Our results suggest that separation anxiety should be taken into account when considering interventions to address emerging neuropsychological deficits associated with this disorder.

Impaired monoamine neural system in the mPFC of SHRSP/Ezo as an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common childhood-onset psychiatric disorder. We investigated the effects of systemic administration of monoamine reuptake inhibitors on long-term potentiation (LTP) formation and monoamine release in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP)/Ezo, an animal model of ADHD, and its genetic control, Wistar Kyoto (WKY)/Ezo, to elucidate the functional changes in the mPFC monoamine neural system. Methylphenidate (dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA) reuptake inhibitor) and desipramine (NA reuptake inhibitor) improved LTP formation defects in the mPFC of SHRSP/Ezo, suggesting that NA or both DA and NA are required for improvement of impaired LTP. Methylphenidate increased mPFC DA in both WKY/Ezo and SHRSP/Ezo, but the increase was greater in the former. GBR-12909 (DA reuptake inhibitor) increased mPFC DA in WKY/Ezo but had no effect in SHRSP/Ezo. This may be because DA transporter in SHRSP/Ezo is functionally impaired and contributes less to DA reuptake, so its inhibition did not increase DA level. Meanwhile, basal DA levels in the mPFC of SHRSP/Ezo were paradoxically decreased. These results suggest that functional changes in the DA and NA neural system in the frontal lobe are involved in the pathology of ADHD.

Remote neurocognitive interventions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - Opportunities and challenges

Improving neurocognitive functions through remote interventions has been a promising approach to developing new treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). Remote neurocognitive interventions may address the shortcomings of the current prevailing pharmacological therapies for AD/HD, e.g., side effects and access barriers. Here we review the current options for remote neurocognitive interventions to reduce AD/HD symptoms, including cognitive training, EEG neurofeedback training, transcranial electrical stimulation, and external cranial nerve stimulation. We begin with an overview of the neurocognitive deficits in AD/HD to identify the targets for developing interventions. The role of neuroplasticity in each intervention is then highlighted due to its essential role in facilitating neuropsychological adaptations. Following this, each intervention type is discussed in terms of the critical details of the intervention protocols, the role of neuroplasticity, and the available evidence. Finally, we offer suggestions for future directions in terms of optimizing the existing intervention protocols and developing novel protocols.

Classifying Children with ADHD Based on Prefrontal Functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy Using Machine Learning

Objective

: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in children and adults characterized by cognitive and emotional self-control deficiencies. Previous functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) studies found significant group differences between ADHD children and healthy controls during cognitive flexibility tasks in several brain regions. This study aims to apply a machine learning approach to identify medication-naive ADHD patients and healthy control (HC) groups using task-based fNIRS data.

Methods

: fNIRS signals from 33 ADHD children and 39 HC during the Stroop task were analyzed. In addition, regularized linear discriminant analysis (RLDA) was used to identify ADHD individuals from healthy controls, and classification performance was evaluated.

Results

: We found that participants can be correctly classified in RLDA leave-one-out cross validation, with a sensitivity of 0.67, specificity of 0.93, and accuracy of 0.82.

Conclusion

: RLDA using only fNIRS data can effectively discriminate children with ADHD from HC. This study suggests the potential utility of the fNIRS signal as a diagnostic biomarker for ADHD children.

Working Memory-Related Neurofunctional Correlates Associated with the Frontal Lobe in Children with Familial vs. Non-Familial Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with high prevalence, heritability, and heterogeneity. Children with a positive family history of ADHD have a heightened risk of ADHD emergence, persistence, and executive function deficits, with the neural mechanisms having been under investigated. The objective of this study was to investigate working memory-related functional brain activation patterns in children with ADHD (with vs. without positive family histories (ADHD-F vs. ADHD-NF)) and matched typically developing children (TDC). Voxel-based and region of interest analyses were conducted on two-back task-based fMRI data of 362 subjects, including 186, 96, and 80 children in groups of TDC, ADHD-NF, and ADHD-F, respectively. Relative to TDC, both ADHD groups had significantly reduced activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). And the ADHD-F group demonstrated a significant positive association of left IFG activation with task reaction time, a negative association of the right IFG with ADHD symptomatology, and a negative association of the IFG activation laterality index with the inattention symptom score. These results suggest that working memory-related functional alterations in bilateral IFGs may play distinct roles in ADHD-F, with the functional underdevelopment of the left IFG significantly informing the onset of ADHD symptoms. Our findings have the potential to assist in tailored diagnoses and targeted interventions in children with ADHD-F.

