Autism As a Disorder of High Intelligence

Face perception and facial emotional expression recognition ability: Both unique predictors of the broader autism phenotype

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and the broader autistic phenotype (BAP) have been suggested to be associated with perceptual-cognitive difficulties processing human faces. However, the empirical results are mixed, arguably, in part due to inadequate samples and analyses. Consequently, we administered the Cambridge Face Perception Test (CFPT), the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), a vocabulary test, and the Autism Quotient (AQ) to a sample of 318 adults in the general community. Based on a disattenuated path analytic modelling strategy, we found that both face perception ability (β = -.21) and facial emotional expression recognition ability (β = -.27) predicted uniquely and significantly the Communication dimension of AQ. Vocabulary failed to yield a significant, direct effect onto the Communication dimension of the AQ. We conclude that difficulties perceiving information from the faces of others may contribute to difficulties in nonverbal communication, as conceptualised and measured within the context of BAP.

Behavioral and Socio-Emotional Disorders in Intellectual Giftedness: A Systematic Review

This work systematically reviewed past literature to investigate the association between intellectual giftedness and socio-emotional and/or behavioral disorders. Nineteen studies met the inclusion criteria, 17 of which have children and/or adolescents as participants, and 12 have a non-gifted control group. Socio-emotional problems, such as withdrawal, were found in 3 out of 8 studies; internalizing disorders, such as anxiety, were found in 5 out of 9; externalizing disorders, such as hyperactivity, were found in 3 out of 5. The most investigated comorbidity was attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. A univocal conclusion on the relationship between intellectual giftedness and socio-emotional/behavioral problems cannot be drawn, principally because of the heterogeneity of participants' age, informants, and instruments. The review highlights the need for future studies to use multi-informant and comprehensive assessments, to reach more robust findings, and suggests that age and discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal intellectual abilities should be considered critical factors.

Intrapartum exposure to synthetic oxytocin, maternal BMI, and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children within the ECHO consortium

BACKGROUND

Synthetic oxytocin (sOT) is frequently administered during parturition. Studies have raised concerns that fetal exposure to sOT may be associated with altered brain development and risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. In a large and diverse sample of children with data about intrapartum sOT exposure and subsequent diagnoses of two prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders, i.e., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we tested the following hypotheses: (1) Intrapartum sOT exposure is associated with increased odds of child ADHD or ASD; (2) associations differ across sex; (3) associations between intrapartum sOT exposure and ADHD or ASD are accentuated in offspring of mothers with pre-pregnancy obesity.

METHODS

The study sample comprised 12,503 participants from 44 cohort sites included in the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) consortium. Mixed-effects logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the association between intrapartum sOT exposure and offspring ADHD or ASD (in separate models). Maternal obesity (pre-pregnancy BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) and child sex were evaluated for effect modification.

RESULTS

Intrapartum sOT exposure was present in 48% of participants. sOT exposure was not associated with increased odds of ASD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.71-1.03) or ADHD (aOR 0.89; 95% CI, 0.76-1.04). Associations did not differ by child sex. Among mothers with pre-pregnancy obesity, sOT exposure was associated with lower odds of offspring ADHD (aOR 0.72; 95% CI, 0.55-0.96). No association was found among mothers without obesity (aOR 0.97; 95% CI, 0.80-1.18).

CONCLUSIONS

In a large, diverse sample, we found no evidence of an association between intrapartum exposure to sOT and odds of ADHD or ASD in either male or female offspring. Contrary to our hypothesis, among mothers with pre-pregnancy obesity, sOT exposure was associated with lower odds of child ADHD diagnosis.

Enrichment of a subset of Neanderthal polymorphisms in autistic probands and siblings

Homo sapiens and Neanderthals underwent hybridization during the Middle/Upper Paleolithic age, culminating in retention of small amounts of Neanderthal-derived DNA in the modern human genome. In the current study, we address the potential roles Neanderthal single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) may be playing in autism susceptibility in samples of black non-Hispanic, white Hispanic, and white non-Hispanic people using data from the Simons Foundation Powering Autism Research (SPARK), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), and 1000 Genomes (1000G) databases. We have discovered that rare variants are significantly enriched in autistic probands compared to race-matched controls. In addition, we have identified 25 rare and common SNPs that are significantly enriched in autism on different ethnic backgrounds, some of which show significant clinical associations. We have also identified other SNPs that share more specific genotype-phenotype correlations but which are not necessarily enriched in autism and yet may nevertheless play roles in comorbid phenotype expression (e.g., intellectual disability, epilepsy, and language regression). These results strongly suggest Neanderthal-derived DNA is playing a significant role in autism susceptibility across major populations in the United States.

Copy-number variants and polygenic risk for intelligence confer risk for autism spectrum disorder irrespective of their effects on cognitive ability

Introduction

Rare copy number variants (CNVs) and polygenic risk for intelligence (PRS-IQ) both confer susceptibility for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but have opposing effects on cognitive ability. The field has struggled to disentangle the effects of these two classes of genomic variants on cognitive ability from their effects on ASD susceptibility, in part because previous studies did not include controls with cognitive measures. We aim to investigate the impact of these genomic variants on ASD risk while adjusting for their known effects on cognitive ability.

Methods

In a cohort of 8,426 subjects with ASD and 169,804 controls with cognitive assessments, we found that rare coding CNVs and PRS-IQ increased ASD risk, even after adjusting for their effects on cognitive ability.

Results

Bottom decile PRS-IQ and CNVs both decreased cognitive ability but had opposing effects on ASD risk. Models combining both classes of variants showed that the effects of rare CNVs and PRS-IQ on ASD risk and cognitive ability were largely additive, further suggesting that susceptibility for ASD is conferred independently from its effects on cognitive ability. Despite imparting mostly additive effects on ASD risk, rare CNVs and PRS-IQ showed opposing effects on core and associated features and developmental history among subjects with ASD.

Discussion

Our findings suggest that cognitive ability itself may not be the factor driving the underlying liability for ASD conferred by these two classes of genomic variants. In other words, ASD risk and cognitive ability may be two distinct manifestations of CNVs and PRS-IQ. This study also highlights the challenge of understanding how genetic risk for ASD maps onto its dimensional traits.

Changing perspectives on autism: Overlapping contributions of evolutionary psychiatry and the neurodiversity movement

Perspectives on autism and psychiatric conditions are affected by a mix of scientific and social influences. Evolutionary psychiatry (EP) and the neurodiversity movement are emerging paradigms that reflect these distinct influences, with the former grounded in scientific theory and the latter driven by political and social principles. Despite their separate foundations, there is a significant overlap between EP and neurodiversity that has not been explored. Specifically, both paradigms reframe disorders as natural cognitive differences rather than disease; expand the concept of "normal" beyond that implied in modern psychiatry; focus on relative strengths; recognize that modern environments disadvantage certain individuals to cause functional impairment; emphasize cognitive variation being socially accommodated and integrated rather than treated or cured; and can help reduce stigmatization. However, in other ways, they are distinct and sometimes in conflict. EP emphasizes scientific explanation, defines "dysfunction" in objective terms, and differentiates heterogenous cases based on underlying causes (e.g. autism due to de novo genetic mutations). The neurodiversity movement emphasizes social action, removes barriers to inclusion, promotes inclusive language, and allows unrestricted identification as neurodivergent. By comparing and contrasting these two approaches, we find that EP can, to some extent, support the goals of neurodiversity. In particular, EP perspectives could be convincing to groups more responsive to scientific evidence and help achieve a middle ground between neurodiversity advocates and critics of the movement.