Risks Associated With Undiagnosed ADHD and/or Autism: A Mixed-Method Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The two most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism (ASD)-(ASD/ADHD) strongly impact individuals' functions. This is worsened when individuals are undiagnosed and risks such as increased imprisonments, depression or drug misuse are often observed. This systematic review synthesizes the risks associated with late/undiagnosed ASD/ADHD.

METHODS

Four databases were searched (Medline, Scopus, PsychInfor, and Embase). Published studies exploring the impact of undiagnosed ASD/ADHD were included. Exclusion criteria included, lack of diagnosis status, studies not solely on ASD or ADHD, gray literature and studies not in English. The findings were summarize through a narrative synthesis.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies were identified, 14 on ADHD and three on ASD. The narrative synthesis identified three main themes: (1) Health, (2) Offending behavior, and (3) Day-to-day impact. The risks highlighted a significant impact on mental wellbeing and social interactions, higher risks of substance abuse, accidents and offending behavior as well as lower levels of income and education.

DISCUSSION

The findings suggest that undiagnosed ASD/ADHD is linked to many risks and negative outcomes affecting individuals, their families, and the wider society. The restricted number of studies on ASD are a limitation to the generalization of these findings Implications for research and practice are discussed, highlighting the importance of screening and acknowledging the possibility of ASD/ADHD in many settings such as psychiatric and forensic.

Single-dose effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on functional connectivity during an n-back task in boys with ADHD

RATIONALE

Working memory deficits and associated neurofunctional abnormalities are frequently reported in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methylphenidate and atomoxetine improve working memory performance and increase activation of regions under-functioning in ADHD. Additionally, methylphenidate has been observed to modulate functional networks involved in working memory. No research, however, has examined the effects of atomoxetine or compared the two drugs.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to test methylphenidate and atomoxetine effects on functional connectivity during working memory in boys with ADHD.

METHODS

We tested comparative effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on functional connectivity during the n-back task in 19 medication-naïve boys with ADHD (10-15 years old) relative to placebo and assessed potential normalisation effects of brain dysfunctions under placebo relative to 20 age-matched neurotypical boys. Patients were scanned in a randomised, double-blind, cross-over design under single doses of methylphenidate, atomoxetine, and placebo. Controls were scanned once, unmedicated.

RESULTS

Patients under placebo showed abnormally increased connectivity between right superior parietal gyrus (rSPG) and left central operculum/insula. This hyperconnectivity was not observed when patients were under methylphenidate or atomoxetine. Furthermore, under methylphenidate, patients showed increased connectivity relative to controls between right middle frontal gyrus (rMFG) and cingulo-temporo-parietal and striato-thalamic regions, and between rSPG and cingulo-parietal areas. Interrogating these networks within patients revealed increased connectivity between both rMFG and rSPG and right supramarginal gyrus under methylphenidate relative to placebo. Nonetheless, no differences across drug conditions were observed within patients at whole brain level. No drug effects on performance were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows shared modulating effects of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on parieto-insular connectivity but exclusive effects of methylphenidate on connectivity increases in fronto-temporo-parietal and fronto-striato-thalamic networks in ADHD.

Variations in Theta/Beta Ratio and Cognitive Performance in Subpopulations of Subjects with ADHD Symptoms: Towards Neuropsychological Profiling for Patient Subgrouping

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder appearing in childhood but remaining in many cases in adults. There are both pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches to treating ADHD, but they do not have the same efficacy in all subjects. Better knowledge of the neurophysiological basis of this disorder will allow for the design of more effective treatments. Studies performing qEEG analysis in children suggest the existence of subgroups of ADHD patients with different neurophysiological traits. There are fewer studies in adults, who might have undergone plastic changes allowing them to cope with ADHD symptoms along with brain maturation. Herein, we study cognitive performance and the theta/beta ratio in young adults with ADHD symptoms. We found that subjects with ADHD symptoms and low working memory performance (n = 30) present higher theta/beta ratios than controls (n = 40) at O2 and T6 in the eyes-closed condition, as well as a tendency toward a higher theta/beta ratio at O1 and Cz. Subjects with ADHD and high working memory performance (n = 50) do not differ from the controls in their theta/beta ratios at any derivation. Our results suggest that neuropsychological profiling could be useful for patient subgrouping. Further research will allow for the distinction of neuropsychological profiles and their neurophysiological correlates, leading to a better classification of ADHD subtypes, thus improving treatment selection.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the gut microbiome: An ecological perspective