Theoretical-Methodological Foundations for the Global Integration Method (Método de Integração Global-MIG) in the Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Currently, there is no intervention model for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that addresses all levels and factors of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF, WHO). The most researched programs focus on naturalistic, developmental and behavioral approaches to socio-communication. Less attention has been paid to motor and environmental reactivity aspects (behavior/interest restriction and sensory reactivity). The evidence rationale for the Global Integration Method (MIG, "Método de Integração Global"), a model addressing sensorimotor reactivity in addition to socio-communication, is presented. MIG is an integrative, interdisciplinary, family-oriented intervention and naturalistic program that addresses all levels and moderating factors of ASD's impact. MIG's theoretical rationale is based on the predictive coding impairment and embodied cognition hypotheses. MIG incorporates both bottom-up (flexible therapeutic suit, social-motor synchronization) and top-down (schematic social information processing, narratives, imagery) strategies to promote the building and use of accurate, flexible and context-sensitive internal predictive models. MIG is based on the premises that predictive coding improves both socio-communication and environmental reactivity, and that the postural stabilization provided by the flexible therapeutic suit frees information processing resources for socio-cognitive learning. MIG builds on interdisciplinary, professionally and parentally mediated work based on behavioral principles of intensive training in a situated environment.

Cognitive biases as an adaptive strategy in autism and schizophrenia spectrum: the compensation perspective on neurodiversity

This article presents a novel theoretical perspective on the role of cognitive biases within the autism and schizophrenia spectrum by integrating the evolutionary and computational approaches. Against the background of neurodiversity, cognitive biases are presented as primary adaptive strategies, while the compensation of their shortcomings is a potential cognitive advantage. The article delineates how certain subtypes of autism represent a unique cognitive strategy to manage cognitive biases at the expense of rapid and frugal heuristics. In contrast, certain subtypes of schizophrenia emerge as distinctive cognitive strategies devised to navigate social interactions, albeit with a propensity for overdetecting intentional behaviors. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes that while extreme manifestations might appear non-functional, they are merely endpoints of a broader, primarily functional spectrum of cognitive strategies. The central argument hinges on the premise that cognitive biases in both autism and schizophrenia spectrums serve as compensatory mechanisms tailored for specific ecological niches.

Copy-number variants and polygenic risk for intelligence confer risk for autism spectrum disorder irrespective of their effects on cognitive ability

Rare copy number variants (CNVs) and polygenic risk for intelligence (PRS-IQ) both confer risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but have opposing effects on cognitive ability. The field has struggled to disentangle the effects of these two classes of genomic variants on cognitive ability from their effects on ASD risk, in part because previous studies did not include controls with cognitive measures. We aim to investigate the impact of these genomic variants on ASD risk while adjusting for their known effects on cognitive ability. In a cohort of 8,426 subjects with ASD and 169,804 controls with cognitive assessments, we found that rare coding CNVs and PRS-IQ increased ASD risk, even after adjusting for their effects on cognitive ability. Bottom decile PRS-IQ and CNVs both decreased cognitive ability but had opposing effects on ASD risk. Models combining both classes of variants showed that the effects of rare CNVs and PRS-IQ on ASD risk and cognitive ability were largely additive, further suggesting that risk for ASD is conferred independently from its effects on cognitive ability. Despite imparting mostly additive effects on ASD risk, rare CNVs and PRS-IQ showed opposing effects on core and associated features and developmental history among subjects with ASD. Our findings suggest that cognitive ability itself may not be the factor driving the underlying risk for ASD conferred by these two classes of genomic variants. In other words, ASD risk and cognitive ability may be two distinct manifestations of CNVs and PRS-IQ. This study also highlights the challenge of understanding how genetic risk for ASD maps onto its dimensional traits.

Bidirectional genetic overlap between autism spectrum disorder and cognitive traits

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a highly heritable condition with a large variation in cognitive function. Here we investigated the shared genetic architecture between cognitive traits (intelligence (INT) and educational attainment (EDU)), and risk loci jointly associated with ASD and the cognitive traits. We analyzed data from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of INT (n = 269,867), EDU (n = 766,345) and ASD (cases n = 18,381, controls n = 27,969). We used the bivariate causal mixture model (MiXeR) to estimate the total number of shared genetic variants, local analysis of co-variant annotation (LAVA) to estimate local genetic correlations, conditional false discovery rate (cond/conjFDR) to identify specific overlapping loci. The MiXeR analyses showed that 12.7k genetic variants are associated with ASD, of which 12.0k variants are shared with EDU, and 11.1k are shared with INT with both positive and negative relationships within overlapping variants. The majority (59-68%) of estimated shared loci have concordant effect directions, with a positive, albeit modest, genetic correlation between ASD and EDU (rg = 0.21, p = 2e-13) and INT (rg = 0.22, p = 4e-12). We discovered 43 loci jointly associated with ASD and cognitive traits (conjFDR<0.05), of which 27 were novel for ASD. Functional analysis revealed significant differential expression of candidate genes in the cerebellum and frontal cortex. To conclude, we quantified the genetic architecture shared between ASD and cognitive traits, demonstrated mixed effect directions, and identified the associated genetic loci and molecular pathways. The findings suggest that common genetic risk factors for ASD can underlie both better and worse cognitive functioning across the ASD spectrum, with different underlying biology.

Sleep Health at the Genomic Level: Six Distinct Factors and Their Relationships With Psychopathology

Background

Poor sleep is associated with many negative health outcomes, including multiple dimensions of psychopathology. In the past decade, sleep researchers have advocated for focusing on the concept of sleep health as a modifiable health behavior to mitigate or prevent these outcomes. Sleep health dimensions often include sleep efficiency, duration, satisfaction, regularity, timing, and daytime alertness. However, there is no consensus on how to best operationalize sleep health at the phenotypic and genetic levels. In some studies, specific sleep health domains were examined individually, while in others, sleep health domains were examined together (e.g., with an aggregate sleep health score).

Methods

Here, we compared alternative sleep health factor models using genomic structural equation modeling on summary statistics from previously published genome-wide association studies of self-reported and actigraphic sleep measures with effective sample sizes up to 452,633.

Results

Our best-fitting sleep health model had 6 correlated genetic factors pertaining to 6 sleep health domains: circadian preference, efficiency, alertness, duration, noninsomnia, and regularity. All sleep health factors were significantly correlated (|rgs| = 0.11-0.51), except for the circadian preference factor with duration and noninsomnia. Better sleep health was generally significantly associated with lower genetic liability for psychopathology (|rgs| = 0.05-0.48), yet the 6 sleep health factors showed divergent patterns of associations with different psychopathology factors, especially when controlling for covariance among the sleep health factors.

Conclusions

These results provide evidence for genetic separability of sleep health constructs and their differentiation with respect to associations with mental health.

Brain working memory network indices as landmarks of intelligence

Identifying the neural correlates of intelligence has long been a goal in neuroscience. Recently, the field of network neuroscience has attracted researchers' attention as a means for answering this question. In network neuroscience, the brain is considered as an integrated system whose systematic properties provide profound insights into health and behavioral outcomes. However, most network studies of intelligence have used univariate methods to investigate topological network measures, with their focus limited to a few measures. Furthermore, most studies have focused on resting state networks despite the fact that brain activation during working memory tasks has been linked to intelligence. Finally, the literature is still missing an investigation of the association between network assortativity and intelligence. To address these issues, here we employ a recently developed mixed-modeling framework for analyzing multi-task brain networks to elucidate the most critical working memory task network topological properties corresponding to individuals' intelligence differences. We used a data set of 379 subjects (22-35 y/o) from the Human Connectome Project (HCP). Each subject's data included composite intelligence scores, and fMRI during resting state and a 2-back working memory task. Following comprehensive quality control and preprocessing of the minimally preprocessed fMRI data, we extracted a set of the main topological network features, including global efficiency, degree, leverage centrality, modularity, and clustering coefficient. The estimated network features and subject's confounders were then incorporated into the multi-task mixed-modeling framework to investigate how brain network changes between working memory and resting state relate to intelligence score. Our results indicate that the general intelligence score (cognitive composite score) is associated with a change in the relationship between connection strength and multiple network topological properties, including global efficiency, leverage centrality, and degree difference during working memory as it is compared to resting state. More specifically, we observed a higher increase in the positive association between global efficiency and connection strength for the high intelligence group when they switch from resting state to working memory. The strong connections might form superhighways for a more efficient global flow of information through the brain network. Furthermore, we found an increase in the negative association between degree difference and leverage centrality with connection strength during working memory tasks for the high intelligence group. These indicate higher network resilience and assortativity along with higher circuit-specific information flow during working memory for those with a higher intelligence score. Although the exact neurobiological implications of our results are speculative at this point, our results provide evidence for the significant association of intelligence with hallmark properties of brain networks during working memory.