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is an increasingly prevalent neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity. Symptoms emerge from underlying deficiencies in neurocircuitry, and recent research has suggested a role played by the gut microbiome. The gut microbiome is an ecosystem of interdependent taxa involved in an exponentially complex web of interactions, plus host gene and reaction pathways, some of which involve neurotransmitters with roles in ADHD neurocircuitry. Studies have analyzed the ADHD gut microbiome using macroscale metrics such as diversity and differential abundance, and have proposed several taxa as elevated or reduced in ADHD compared to Control. Few studies have delved into the complex underlying dynamics ultimately responsible for the emergence of such metrics, leaving a largely incomplete, sometimes contradictory, and ultimately inconclusive picture. We aim to help complete this picture by venturing beyond taxa abundances and into taxa relationships (i.e. cooperation and competition), using a publicly available gut microbiome dataset (targeted 16S, v3-4 region, qPCR) from an observational, case-control study of 30 Control (15 female, 15 male) and 28 ADHD (15 female, 13 male) undergraduate students. We first perform the same macroscale analyses prevalent in ADHD gut microbiome literature (diversity, differential abundance, and composition) to observe the degree of correspondence, or any new trends. We then estimate two-way ecological relationships by producing Control and ADHD Microbial Co-occurrence Networks (MCNs), using SparCC correlations (p ≤ 0.01). We perform community detection to find clusters of taxa estimated to mutually cooperate along with their centroids, and centrality calculations to estimate taxa most vital to overall gut ecology. We finally summarize our results, providing conjectures on how they can guide future experiments, some methods for improving our experiments, and general implications for the field.

Disrupted Small-World Networks in Children with Drug-Naïve Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A DTI-Based Network Analysis

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders, while the potential neurological mechanisms are poorly understood. To explore the alterations in the white matter (WM) structural connectome in children with drug-naïve ADHD, forty-nine ADHD and 51 age- and gender-matched typically developing (TD) children aged 6-14 years were enrolled. WM structural connectivity based on deterministic diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) was constructed in 90 cortical and subcortical regions, and topological parameters of the resulting graphs were calculated. Network metrics were compared between two groups. The concentration index and the total cancellation test scores of digit cancellation test were used to evaluate clinical symptom severity in ADHD. Then, a partial correlation analysis was performed to explore the relationship between significant topologic metrics and clinical symptom severity. Compared to TD group, ADHD showed an increase in the characteristic path length (Lp), normalized clustering coefficient (γ), small worldness (σ), and a decrease in the global efficiency (Eglob) (all p < 0.05). Furthermore, ADHD showed reduced nodal centralities mainly in the regions of default mode network (DMN), central executive network (CEN), basal ganglia, and bilateral thalamus (all p < 0.05). After performing Benjamini-Hochberg's procedure, only the left orbital part of superior frontal gyrus and the left caudate were statistically significant (p < 0.05, FDR-corrected). In addition, the concentration index of ADHD was negatively correlated with the nodal betweenness of the left orbital part of the middle frontal gyrus (r = -0.302, p = 0.042). Our findings revealed an ADHD-related shift of WM network topology toward "regularization" pattern, characterized by decreased global network integration, which is also reflected by changed nodal centralities involving DMN, CEN, basal ganglia, and bilateral thalamus. ADHD could be understood by examining the dysfunction of large-scale spatially distributed neural networks.

Transcranial random noise stimulation combined with cognitive training for treating ADHD: a randomized, sham-controlled clinical trial

Non-invasive brain stimulation has been suggested as a potential treatment for improving symptomology and cognitive deficits in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), the most common childhood neurodevelopmental disorder. Here, we examined whether a novel form of stimulation, high-frequency transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), applied with cognitive training (CT), may impact symptoms and neural oscillations in children with ADHD. We conducted a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial in 23 unmedicated children with ADHD, who received either tRNS over the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG) and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (lDLPFC) or sham stimulation for 2 weeks, combined with CT. tRNS + CT yielded significant clinical improvements (reduced parent-reported ADHD rating-scale scores) following treatment, compared to the control intervention. These improvements did not change significantly at a 3-week follow-up. Moreover, resting state (RS)-EEG periodic beta bandwidth of the extracted peaks was reduced in the experimental compared to control group immediately following treatment, with further reduction at follow-up. A lower aperiodic exponent, which reflects a higher cortical excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance and has been related to cognitive improvement, was seen in the experimental compared to control group. This replicates previous tRNS findings in adults without ADHD but was significant only when using a directional hypothesis. The experimental group further exhibited longer sleep onset latencies and more wake-up times following treatment compared to the control group. No significant group differences were seen in executive functions, nor in reported adverse events. We conclude that tRNS + CT has a lasting clinical effect on ADHD symptoms and on beta activity. These results provide a preliminary direction towards a novel intervention in pediatric ADHD.