16p11.2 deletion mice exhibit compromised fronto-temporal connectivity, GABAergic dysfunction, and enhanced attentional ability

Autism spectrum disorders are more common in males, and have a substantial genetic component. Chromosomal 16p11.2 deletions in particular carry strong genetic risk for autism, yet their neurobiological impact is poorly characterised, particularly at the integrated systems level. Here we show that mice reproducing this deletion (16p11.2 DEL mice) have reduced GABAergic interneuron gene expression (decreased parvalbumin mRNA in orbitofrontal cortex, and male-specific decreases in Gad67 mRNA in parietal and insular cortex and medial septum). Metabolic activity was increased in medial septum, and in its efferent targets: mammillary body and (males only) subiculum. Functional connectivity was altered between orbitofrontal, insular and auditory cortex, and between septum and hippocampus/subiculum. Consistent with this circuit dysfunction, 16p11.2 DEL mice showed reduced prepulse inhibition, but enhanced performance in the continuous performance test of attentional ability. Level 1 autistic individuals show similarly heightened performance in the equivalent human test, also associated with parietal, insular-orbitofrontal and septo-subicular dysfunction. The data implicate cortical and septal GABAergic dysfunction, and resulting connectivity changes, as the cause of pre-attentional and attentional changes in autism.

The neurobiology of autism spectrum disorder as it relates to twice exceptionality

There is a long-standing association between exceptional cognitive abilities of various sorts and neuropsychiatric illness, but it has historically largely been investigated in an exploratory and non-systematic way. One group in which this association has been investigated with more rigor is in subjects who have been identified as twice exceptional; an educational term describing subjects who are both gifted and diagnosed with a neuropsychiatric disorder. This term covers multiple conditions, but is of specific interest in particular in the study of autism spectrum disorder. Recent findings have led to the development of a hypothesis that a certain degree of the neurobiology associated with autism might even be advantageous for individuals and could lead to high giftedness, while becoming disadvantageous, once a certain threshold is surpassed. In this model, the same neurobiological mechanisms confer an increasing advantage up to a certain threshold, but become pathological past that point. Twice-exceptional individuals would be exactly at the inflection point, being highly gifted, but also symptomatic at the same time. Here, we review how existing neuroimaging literature on autism spectrum disorder can inform research on twice exceptionality specifically. We propose to study key neural networks with a robust implication in ASD to identify the neurobiology underlying twice-exceptionality. A better understanding of the neural mechanisms of twice exceptionality should help to better understand resilience and vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders and to. further support affected individuals.

Autistic nurses: do they exist?

Autism spectrum disorder is an increasing diagnosis on a global scale. Despite limitations related to the diagnosis, many people with autism are active in the workforce, often within the health care sector. It is reasonable to assume that some of those are nurses. There are very few examples of nurses with autism in the literature, mostly in non-scientific contexts, and that these mention both autism-related strengths and limitations at work. A conclusion is that research about nurses with autism is almost non-existent, and it is high time to conduct explorative research in this area. If employers are given the knowledge and the ability to support the needs of nurses with autism, it is likely to benefit the health of the individual nurse, the psychosocial working climate and patient safety.

The sexual selection of creativity: A nomological approach

Cultural innovations, such as tools and other technical articles useful for survival, imply that creativity is an outcome of evolution. However, the existence of purely ornamental items obfuscates the functional value of creativity. What is the functional or adaptive value of aesthetic and intellectual ornaments? Recent evidence shows a connection between ornamental creativity, an individual's attractiveness, and their reproductive success. However, this association is not sufficient for establishing that creativity in humans evolved by sexual selection. In this critical review, we synthesize findings from many disciplines about the mechanisms, ontogeny, phylogeny, and the function of creativity in sexual selection. Existing research indicates that creativity has the characteristics expected of a trait evolved by sexual selection: genetic basis, sexual dimorphism, wider variety in males, influence of sex hormones, dysfunctional expressions, an advantage in mating in humans and other animals, and psychological modules adapted to mating contexts. Future studies should investigate mixed findings in the existing literature, such as creativity not being found particularly attractive in a non-WEIRD society. Moreover, we identified remaining knowledge gaps and recommend that further research should be undertaken in the following areas: sexual and reproductive correlates of creativity in non-WEIRD societies, relationship between androgens, development, and creative expression, as well as the impact of ornamental, technical and everyday creativity on attractiveness. Evolutionary research should analyze whether being an evolved signal of genetic quality is the only way in which creativity becomes sexually selected and therefore passed on from generation to generation. This review has gone a long way toward integrating and enhancing our understanding of ornamental creativity as a possible sexual selected psychological trait.

Bright, but allergic and neurotic? A critical investigation of the "overexcitable genius" hypothesis

Introduction

Higher intelligence has been associated with improved health and longevity. However, recent findings have claimed that exceptional intelligence may come at a cost. Individuals at the upmost end of the intelligence distribution are reported to be disproportionately afflicted by a set of stress-related physical and mental health conditions: so-called overexcitabilities. Few accounts have investigated this issue and no studies are available for non-US samples yet. Here, we aimed to replicate and extend previous work by examining hitherto unaddressed overexcitabilities in a European high-IQ sample.

Methods

We carried out a preregistered survey among members of MENSA, the world's largest high-IQ society. In total, 615 (307 male) members from Austria, Germany, Hungary, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom participated.

Results and Discussion

Compared to the general population, our sample exhibited considerably elevated prevalences in autism spectrum disorders (risk ratio/RR = 2.25), chronic fatigue syndrome (RR = 5.69), depression (RR = 4.38), generalized anxiety (RR = 3.82), and irritable bowel syndrome (RR = 3.76). Contrary to previous accounts, neither asthma, allergies, nor autoimmune diseases were elevated. We show that this subsample of intellectually gifted persons faces specific health challenges compared to the general population. The reasons for this remain speculative, as we find little evidence for previously proposed immunological explanations. However, it is possible that the effects are caused by sample selectiveness (i.e., membership in a high-IQ society) rather than high IQ itself.

Genetic Relationships between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Intelligence

INTRODUCTION

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly co-occur; both traits exert an influence on intelligence scores. Genetic relationships between these three traits are far from being clear.

METHODS

The summary results of genome-wide association studies of ADHD (20,183 cases and 35,191 controls), ASD (18,381 cases and 27,969 controls), and intelligence (269,867 participants) were used for the analyses. Local genetic correlation analysis and polygenic overlap analysis were used to explore the shared genetic components between ADHD, ASD, and intelligence. Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was used to examine the causal associations between ADHD, ASD, and intelligence. A cross-trait meta-analysis was performed to identify pleiotropic genetic variants across the three traits.

RESULTS

Our results showed that intelligence has a positive and negative genetic correlation with ASD and ADHD, respectively, including three hub genomic regions showing correlated genetic effects across the three traits. Polygenic overlap analysis indicated that all the risk variants contributing to ADHD are overlapped with half of those for intelligence, and the majority of the shared variants have opposite effect directions between them. The majority of risk variants (80%) of ASD are overlapped with almost all the risk variants of intelligence (97%). Notably, some ASD/intelligence overlapping variants displayed opposing effects on these two conditions. MR analysis showed that the genetic liability to higher intelligence was associated with an increased risk for ASD (OR = 1.12) and a decreased risk for ADHD (OR = 0.78). Cross-trait meta-analyses identified 170 pleiotropic genomic loci across the three traits, including 12 novel loci. Functional analyses of the novel genes support their potential involvement in neurodevelopment.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that ADHD is associated with inheriting a reduced set of low-intelligence alleles, whereas ASD results from incongruous effects from a mixture of high-intelligence and low-intelligence contributing alleles summed up with additional, ASD-specific risk variants not associated with intelligence.

Keeping the balance: Trade-offs between human brain evolution, autism, and schizophrenia

The unique qualities of the human brain are a product of a complex evolutionary process. Evolution, famously described by François Jacob as a “tinkerer,” builds upon existing genetic elements by modifying and repurposing them for new functions. Genetic changes in DNA may lead to the emergence of new genes or cause altered gene expression patterns. Both gene and regulatory element mutations may lead to new functions. Yet, this process may lead to side-effects. An evolutionary trade-off occurs when an otherwise beneficial change, which is important for evolutionary success and is under strong positive selection, concurrently results in a detrimental change in another trait. Pleiotropy occurs when a gene affects multiple traits. Antagonistic pleiotropy is a phenomenon whereby a genetic variant leads to an increase in fitness at one life-stage or in a specific environment, but simultaneously decreases fitness in another respect. Therefore, it is conceivable that the molecular underpinnings of evolution of highly complex traits, including brain size or cognitive ability, under certain conditions could result in deleterious effects, which would increase the susceptibility to psychiatric or neurodevelopmental diseases. Here, we discuss possible trade-offs and antagonistic pleiotropies between evolutionary change in a gene sequence, dosage or activity and the susceptibility of individuals to autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. We present current knowledge about genes and alterations in gene regulatory landscapes, which have likely played a role in establishing human-specific traits and have been implicated in those diseases.

Maternal infection during pregnancy and likelihood of autism and intellectual disability in children in Sweden: a negative control and sibling comparison cohort study

BACKGROUND

Maternal infections during pregnancy are associated with intellectual disability and autism in exposed children. Whether these associations are causal, and therefore should be targets of preventive strategies, remains unknown. We aimed to investigate these associations, to determine whether there is a causal role of maternal infection during pregnancy for children's risk of autism and intellectual disability, by accounting for unmeasured familial factors.

METHODS

We used a register-based cohort study design, and included children living in Stockholm County, Sweden, who were born in 1987-2010. We excluded children not born in Sweden, adopted children, and children with unknown biological mothers or fathers. Maternal infections during pregnancy, defined by ICD-8, ICD-9, and ICD-10 codes, were identified in the National Patient Register and Medical Birth Register. Children were followed up from birth to an outcome or a censoring event (death, migration from Stockholm, age 18 years, or Dec 31, 2016, whichever occurred first). The primary outcomes were diagnosis of autism or diagnosis of intellectual disability. We did a survival analysis to examine the association between inpatient and outpatient specialised care for any infection during pregnancy and likelihood of autism or intellectual disability in the child. To address potential residual confounding, we also estimated the relationship between maternal infection in the year preceding pregnancy as a negative control exposure and conducted a matched sibling analysis of sibling pairs who were discordant for autism or intellectual disability.

FINDINGS

647 947 children living in Stockholm County were identified and, after excluding 97 980 children, we included 549 967 in the study (267 995 [48·7%] were female and 281 972 [51·3%] were male; mean age at censoring 13·5 years [SD 5·0; range <1 to 18]; 142 597 [25·9%] had a mother who was not born in Sweden). 445 (1·3%) of 34 013 children exposed to maternal infection during pregnancy were diagnosed with intellectual disability and 1123 (3·3%) with autism. 5087 (1·0%) of 515 954 unexposed children were diagnosed with intellectual disability and 13 035 (2·5%) with autism. Maternal infection during pregnancy was associated with autism (hazard ratio [HR] 1·16, 95% CI 1·09-1·23) and intellectual disability (1·37, 1·23-1·51) in exposed children compared with unexposed children. Maternal infection in the year before pregnancy (negative control exposure) was also associated with autism (HR 1·25, 95% CI 1·14-1·36), but was not associated with intellectual disability (1·09, 0·94-1·27). In sibling comparisons, the associations with maternal infection during pregnancy were attenuated for autism (HR 0·94, 95% CI 0·82-1·08; n=21 864), but not to the same extent for intellectual disability (1·15, 0·95-1·40; n=9275).

INTERPRETATION

Although infections in pregnant women are associated with both autism and intellectual disability in their children, the association with autism does not appear to reflect a causal relationship, but is more likely to be explained by factors shared between family members such as genetic variation or aspects of the shared environment. Thus, infection prevention is not expected to reduce autism incidence. For intellectual disability, unmeasured familial factors might not fully explain the observed associations, and a causal role of maternal infections cannot be excluded. Causal effects of specific but rare infections or infections not requiring health care contact cannot be excluded in either autism or intellectual disability.

FUNDING

Swedish Research Council, Stanley Medical Research Institute, and Autism Speaks.

TRANSLATION

For the Swedish translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Neurodiversity and Intelligence: Evaluating the Flynn Effect in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The Flynn Effect (FE) among child and adolescent populations indicates that intelligence scores improve by about three points per decade. Using nine years of data from the National Database for Autism Research, this study examined whether general intelligence changed significantly for nine cohorts with autism spectrum disorder (ASD; N = 671). Analyses demonstrated a downward trend such that Cohen's d from 1998 to 2006 was - 0.27. The mean IQ is 92.74 for years 1-3, 91.54 for years 4-6, and 87.34 for years 7-9, indicating a reverse FE of 5.4 points per decade. A linear regression revealed a significant negative FE comparable to the positive effect of age on IQ among those with ASD. Implications for research, practice, and law are discussed.

Three laws of teleonometrics

We define teleonometrics as the theoretical and empirical study of teleonomy. We propose three laws for teleonometrics. The first law describes the hierarchical organization of teleonomic functions across biological levels from genes to individuals. According to this law, the number of goal-directed functions increases from individuals (one goal, maximizing inclusive fitness) to intermediate levels and to genes and alleles (myriad time-, space- and context-dependent goals, depending upon degrees and patterns of pleiotropy). The second law describes the operation of teleonomic functions under trade-offs, coadaptations and negative and positive pleiotropies, which are universal in biological systems. According to this law, the functions of an allele, gene or trait are described and defined by patterns of antagonistic (trading off) and compatible (coadapted) functions. The third law of teleonometrics is that the major transitions in evolution are driven by the origins of novel, emergent goals associated with functional changes and by the breaking and reshaping of trade-offs, especially by mechanisms involving increases in resources or time, and new divisions of labour or function. We illustrate the application of these laws using data from three empirical vignettes, which help to show the usefulness of teleonometric viewpoints for understanding the interfaces between function, trade-offs and dysfunctions manifest as disease.