Association Between Aggression and Differential Functional Activity of Neural Regions Implicated in Retaliation

OBJECTIVE

The goal of the current study was to determine the extent to which atypical neural responsiveness during retaliation is associated with observed aggression in youth in residential care.

METHOD

This functional magnetic resonance imaging study involved 83 adolescents (56 male and 27 female; mean age, 16.18 years) in residential care performing a retaliation task. Of the 83 adolescents, 42 displayed aggressive behavior within the first 3 months of residential care, whereas 41 did not. During the retaliation task, participants were offered either fair or unfair divisions of $20 pots (allocation phase) and could either accept the offer or reject it, and, by spending $1, $2, or $3, punish the partner (retaliation phase).

RESULTS

The study's main findings were that aggressive adolescent showed the following: reduced down-regulation of activity within regions involved in representing the expected value of choice options (left ventromedial prefrontal cortex and left posterior cingulate cortex) as a function of offer unfairness and retaliation level; and reduced recruitment of regions implicated in response control (right inferior frontal gyrus and bilateral anterior insular cortex) and associated fronto-parietal regions as a function of retaliation level. The aggressive adolescents were also significantly more likely to have been aggressive prior to residential care and showed a strong trend for increased retaliation on the task.

CONCLUSION

We suggest that individuals with a greater propensity for aggression show reduced representation of the negative consequences of retaliation and associated reduced recruitment of regions potentially involved in over-ruling these negative consequences to engage in retaliation.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure sex balance in the selection of non-human subjects. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. The author list of this paper includes contributors from the location and/or community where the research was conducted who participated in the data collection, design, analysis, and/or interpretation of the work. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our reference list. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our reference list. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group.

Exploring the Frontiers of Neuroimaging: A Review of Recent Advances in Understanding Brain Functioning and Disorders

Neuroimaging has revolutionized our understanding of brain function and has become an essential tool for researchers studying neurological disorders. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) are two widely used neuroimaging techniques to review changes in brain activity. fMRI is a noninvasive technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed brain images. An EEG is a noninvasive technique that records the brain's electrical activity through electrodes placed on the scalp. This review overviews recent developments in noninvasive functional neuroimaging methods, including fMRI and EEG. Recent advances in fMRI technology, its application to studying brain function, and the impact of neuroimaging techniques on neuroscience research are discussed. Advances in EEG technology and its applications to analyzing brain function and neural oscillations are also highlighted. In addition, advanced courses in neuroimaging, such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), are described, along with their role in studying brain connectivity, white matter tracts, and potential treatments for schizophrenia and chronic pain. Application. The review concludes by examining neuroimaging studies of neurodevelopmental and neurological disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). We also described the role of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in ASD, ADHD, AD, and PD. Neuroimaging techniques have significantly advanced our understanding of brain function and provided essential insights into neurological disorders. However, further research into noninvasive treatments such as EEG, MRI, and TES is necessary to continue to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for neurological disorders.

Longitudinal Changes of Resting-State Networks in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Typically Developing Children

BACKGROUND

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent childhood neurodevelopmental disorder. Given the profound brain changes that occur across childhood and adolescence, it is important to identify functional networks that exhibit differential developmental patterns in children with ADHD. This study sought to examine whether children with ADHD exhibit differential developmental trajectories in functional connectivity compared with typically developing children using a network-based approach.

METHODS

This longitudinal neuroimaging study included 175 participants (91 children with ADHD and 84 control children without ADHD) between ages 9 and 14 and up to 3 waves (173 total resting-state scans in children with ADHD and 197 scans in control children). We adopted network-based statistics to identify connected components with trajectories of development that differed between groups.

RESULTS

Children with ADHD exhibited differential developmental trajectories compared with typically developing control children in networks connecting cortical and limbic regions as well as between visual and higher-order cognitive regions. A pattern of reduction in functional connectivity between corticolimbic networks was seen across development in the control group that was not present in the ADHD group. Conversely, the ADHD group showed a significant decrease in connectivity between predominantly visual and higher-order cognitive networks that was not displayed in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that the developmental trajectories in children with ADHD are characterized by a subnetwork involving different trajectories predominantly between corticolimbic regions and between visual and higher-order cognitive network connections. These findings highlight the importance of examining the longitudinal maturational course to understand the development of functional connectivity networks in children with ADHD.

Neurobehavioral phenotypes of delay discounting and cognitive control in child attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and obesity: Shared or distinct?

BACKGROUND

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity have been independently associated with deficient cognitive control (CC) and heightened preference for immediate reward.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to identify specific shared and distinct neurobehavioral phenotypes of child obesity and ADHD by simultaneously measuring CC and preference for immediate reward in children with and without ADHD who varied in body weight.