The “Primitive Brain Dysfunction” Theory of Autism: The Superior Colliculus Role

A better understanding of the pathogenesis of autism will help clarify our conception of the complexity of normal brain development. The crucial deficit may lie in the postnatal changes that vision produces in the brainstem nuclei during early life. The superior colliculus is the primary brainstem visual center. Although difficult to examine in humans with present techniques, it is known to support behaviors essential for every vertebrate to survive, such as the ability to pay attention to relevant stimuli and to produce automatic motor responses based on sensory input. From birth to death, it acts as a brain sentinel that influences basic aspects of our behavior. It is the main brainstem hub that lies between the environment and the rest of the higher neural system, making continuous, implicit decisions about where to direct our attention. The conserved cortex-like organization of the superior colliculus in all vertebrates allows the early appearance of primitive emotionally-related behaviors essential for survival. It contains first-line specialized neurons enabling the detection and tracking of faces and movements from birth. During development, it also sends the appropriate impulses to help shape brain areas necessary for social-communicative abilities. These abilities require the analysis of numerous variables, such as the simultaneous evaluation of incoming information sustained by separate brain networks (visual, auditory and sensory-motor, social, emotional, etc.), and predictive capabilities which compare present events to previous experiences and possible responses. These critical aspects of decision-making allow us to evaluate the impact that our response or behavior may provoke in others. The purpose of this review is to show that several enigmas about the complexity of autism might be explained by disruptions of collicular and brainstem functions. The results of two separate lines of investigation: 1. the cognitive, etiologic, and pathogenic aspects of autism on one hand, and two. the functional anatomy of the colliculus on the other, are considered in order to bridge the gap between basic brain science and clinical studies and to promote future research in this unexplored area.

Specialised minds: extending adaptive explanations of personality to the evolution of psychopathology

Traditional evolutionary theory invoked natural and sexual selection to explain species- and sex-typical traits. However, some heritable inter-individual variability in behaviour and psychology - personality - is probably adaptive. Here we extend this insight to common psychopathological traits. Reviewing key findings from three background areas of importance - theoretical models, non-human personality and evolved human social dynamics - we propose that a combination of social niche specialisation, negative frequency-dependency, balancing selection and adaptive developmental plasticity should explain adaptation for individual differences in psychology - 'specialised minds' - explaining some variance in personality and psychopathology trait dimensions, which share various characteristics. We suggest that anthropological research of behavioural differences should be extended past broad demographic factors (age and sex) to include individual specialisations. As a first step towards grounding psychopathology in ancestral social structure, we propose a minimum plausible prevalence, given likely ancestral group sizes, for negatively frequency-dependent phenotypes to be maintained as specialised tails of adaptive distributions - below the calculated prevalence, specialisation is highly unlikely. For instance, chronic highly debilitating forms of autism or schizophrenia are too rare for such explanations, whereas attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder and broad autism phenotypes are common enough to have existed in most hunter-gatherer bands, making adaptive explanations more plausible.

Can EEG Correlates Predict Treatment Efficacy in Children with Overlapping ASD and SLI Symptoms: A Case Report

Evaluation of the rehabilitation efficacy may be an essential indicator of its further implementation and planning. The research aim is to examine whether the estimation of EEG correlates of auditory-verbal processing in a child with overlapping autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and specific language impairment (SLI) symptoms may be a predictor of the treatment efficacy in conditions when behavioral tests do not show improvement during the time course. The prospective case report reports follow-up results in a child aged 36 to 66 months. During continuous integrative therapy, autism risk index, cognitive, speech–language, sensory, and EEG correlates of auditory-verbal information processing are recorded in six test periods, and their mutual interrelation was analyzed. The obtained results show a high statistically significant correlation of all observed functions with EEG correlates related to the difference between the average mean values of theta rhythm in the left (F1, F3, F7) and right (F2, F4, F8) frontal region. The temporal dynamics of the examined processes point to the consistency of the evaluated functions increasing with time flow. These findings indicate that EEG correlates of auditory-verbal processing may be used to diagnose treatment efficacy in children with overlapping ASD and SLI.

Understanding strengths and challenges of people with autism: insights from parents and practitioners

This study is an attempt to bridge the gap between the understanding of strengths and challenges of people with autism to operationalize a strength-based approach to serve people with autism effectively. By virtue of being based on firsthand accounts by parents and practitioners the people who spend prolonged periods with people with autism in natural settings, and are privy to direct observation of abilities and challenges, the study yields in-depth information that addresses a continued gap in the existing literature on the subject. Twenty participants (13 parents and seven practitioners) took part in the study through a semi-structured questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. Data were analyzed following qualitative thematic analysis methodology. Strengths and related challenges experienced were extracted as the broad themes, based on which support needs were derived and future directions recommended. The paper recommends strategic home-school collaborations with crucial, concurrent roles played by parents and practitioners.

Two neuroanatomical subtypes of males with autism spectrum disorder revealed using semi-supervised machine learning

Background

Clinical and etiological varieties remain major obstacles to decompose heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Recently, neuroimaging raised new hope to identify neurosubtypes of ASD for further understanding the biological mechanisms behind the disorder.

Methods

In this study, brain structural MRI data and clinical measures of 221 male subjects with ASD and 257 healthy controls were selected from 7 independent sites from the Autism Brain Image Data Exchange database (ABIDE). Heterogeneity through discriminative analysis (HYDRA), a recently-proposed semi-supervised clustering method was utilized to divide individuals with ASD into several neurosubtypes by regional volumetric measures of gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid. Voxel-wise volume, clinical measures, dynamic resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (R-fMRI) measures among different neurosubtypes of ASD were explored. In addition, support vector machine (SVM) model was applied to test whether the neurosubtyping of ASD could improve diagnostic accuracy of ASD.

Results

Two neurosubtypes of ASD with different voxel-wise volumetric patterns were revealed. The full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ), verbal IQ, Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) total scores and ADOS severity scores were significantly different between the two neurosubtypes, the total intracranial volume was correlated with performance IQ in Subtype 1 and was correlated with ADOS communication score and ADOS social score in Subtype 2. Compared with Subtype 2, Subtype 1 showed lower dynamic R-fMRI measures, lower dynamic functional architecture stability, higher mean and lower standard deviation (SD) of concordance among dynamic R-fMRI measures in cerebellum. In addition, classification accuracies between ASD neurosubtypes and healthy controls were significantly improved compared with classification accuracy between entire ASD group and healthy controls.

Limitations

The present study excluded female subjects and left-handed subjects, which limited the ability to investigate the associations between these factors and the heterogeneity of ASD.

Conclusions

The two distinct neuroanatomical subtypes of ASD validated by other data modalities not only adds reliability of the result, but also bridges from brain phenomenology to clinical behavior. The current neurosubtypes of ASD could facilitate understanding the neuropathology of this disorder and could be potentially used to improve clinical decision-making process and optimize treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13229-022-00489-3.

Diversity of Intelligence is the Norm Within the Autism Spectrum: Full Scale Intelligence Scores Among Children with ASD

Although previous research helped to define differences in intelligence between neurotypicals and those with ASD, results were limited by small sample sizes or restricted subtests. Using data from the NIMH Data Archive, this study examined the intelligence of children with ASD (N = 671). Results demonstrate an average standard deviation of 25.75, which is 1.72 times greater than that of the normative sample for the WISC-III. Moreover, students with ASD are 12 times more likely than the general population of students to score within the intellectual disability range, but are also 1.5 times more likely to score in the superior range, suggesting that more students with ASD should be considered for giftedness. Determining the diversity of intelligence among those with ASD has implications for research, clinical practice, and neurological understanding.

The hallmarks of autism

I suggest that the current study of autism is problematic, due to: (1) its failure to pursue a medical model of disease causation, with protocols for differential diagnoses of causes; (2) a notable incidence of unrecognized false positive diagnoses in children; (3) the conceptual equating of autism with sets of traits that have been shown to be genetically and phenotypically unrelated to one another; and (4) the expansion of use of the terms "autism" and "autism traits" to psychiatric conditions that have no substantive etiological or symptomatic overlap with autism. These problems can be alleviated by, like Kanner, considering autism as a syndrome, a constellation of traits, conceptualized as differences rather than deficits, some set of which is found in each affected individual to some degree. The original, prototypical form of autism can be delineated based on the "hallmarks" of autism: a set of core traits, originally explicated by Kanner, that defines a relatively-homogeneous group, and that connects with the larger set of autism symptoms. The hallmarks of autism provide a touchstone for research that is unambiguous, historically continuous to the present, and linked with major theories for explaining the causes and symptoms of autism. Use of the hallmarks of autism does not impact recognition and treatment of individuals with DSM diagnosed autism, or individuals with the many disorders that involve social deficits. This perspective is compatible with the research domain criteria approach to studying autism, via analyses of autism's constituent traits and the differential diagnosis of its individual-specific causes.

High Intellectual Potential and High Functioning Autism: Clinical and Neurophysiological Features in a Pediatric Sample

High Intellectual Potential (HIP) and High Functioning Autism (HFA) are two different conditions sharing some clinical and neurobiological features. The aim of the present study was to characterize a sample of HIP children (n: 16; M/F: 14/2; median age: 10 years) in comparison to those with HFA (n: 17; M/F: 16/1; median age: 13 years) and to neurotypically developed (NTD) children (n: 10; M/F: 4/6; median age: 11 years) from a clinical and neurophysiological perspective. Specifically, a standardized clinical assessment of cognitive and adaptive skills, autistic symptoms, executive functions and behavioral features was performed. Moreover, event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded, referring specifically to the mismatch negativity (MMN) and P300 paradigm. Our data highlighted the presence of similarities between the intellectually gifted individuals and the ones with autism (i.e., a nonhomogeneous intellective profile, an adaptive skills impairment, subthreshold autistic symptoms and increased perfectionism). Interestingly, a distinct neurophysiological characterization between groups came out, with evidence of a reduced MMN amplitude only in the HFA group. Furthermore, no differences within groups in the P300 component emerged. Therefore, our results start to provide a more informative characterization of the HIP phenotype in comparison to those of HFA and NTD, highlighting the potential role of the MMN amplitude index in helping clinicians and researchers to distinguish between HIP and HFA. Nevertheless, further research on the topic is strongly needed.

Association of phthalate exposure with autistic traits in children

BACKGROUND

Phthalates are synthetic chemicals with endocrine-disrupting properties. They are reportedly associated with various neurotoxic outcomes. Studies on exposure to phthalates and children's autistic traits have shown inconsistent results with respect to sex and susceptible time periods. We investigated the association of phthalate exposure during the prenatal period and childhood with autistic traits over time using a birth cohort in South Korea.

METHODS

Five phthalate metabolites were measured during mid-term pregnancy and children's follow-up at ages of 4, 6, and 8 years among a total of 547 mother-child pairs. The social communication questionnaire (SCQ) was used to assess autistic traits of children at each time point. The relationship between phthalate metabolites and SCQ scores were analyzed by exposure windows and sex.

RESULTS

A 2.7 fold increase in di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolite levels, mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) and mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) during pregnancy was associated with increased SCQ scores at 4 years by 8.5% (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.9%, 15.5%) and 7.4% (95% CI: 0.3%, 15.0%), respectively, but not at the age of 6 or 8 years. Moreover, MEHHP levels at ages of 4 and 8 years were associated with increased SCQ scores at 8 years by 9.9% (95% CI: 1.8%, 18.6%) and 9.6% (95% CI: 1.3%, 18.6%), respectively. Boys showed stronger associations between phthalate exposure and SCQ scores than girls.

CONCLUSION

The study suggested different susceptible time windows of phthalate exposure: exposure during pregnancy is associated with autistic traits in young children, whereas exposure during early childhood years leads to autistic traits in school-aged children, particularly boys.

High intelligence may exacerbate paediatric inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2 infection

The body’s innate and acquired immune systems are critical in responses to a wide spectrum of assaults, including SARS-CoV-2 infection. We identify studies of autoimmunity to support our hypothesis that a high intelligence quotient (IQ) may put children at increased risk for severe COVID-19 sequelae; especially those whose viral load is high and/or who develop multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). MIS-C is associated with a higher risk of COVID-19 morbidity and death, even in otherwise healthy children. As information and evidence about SARS-CoV-2 infection continue to expand, our hypothesis suggests adding a potentially intriguing piece to the pandemic puzzle for further investigation. Drawing on a select review of published research and case reports, we discuss immune dysregulation in paediatric patients with a high IQ, including post-infection cytokine expression in the myocardium. Further, we provide a review of 27 paediatric (≤19 years; median age 16) cases of severe COVID-19 outcomes, drawn from media sources published between March and September 2020, in which we identify possible evidence of a ‘hyper brain, hyper body’ response to infection. We aver these cases are noteworthy given that paediatric death with COVID-19 disease is remarkably rare, and the estimated prevalence of a high IQ (or giftedness) is only 2% in the general population. These observations warrant prospective and retrospective studies of autoinflammatory markers and mechanisms to elucidate any special psychoneuroimmunological vulnerability in children with a high IQ, as such studies may raise implications for how and when prophylactic medical care is provided to children.

Genomic selection signatures in autism spectrum disorder identifies cognitive genomic tradeoff and its relevance in paradoxical phenotypes of deficits versus potentialities

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by paradoxical phenotypes of deficits as well as gain in brain function. To address this a genomic tradeoff hypothesis was tested and followed up with the biological interaction and evolutionary significance of positively selected ASD risk genes. SFARI database was used to retrieve the ASD risk genes while for population datasets 1000 genome data was used. Common risk SNPs were subjected to machine learning as well as independent tests for selection, followed by Bayesian analysis to identify the cumulative effect of selection on risk SNPs. Functional implication of these positively selected risk SNPs was assessed and subjected to ontology analysis, pertaining to their interaction and enrichment of biological and cellular functions. This was followed by comparative analysis with the ancient genomes to identify their evolutionary patterns. Our results identified significant positive selection signals in 18 ASD risk SNPs. Functional and ontology analysis indicate the role of biological and cellular processes associated with various brain functions. The core of the biological interaction network constitutes genes for cognition and learning while genes in the periphery of the network had direct or indirect impact on brain function. Ancient genome analysis identified de novo and conserved evolutionary selection clusters. The de-novo evolutionary cluster represented genes involved in cognitive function. Relative enrichment of the ASD risk SNPs from the respective evolutionary cluster or biological interaction networks may help in addressing the phenotypic diversity in ASD. This cognitive genomic tradeoff signatures impacting the biological networks can explain the paradoxical phenotypes in ASD.

Comparative analysis reveals distinctive epigenetic features of the human cerebellum

Identifying the molecular underpinnings of the neural specializations that underlie human cognitive and behavioral traits has long been of considerable interest. Much research on human-specific changes in gene expression and epigenetic marks has focused on the prefrontal cortex, a brain structure distinguished by its role in executive functions. The cerebellum shows expansion in great apes and is gaining increasing attention for its role in motor skills and cognitive processing, including language. However, relatively few molecular studies of the cerebellum in a comparative evolutionary context have been conducted. Here, we identify human-specific methylation in the lateral cerebellum relative to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, in a comparative study with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Specifically, we profiled genome-wide methylation levels in the three species for each of the two brain structures and identified human-specific differentially methylated genomic regions unique to each structure. We further identified which differentially methylated regions (DMRs) overlap likely regulatory elements and determined whether associated genes show corresponding species differences in gene expression. We found greater human-specific methylation in the cerebellum than the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, with differentially methylated regions overlapping genes involved in several conditions or processes relevant to human neurobiology, including synaptic plasticity, lipid metabolism, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, and neurodevelopment, including developmental disorders. Moreover, our results show some overlap with those of previous studies focused on the neocortex, indicating that such results may be common to multiple brain structures. These findings further our understanding of the cerebellum in human brain evolution.