METHODS

This case-control study included 323 8-12 year olds (ADHD n = 215, typically developing (TD) screened for ADHD symptoms [TD] controls n = 108) varying in body weight. Children completed a go/no-go task (assessing CC), as well as a classical money delay discounting (DD) task and novel experiential game time DD task (assessing preference for immediate over delayed rewards).

RESULTS

For game time DD, there was a body mass index z-score (BMIz)*ADHD interaction, such that TD children with overweight/obesity showed game time DD levels that were greater than those of TD children without overweight/obesity and similar to those of children with ADHD. Only children with ADHD showed poorer CC compared to TD children, with no effects of body weight.

CONCLUSIONS

Heightened game time DD with delays and rewards experienced in real-time may represent a neurobehavioral phenotype that is shared between ADHD and overweight/obesity in childhood, whereas deficient CC may be specific to children with ADHD.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction caused by a go/no-go task in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Background

Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit executive function deficits, which can be attributed to a dysfunction in the prefrontal region of the brain. Our study aims to evaluate the alteration of brain activity in children with ADHD during the administration of a go/no-go task using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in comparison to a control group containing typically developing (TD) children.

Methods

32 children with ADHD and 31 of their TD peers were recruited and asked to perform a go/no-go task while undergoing measurements, with the aim of detecting changes in average oxygenated hemoglobin signaling (Δavg oxy-Hb) via fNIRS in the prefrontal lobe.

Results

fNIRS data showed significant differences between the left and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, with a lower Δavg oxy-Hb change in the ADHD group compared to the TD group.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that brain dysfunction in children with ADHD is related to functional impairments in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The go/no-go task paired with fNIRS represents a useful measurement tool to assess prefrontal brain dysfunction in children struggling with ADHD.

Systematic bibliometric and visualized analysis of research hotspots and trends in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder neuroimaging

Introduction

This study focused on the research hotspots and development trends of the neuroimaging of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the past thirty years.

Methods

The Web of Science database was searched for articles about ADHD neuroimaging from January 1992 to September 2022. CiteSpace was used to analyze the co-occurrence of keywords in literature, partnerships between authors, institutions, and countries, the sudden occurrence of keywords, clustering of keywords over time, and analysis of references, cited authors, and cited journals.

Results

2,621 articles were included. More and more articles have been published every year in the last years. These articles mainly come from 435 institutions and 65 countries/regions led by the United States. King's College London had the highest number of publications. The study identified 634 authors, among which Buitelaar, J. K. published the largest number of articles and Castellanos, F. X. was co-cited most often. The most productive and cited journal was Biological psychiatry. In recent years, burst keywords were resting-state fMRI, machine learning, functional connectivity, and networks. And a timeline chart of the cluster of keywords showed that “children” had the longest time span.

Conclusions

Increased attention has been paid to ADHD neuroimaging. This work might assist researchers to identify new insight on potential collaborators and cooperative institutions, hot topics, and research directions.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on improving performance of delayed- reinforcement attentional set-shifting tasks in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder rat model

Behavioral flexibility (or set-shifting), which is regulated by the prefrontal cortex (PFC), is often impaired in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is characterized by poor inhibitory control and reinforcement learning. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been proposed as a means of noninvasive brain stimulation and a potential therapeutic tool for modulating behavioral flexibility. Animal studies can pave the way to know if tDCS application can potentially benefit rule- and goal-based activities in ADHD. Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and inbred Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were used as an animal model of ADHD and controls, respectively, and their strategy set-shifting abilities, including initial discrimination, set-shifting, and reversal learning tasks under 0-s or 15-s reinforcer delivery delay conditions, were evaluated. The tDCS treatment had a limited effect on the performance of the SHRs and WKY rats in initial discrimination task under 0-s delay condition. Under the 15-s delay condition, the SHRs had longer lever-press reaction times and/or more trial omissions than the WKY rats did when completing set-shifting and reversal-learning tasks. Among the SHRs, tDCS treatment improved the rats' reaction times and/or reduced their trial omissions in the set-shifting and reversal-learning tasks. Although tDCS may improve delayed reinforcement learning set-shifting performance in SHRs, further studies are required to clarify the responsible mechanism.

A Critical View on Motor-based Interventions to Improve Motor Skill Performance in Children With ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To map the effect of motor-based interventions on motor skills in children with ADHD.

METHOD

A systematic literature search was performed in Pubmed, Web of Science, and the SCOPUS database (last search: October 30th 2022). Methodological quality was assessed using the PEDro-scale and the quality of evidence was determined with the GRADE-method. Meta-analysis was performed when at least five studies were available.

RESULTS

Thirteen studies (7 RCTs) satisfied the inclusion criteria, five of which were eligible for meta-analysis. Only one of the included studies reached the low risk of bias threshold. Comparing different motor-based interventions to any non-motor control intervention showed large motor skill improvements (SMD = 1.46; 95% CI = [1.00;1.93]; I² = 47.07%). The most effective type of motor-based intervention and the optimal treatment parameters could not be determined yet.

CONCLUSION

Motor-based interventions in general seem to improve motor skills in children with ADHD. Additional RCTs are needed to increase current low GRADE confidence.

Neuroplasticity to autophagy cross-talk in a therapeutic effect of physical exercises and irisin in ADHD

Adaptive neuroplasticity is a pivotal mechanism for healthy brain development and maintenance, as well as its restoration in disease- and age-associated decline. Management of mental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) needs interventions stimulating adaptive neuroplasticity, beyond conventional psychopharmacological treatments. Physical exercises are proposed for the management of ADHD, and also depression and aging because of evoked brain neuroplasticity. Recent progress in understanding the mechanisms of muscle-brain cross-talk pinpoints the role of the myokine irisin in the mediation of pro-cognitive and antidepressant activity of physical exercises. In this review, we discuss how irisin, which is released in the periphery as well as derived from brain cells, may interact with the mechanisms of cellular autophagy to provide protein recycling and regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling via glia-mediated control of BDNF maturation, and, therefore, support neuroplasticity. We propose that the neuroplasticity associated with physical exercises is mediated in part by irisin-triggered autophagy. Since the recent findings give objectives to consider autophagy-stimulating intervention as a prerequisite for successful therapy of psychiatric disorders, irisin appears as a prototypic molecule that can activate autophagy with therapeutic goals.

Association between ADHD symptoms and inhibition-related brain activity using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with deficits in inhibitory functions including interference control, inhibition of prepotent/automatic responses and suppression of already initiated responses. This study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to investigate the neural basis of these three forms of inhibition assessed by a recently developed behavioral protocol combining the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task in twenty-five young adults with inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity symptoms. The severity of ADHD symptoms was measured using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS). The concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) was assessed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and temporoparietal regions (TP) during the Stroop-matching/stop-signal task. Correlations yielded significant associations between ASRS scores and HbO concentration in frontal regions during blocks with stop-signal tasks, namely the right IFG, the left DLPFC and the left IFG. This study revealed that different types of inhibition involve unique frontal and temporoparietal activities and linked frontal dysfunction during the suppression of ongoing responses to the severity of ADHD symptoms.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with cognitive training in adolescent boys with ADHD: a double-blind, randomised, sham-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) could be a side-effect-free alternative to psychostimulants in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although there is limited evidence for clinical and cognitive effects, most studies were small, single-session and stimulated left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). No sham-controlled study has stimulated the right inferior frontal cortex (rIFC), which is the most consistently under-functioning region in ADHD, with multiple anodal-tDCS sessions combined with cognitive training (CT) to enhance effects. Thus, we investigated the clinical and cognitive effects of multi-session anodal-tDCS over rIFC combined with CT in double-blind, randomised, sham-controlled trial (RCT, ISRCTN48265228).

METHODS

Fifty boys with ADHD (10-18 years) received 15 weekday sessions of anodal- or sham-tDCS over rIFC combined with CT (20 min, 1 mA). ANCOVA, adjusting for baseline measures, age and medication status, tested group differences in clinical and ADHD-relevant executive functions at posttreatment and after 6 months.

RESULTS

ADHD-Rating Scale, Conners ADHD Index and adverse effects were significantly lower at post-treatment after sham relative to anodal tDCS. No other effects were significant.

CONCLUSIONS

This rigorous and largest RCT of tDCS in adolescent boys with ADHD found no evidence of improved ADHD symptoms or cognitive performance following multi-session anodal tDCS over rIFC combined with CT. These findings extend limited meta-analytic evidence of cognitive and clinical effects in ADHD after 1-5 tDCS sessions over mainly left dlPFC. Given that tDCS is commercially and clinically available, the findings are important as they suggest that rIFC stimulation may not be indicated as a neurotherapy for cognitive or clinical remediation for ADHD.

Addressing Emotional Dysregulation and Potential Pharmacogenetic Implication of 5-HTTLPR Genotype in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Background

This review unpacks the emotional presentation of externalizing behaviors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), by diving into the psychophysiology, neurophysiology, and neurogenetics in relation to executive function. The correlations among these three variables are identified, showing that standard assessments for ADHD leave out the emotional dysregulation element. This may lead to suboptimal management outcomes during the developmental progression into adolescence and adulthood.