Humans are distinguished from other species by several aspects of cognition. While much comparative evolutionary neuroscience has focused on the neocortex, increasing recognition of the cerebellum’s role in cognition and motor processing has inspired considerable new research. Comparative molecular studies, however, generally continue to focus on the neocortex. We sought to characterize potential genetic regulatory traits distinguishing the human cerebellum by undertaking genome-wide epigenetic profiling of the lateral cerebellum, and compared this to the prefrontal cortex of humans, chimpanzees, and rhesus macaque monkeys. We found that humans showed greater differential CpG methylation–an epigenetic modification of DNA that can reflect past or present gene expression–in the cerebellum than the prefrontal cortex, highlighting the importance of this structure in human brain evolution. Humans also specifically show methylation differences at genes involved in neurodevelopment, neuroinflammation, synaptic plasticity, and lipid metabolism. These differences are relevant for understanding processes specific to humans, such as extensive plasticity, as well as pronounced and prevalent neurodegenerative conditions associated with aging.

Self-reported impediments at home, school, and community: autistic adults' first-person accounts of their life trajectories and derived pathways

Objectives: Despite suggestions of strengths and abilities of autistic people, it has been an underexplored area in autism research, the primary focus of which has been on examining differences and atypicalities as deficits rather than strengths. Understanding the self-reported impediments via first-person accounts of autistic adults for facilitating the strengths is an important prerequisite for an in-depth comprehension of the unique diversities and potentialities of autistic people, and roadmap development. Methods: The study is based on qualitative phenomenological inductive thematic analysis through in-depth interviews with 10 verbally- and cognitively-able autistic adults, following purposive and snowball sampling. Results: The impediments at home, school, and communities are presented through the five inductively extracted themes. Additionally, the study proposes future pathways for fostering an effective environment to nurture the innate potentialities of autistic people via a strength-focused lens. Conclusion: The study endorses the paradox of strength and atypicalities and advocates a shift from a deficit-focused approach to a strength-focused approach of support, and promotes the neurodiverse model of acceptance and embrace.

An expanding manifold in transmodal regions characterizes adolescent reconfiguration of structural connectome organization

Adolescence is a critical time for the continued maturation of brain networks. Here, we assessed structural connectome development in a large longitudinal sample ranging from childhood to young adulthood. By projecting high-dimensional connectomes into compact manifold spaces, we identified a marked expansion of structural connectomes, with strongest effects in transmodal regions during adolescence. Findings reflected increased within-module connectivity together with increased segregation, indicating increasing differentiation of higher-order association networks from the rest of the brain. Projection of subcortico-cortical connectivity patterns into these manifolds showed parallel alterations in pathways centered on the caudate and thalamus. Connectome findings were contextualized via spatial transcriptome association analysis, highlighting genes enriched in cortex, thalamus, and striatum. Statistical learning of cortical and subcortical manifold features at baseline and their maturational change predicted measures of intelligence at follow-up. Our findings demonstrate that connectome manifold learning can bridge the conceptual and empirical gaps between macroscale network reconfigurations, microscale processes, and cognitive outcomes in adolescent development.

Pattern Unifies Autism

Autism is a highly heterogeneous condition, genetically and phenotypically. This diversity of causation and presentation has impeded its definition, recognition, assessment, and treatment. Current diagnostic criteria for autism involve two domains, restricted interests and repetitive behavior (RRBs) and social deficits, whose relationship remains unclear. I suggest that the large suite of traits associated with autism can be usefully conceptualized under the single rubric of "pattern," a term that connects autism with basic brain and cognitive functions and structures its phenotypes within a single theoretical framework. Autism thus involves increases and enhancements to pattern perception, pattern recognition, pattern maintenance, pattern generation, pattern processing, and pattern seeking. RRBs result from increased and imbalanced pattern-related perception and cognition, and social alterations result in part from the usual lack of clear pattern in social interactions, combined with the interference of RRBs with social development. This framework has strong implications for assessment of social and non-social autism-related traits, personalized therapy, and priorities for research.

Three models for the regulation of polygenic scores in reproduction

The past few years have brought significant breakthroughs in understanding human genetics. This knowledge has been used to develop 'polygenic scores' (or 'polygenic risk scores') which provide probabilistic information about the development of polygenic conditions such as diabetes or schizophrenia. They are already being used in reproduction to select for embryos at lower risk of developing disease. Currently, the use of polygenic scores for embryo selection is subject to existing regulations concerning embryo testing and selection. Existing regulatory approaches include 'disease-based' models which limit embryo selection to avoiding disease characteristics (employed in various formats in Australia, the UK, Italy, Switzerland and France, among others), and 'laissez-faire' or 'libertarian' models, under which embryo testing and selection remain unregulated (as in the USA). We introduce a novel 'Welfarist Model' which limits embryo selection according to the impact of the predicted trait on well-being. We compare the strengths and weaknesses of each model as a way of regulating polygenic scores. Polygenic scores create the potential for existing embryo selection technologies to be used to select for a wider range of predicted genetically influenced characteristics including continuous traits. Indeed, polygenic scores exist to predict future intelligence, and there have been suggestions that they will be used to make predictions within the normal range in the USA in embryo selection. We examine how these three models would apply to the prediction of non-disease traits such as intelligence. The genetics of intelligence remains controversial both scientifically and ethically. This paper does not attempt to resolve these issues. However, as with many biomedical advances, an effective regulatory regime must be in place as soon as the technology is available. If there is no regulation in place, then the market effectively decides ethical issues.

A Unifying Theory for Autism: The Pathogenetic Triad as a Theoretical Framework

This paper presents a unifying theory for autism by applying the framework of a pathogenetic triad to the scientific literature. It proposes a deconstruction of autism into three contributing features (an autistic personality dimension, cognitive compensation, and neuropathological risk factors), and delineates how they interact to cause a maladaptive behavioral phenotype that may require a clinical diagnosis. The autistic personality represents a common core condition, which induces a set of behavioral issues when pronounced. These issues are compensated for by cognitive mechanisms, allowing the individual to remain adaptive and functional. Risk factors, both exogenous and endogenous ones, show pathophysiological convergence through their negative effects on neurodevelopment. This secondarily affects cognitive compensation, which disinhibits a maladaptive behavioral phenotype. The triad is operationalized and methods for quantification are presented. With respect to the breadth of findings in the literature that it can incorporate, it is the most comprehensive model yet for autism. Its main implications are that (1) it presents the broader autism phenotype as a non-pathological core personality domain, which is shared across the population and uncoupled from associated features such as low cognitive ability and immune dysfunction, (2) it proposes that common genetic variants underly the personality domain, and that rare variants act as risk factors through negative effects on neurodevelopment, (3) it outlines a common pathophysiological mechanism, through inhibition of neurodevelopment and cognitive dysfunction, by which a wide range of endogenous and exogenous risk factors lead to autism, and (4) it suggests that contributing risk factors, and findings of immune and autonomic dysfunction are clinically ascertained rather than part of the core autism construct.

The blind men and the elephant: What is missing cognitively in the study of cumulative technological evolution

I describe and explain (1) evidence regarding a key role for autism spectrum cognition in human technology; (2) tradeoffs of autistic cognition with social skills; and (3) a model of how cumulative technological culture evolves. This model involves positive feedback whereby increased technical complexity selects for enhanced social learning of mechanistic concepts and skills, leading to further advances in technology.

Adjusting for allometric scaling in ABIDE I challenges subcortical volume differences in autism spectrum disorder

Inconsistencies across studies investigating subcortical correlates of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may stem from small sample size, sample heterogeneity, and omitting or linearly adjusting for total brain volume (TBV). To properly adjust for TBV, brain allometry—the nonlinear scaling relationship between regional volumes and TBV—was considered when examining subcortical volumetric differences between typically developing (TD) and ASD individuals. Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange I (ABIDE I; N = 654) data was analyzed with two methodological approaches: univariate linear mixed effects models and multivariate multiple group confirmatory factor analyses. Analyses were conducted on the entire sample and in subsamples based on age, sex, and full scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ). A similar ABIDE I study was replicated and the impact of different TBV adjustments on neuroanatomical group differences was investigated. No robust subcortical allometric or volumetric group differences were observed in the entire sample across methods. Exploratory analyses suggested that allometric scaling and volume group differences may exist in certain subgroups defined by age, sex, and/or FSIQ. The type of TBV adjustment influenced some reported volumetric and scaling group differences. This study supports the absence of robust volumetric differences between ASD and TD individuals in the investigated volumes when adjusting for brain allometry, expands the literature by finding no group difference in allometric scaling, and further suggests that differing TBV adjustments contribute to the variability of reported neuroanatomical differences in ASD.

The Myth of the Stupid Believer: The Negative Religiousness-IQ Nexus is Not on General Intelligence (g) and is Likely a Product of the Relations Between IQ and Autism Spectrum Traits

Numerous studies have found a negative relationship between religiousness and IQ. It is in the region of - 0.2, according to meta-analyses. The reasons for this relationship are, however, unknown. It has been suggested that higher intelligence leads to greater attraction to science, or that it helps to override evolved cognitive dispositions such as for religiousness. Either way, such explanations assume that the religion-IQ nexus is on general intelligence (g), rather than some subset of specialized cognitive abilities. In other words, they assume it is a Jensen effect. Two large datasets comparing groups with different levels of religiousness show that their IQ differences are not on g and must, therefore, be attributed to specialized abilities. An analysis of the specialized abilities on which the religious and non-religious groups differ reveals no clear pattern. We cautiously suggest that this may be explicable in terms of autism spectrum disorder traits among people with high IQ scores, because such traits are negatively associated with religiousness.

Cross-Disciplinary Appraisal of Knowledge and Beliefs Regarding the Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in India: A Cross-Sectional Survey

BACKGROUND

Many healthcare professionals, including pediatricians, psychiatrists, Clinical Psychologists (CPs), Occupational Therapists (OTs), and Speech-Language Pathologists (SLPs), are involved in the identification and intervention of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in children. Distinctive training backgrounds and professional exposure can result in contrasting ideas regarding the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of ASD. Only a few studies have addressed the cross-disciplinary perspective of knowledge, belief, and awareness about diagnostic criteria required for diagnosing ASD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 154 allied healthcare professionals (98 SLPs, 33 CPs, and 23 OTs) participated in the study. The survey tool used for this study was adapted from a previously available survey on the assessment of knowledge and belief about ASD and self-efficacy.

RESULTS

The overall knowledge and belief of allied healthcare professionals regarding ASD differed significantly across the groups. However, the knowledge of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) diagnostic criteria for ASD did not differ significantly between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Our findings have salient clinical implications and advocates for the continued education of healthcare professionals in India regarding recent diagnostic criteria for ASD.

Toward a Neural Model of the Openness-Psychoticism Dimension: Functional Connectivity in the Default and Frontoparietal Control Networks

Psychosis proneness has been linked to heightened Openness to Experience and to cognitive deficits. Openness and psychotic disorders are associated with the default and frontoparietal networks, and the latter network is also robustly associated with intelligence. We tested the hypothesis that functional connectivity of the default and frontoparietal networks is a neural correlate of the openness-psychoticism dimension. Participants in the Human Connectome Project (N = 1003) completed measures of psychoticism, openness, and intelligence. Resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to identify intrinsic connectivity networks. Structural equation modeling revealed relations among personality, intelligence, and network coherence. Psychoticism, openness, and especially their shared variance were related positively to default network coherence and negatively to frontoparietal coherence. These associations remained after controlling for intelligence. Intelligence was positively related to frontoparietal coherence. Research suggests that psychoticism and openness are linked in part through their association with connectivity in networks involving experiential simulation and cognitive control. We propose a model of psychosis risk that highlights roles of the default and frontoparietal networks. Findings echo research on functional connectivity in psychosis patients, suggesting shared mechanisms across the personality-psychopathology continuum.

The Association of Paternal IQ With Autism Spectrum Disorders and Its Comorbidities: A Population-Based Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Original case descriptions of autism noted that parents of the affected children tended to be highly educated and intelligent, a characterization that has endured publicly. Recent genetic studies indicate that risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is associated with high intelligence. We examined the association between paternal intelligence and ASD, considering co-occurring intellectual disability (ID) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHOD

We used a register-based cohort study design including 360,151 individuals with fathers conscripted to the Swedish military, resident in Stockholm, Sweden, born from 1984 to 2008, and followed until December 31, 2011, for diagnosis of ASD, ADHD, and/or ID. Risk of neurodevelopmental disorders relative to paternal IQ (rated on a 9-point scale) was assessed using a score of 5 (average intelligence) as the referent in models accounting for potentially nonlinear relationships and clustering of siblings.

RESULTS

We observed an association between high paternal IQ and offspring risk of ASD without ID/ADHD in models adjusted for individual and family characteristics (OR_IQ=9 1.32, 95% CI 1.15-1.52), an association that appeared to be driven largely by the fathers' score on the technical comprehension portion of the test (OR_{Technical IQ = 9} 1.53, 95% CI 1.31-1.78). Conversely, low paternal IQ was associated with ASD+ID (OR_{IQ = 1}1.78, 95% CI 1.27-2.49) and ASD+ADHD (OR_{IQ = 1}1.40, 95% CI 1.16-1.70); low paternal IQ was strongly associated with ID (OR_{IQ = 1} 4.46, 95% CI 3.62-5.49) and present also for ADHD (OR_{IQ = 1}1.56, 95% CI 1.42-1.72)] without co-occurring ASD or ID.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between paternal IQ and offspring risk of ASD was nonmonotonic and varied by the presence of co-occurring disorders, probably reflecting phenotypic diversity among affected individuals.

Gender-Specific Effect of 5-HT and 5-HIAA on Threshold Level of Behavioral Symptoms and Sex-Bias in Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder

Platelet hyperserotonemia in a subset of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) probands, efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in reducing behavioral deficits and gender-bias in normal serotonin (5-hydroxy tryptamine or 5-HT) synthesis suggest disruption in stringent regulation of serotonin metabolism in ASD. Therefore, we investigated the changes in 5-HT and 5-hydroxy indole acetic acid (5-HIAA) in ASD probands to assess its effect on the behavior of male and female probands. ASD cases (n = 215) were examined using childhood autism rating scale (CARS). Platelet 5-HT (104 cases and 26 controls) and platelet/plasma 5-HIAA (73 cases and 17 controls) were estimated using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detector (HPLC-ECD). In male probands, we observed increase in platelet 5-HT content in association with increase in the score for adaptive responses and increase in platelet 5-HIAA levels with concomitant decline in the score for intellectual response. Age did not influence the neurochemical parameters, but imitation, listening responses and nonverbal communication scores decreased with age. Conversely in female probands, plasma 5-HIAA level significantly attenuated with age, when platelet 5-HT content remained unchanged. Interestingly, platelet/plasma 5-HT and plasma 5-HIAA were higher in female controls. Female probands displayed severe autism-associated behaviors. Overall results indicate gender-bias in 5-HT and 5-HIAA regulation, which probably increases the threshold level of ASD phenotypes in the females, thereby affecting ASD prevalence in a sex-specific manner.