Summary

The emotional impulsivity manifestation in adolescence and adulthood related to the under-managed emotional dysregulation in childhood is found to be associated with subtle confounding impact of 5-HTTLPR (serotonin-transporter-linked promoter region) genotype. The genotype of interest affects the neurochemistry, neurophysiology, and psychophysiology of the cognition for executive function. The established practice of using methylphenidate in treating ADHD surprisingly has a neurogenetic effect in targeting the genotype of interest. Methylphenidate provides neuroprotective effects throughout the neurodevelopment timeline from childhood to adulthood.

Key Messages

The emotional dysregulation element in ADHD which is often overlooked should be addressed to improve the prognostic outcomes in adolescence and adulthood.

Compromised word-level neural tracking in the high-gamma band for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit pervasive difficulties in speech perception. Given that speech processing involves both acoustic and linguistic stages, it remains unclear which stage of speech processing is impaired in children with ADHD. To investigate this issue, we measured neural tracking of speech at syllable and word levels using electroencephalography (EEG), and evaluated the relationship between neural responses and ADHD symptoms in 6-8 years old children. Twenty-three children participated in the current study, and their ADHD symptoms were assessed with SNAP-IV questionnaires. In the experiment, the children listened to hierarchical speech sequences in which syllables and words were, respectively, repeated at 2.5 and 1.25 Hz. Using frequency domain analyses, reliable neural tracking of syllables and words was observed in both the low-frequency band (<4 Hz) and the high-gamma band (70-160 Hz). However, the neural tracking of words in the high-gamma band showed an anti-correlation with the ADHD symptom scores of the children. These results indicate that ADHD prominently impairs cortical encoding of linguistic information (e.g., words) in speech perception.

Double-Blind, Sham-Controlled Randomized Trial Testing the Efficacy of fMRI Neurofeedback on Clinical and Cognitive Measures in Children With ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Functional MRI neurofeedback (fMRI-NF) could potentially be a novel, safe nonpharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial of fMRI-NF of the right inferior frontal cortex (rIFC), compared to an active control condition, showed promising improvement of ADHD symptoms (albeit in both groups) and in brain function. However, comparison with a placebo condition in a larger trial is required to test efficacy.

METHODS

This double-blind, sham-controlled randomized controlled trial tested the effectiveness and efficacy of fMRI-NF of the rIFC on symptoms and executive functions in 88 boys with ADHD (44 each in the active and sham arms). To investigate treatment-related changes, groups were compared at the posttreatment and 6-month follow-up assessments, controlling for baseline scores, age, and medication status. The primary outcome measure was posttreatment score on the ADHD Rating Scale (ADHD-RS).

RESULTS

No significant group differences were found on the ADHD-RS. Both groups showed similar decreases in other clinical and cognitive measures, except for a significantly greater decrease in irritability and improvement in motor inhibition in sham relative to active fMRI-NF at the posttreatment assessment, covarying for baseline. There were no significant side effects or adverse events. The active relative to the sham fMRI-NF group showed enhanced activation in rIFC and other frontal and temporo-occipital-cerebellar self-regulation areas. However, there was no progressive rIFC upregulation, correlation with ADHD-RS scores, or transfer of learning.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to the hypothesis, the study findings do not suggest that fMRI-NF of the rIFC is effective in improving clinical symptoms or cognition in boys with ADHD.

Inconsistencies between Subjective Reports of Cognitive Difficulties and Performance on Cognitive Tests are Associated with Elevated Internalising and Externalising Symptoms in Children with Learning-related Problems

Children with learning difficulties are commonly assumed to have underlying cognitive deficits by health and educational professionals. However, not all children referred for psycho-educational assessment will be found to have deficits when their abilities are measured by performance on cognitive tasks. The primary aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of this inconsistent cognitive profile (ICP) in a transdiagnostic sample of children referred by health and education service providers for problems related to attention, learning and memory (N = 715). A second aim was to explore whether elevated mental health problems were associated with ICPs. Findings suggest that approximately half of this sample could be characterised as having an ICP. Cognitive difficulties, whether identified by parent ratings or task performance, were associated with elevated internalising and externalising difficulties. Crucially, a larger discrepancy between a parent's actual ratings of a child's cognitive difficulties and the ratings that would be predicted based on the child's performance on cognitive tasks was associated greater internalising and externalising difficulties for measures of working memory, and greater externalising difficulties for measures of attention. These findings suggest that subjective cognitive difficulties occurring in the absence of any task-based performance deficits may be a functional problem arising from mental health problems.

Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Cortical Thickness in Pediatric ADHD

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the right Superior Frontal Gyrus (right-SFG) and Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) in children with ADHD and their clinical relevance with Executive Function (EF) and ADHD symptom severity.

METHODS

About 26 children with ADHD and 24 typically developing children (TDC; 7‒16 years) underwent Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and completed an EF assessment battery.

RESULTS

Significantly thinner right-SFG in the ADHD group was found compared to the TDC group (t (48) = 2.81, p = .007, Cohen's d = 0.84). Linear regression models showed that 12.5% of inattention, 13.6% of hyperactivity, and 9.0% of EF variance was accounted for by the right-SFG thickness.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in the right-SFG thickness were found in our ADHD group and were associated with parent ratings of inattentive and hyperactive symptoms as well with EF ratings. These results replicate previous findings of thinner right-SFG and are consistent with the delayed cortical maturation theory of ADHD.

The therapeutic role of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Egypt a randomized sham controlled clinical trial

Background

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation showed some evidence for improving symptoms of ADHD along with its relative safety, thus could serve as a treatment strategy or an alternative to stimulant medication. Accordingly, 60 children with ADHD were assessed, and 30 participants were allocated to the rTMS group and received 15 sessions of rTMS over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex combined with Atomoxetine 1.2 mg/kg/day. The other 30 participants were allocated to the Sham group and received 15 sessions of sham rTMS and atomoxetine 1.2 mg/kg/day. Clinical assessments of ADHD symptoms and severity were done and compared at 3 points, before treatment, after receiving 15 sessions of rTMS and follow-up 1 month after the last rTMS session, using Conner’s Parent Rating Scale-Revised-Long form, Children’s Global Assessment Scale, and Clinical Global Impression.

Results

The two groups show significant improvement in the T scores of all CPRS subscales, CGI and CGAS. However, the rTMS group had a significantly more improvement than the sham group in inattention, total ADHD severity, CGI, and CGAS after rTMS and continued to the follow-up after 1 month.

Conclusions

rTMS is an efficacious intervention for treating ADHD, and combined rTMS and atomoxetine is superior to atomoxetine alone in improving attention deficit symptoms and total ADHD symptoms severity.

Trial registration

PACTR, PACTR202110558451583. Registered 25 June 2021. Approved 29 October 2021- Retrospectively registered, https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=15968.

Effect of short-term methylphenidate on social impairment in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: systematic review

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common disorders in school-age children. In addition to learning difficulties associated with the disorder's core symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, children with ADHD display substantial social impairments. Methylphenidate (MPH) in formulations such as Ritalin or Concerta mitigates inattention and hyperactivity, but the effects of the therapy on social behavior in children with ADHD are not clear. This review aims to determine the effectiveness of short term (up to 6 months) MPH treatment on three domains of social skills in children aged 6-14 with ADHD: (i) Recognition of nonverbal emotional expressions, which are a marker of inherent (unlearned) social understanding, (ii) theory of mind (ToM) components that relate to learned cognition and social communication, and (iii) social competence in everyday environments. 15 relevant studies were identified based on inclusion/exclusion criteria. The results show mixed effects: the overall social performance as evaluated by parents, teachers or peers, and some components of ToM, were found to improve following a weeks-long course of MPH treatment. However, the effects of the medication are less clear when evaluating momentary/nonverbal social responses such as reactions to emotional facial expressions. While the findings of this review indicate that an MPH medication regime of order weeks to months could improve, to a degree, social impairment in children with ADHD, more studies are required to identify the medications' mechanism and confirm such a conclusion.

Understanding Problematic Social Media Use in Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Narrative Review and Clinical Recommendations

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is consistently associated with a host of social problems, such as victimization and difficulties in maintaining close friendships. These problems are not limited to offline relations but also manifest in the online social world, as previous research shows that ADHD is associated with problematic use of social media. Given the ubiquitous nature of social media, the goal of the current review is to understand why adolescents with ADHD demonstrate more problematic social media use than their typically developing peers. To this end, we provide a narrative review on the evidence for the link between ADHD and social media use, and consequently present an integrative framework, which encompasses neurobiological mechanisms (i.e., imbalance theory of brain development and dual pathway model of ADHD) and social mechanisms, including influences from peers and parents. We conclude that empirical work shows most consistent evidence for the link between problematic social media use and ADHD (symptoms), while intensity of social media use is also associated with several other behaviors and outcomes. Finally, we hypothesize how existing interventions for ADHD may work on the identified mechanisms and provide at-hand clinical recommendations for therapists working with adolescents with ADHD who exhibit problematic social media use.