We Can’t Keep Meating Like This: Attitudes towards Vegetarian and Vegan Diets in the United Kingdom

A review of policy levers to reduce meat production and consumption

It is increasingly apparent that we require a substantial reduction in animal production and consumption for the sake of the environment and public health. In this paper, we conducted a systematic review to explore the policy levers available for governments to reduce animal farming and the consumption of meat. The policy levers generated by the review are categorised by four main types of interventions: Financial measures, Command- and-control, Informational, and Behavioural. First, we explore four financial measures: taxes on meat is the most-studied intervention, and the least publicly accepted in polling, sometimes being implemented indirectly via measures such as carbon taxes or rescinding VAT exemptions; subsidies for animal product alternatives are considered as a more publicly acceptable alternative approach, and would reduce long-term demand for meat by making alternatives more competitive; agricultural carbon trading schemes are discussed, and may represent a politically feasible way to hold livestock producers accountable for negative externalities; and buyouts of animal farms can be an impactful way to compensate producers to leave the industry, but must be done with care to avoid unintended social and market consequences. Second, we explore two command-and-control measures: regulating animal production with standards such as animal welfare requirements and health and safety rights for agricultural workers is amongst the most well-supported policies, and is an impactful way to ensure minimum standards of production are met; however, restrictions on animal consumption, such as meat-free days in public catering, are less publicly accepted. Third, we discuss three informational measures: food product labels, such as animal welfare or environmental impact labels, fulfil consumers' expectations to have this information, and although there is limited evidence that they impact consumer behaviour directly, such labels may nonetheless incentivise producers to competitively improve; likewise, national dietary guidelines appear to have little direct impact on food choices, but can impact other institutions such as schools and medical institutions; policies on information campaigns can help or hurt meat reduction efforts, with some jurisdictions prohibiting meat advertisements, while others spend millions on campaigns to promote meat consumption. Fourth, we explore a range of behavioural measures which could be implemented in public catering settings and/or incentivised in food service, including presentation and positioning of meat- and plant-based dishes, and altering the food options on offer - we find that adding more high-quality plant-based options to menus and presenting these options as the default wherever the format allows are highly impactful and tractable behavioural policies that could reduce meat consumption. Informational and behavioural measures can complement traditional fiscal and command-and-control measures to reduce animal production and consumption. We discuss the implications for researchers and policymakers.

Consumer Values, Attitudes, and Behavior towards Plant-Based Alternatives

This study investigated the impact of consumer values and attitudes to consuming plant-based alternatives (PBAs), using the value-attitude-behavior framework. The research model and hypotheses were tested using a two-step approach to structural equation modeling on 392 responses collected from PBA consumers through a research company in Korea in November 2023. The results indicated that environmental consciousness and health consciousness significantly affected attitudes toward PBAs. Also, positive attitudes toward PBAs were critical for the formation of repurchase intentions for PBAs and PBA restaurant visit behavior. Our study contributes to both academics and PBA practitioners by showing how consumer values are associated with attitudes, PBAs repurchase intentions, and PBAs restaurant visits.

Plant-Based Meat Analogues and Consumer Interest in 3D-Printed Products: A Mini-Review

The markets for plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) are growing worldwide, showing the increasing consumer demand for and acceptance of these new products. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is a new technology with huge potential for printing products customised to suit consumers' wants and needs. There is a broad acceptance from consumers regarding the safety and desirability of consuming food products that are produced using 3D printing. As this is a new technology, consumers must be provided with relevant information from a trusted source, with further research needing to be conducted within the context of the identified market and culture. By embracing the strength of customisation of 3D printing and coupling this with the global demand for plant-based products, 3D printed PBMAs could be a future challenger to the currently popular production method of extrusion. Therefore, this article reviews consumer interests in PBMAs and summarises opportunities for using 3D printing technology to produce plant-based meat analogues.

A Healthful Plant-Based Diet as an Alternative Dietary Approach in the Management of Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease

Plant-based diets (PBDs) are gaining attention as a sustainable and health-conscious alternative for managing various chronic conditions, including metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). In the absence of pharmacological treatments, exploring the potential of lifestyle modifications to improve biochemical and pathological outcomes becomes crucial. The adoption of PBDs has demonstrated beneficial effects such as weight control, increased metabolic health and improved coexisting diseases. Nonetheless, challenges persist, including adherence difficulties, ensuring nutritional adequacy, and addressing potential deficiencies. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of PBDs on MASLD, emphasizing the need for tailored dietary interventions with professional support to optimize their effectiveness in preventing and treating metabolic diseases.

Differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals: Exploring the role of traits, beliefs, and motives

OBJECTIVE

This research examines differential responses to ethical vegetarian appeals as a fuction of individuals' personalities.

BACKGROUND

Ethical vegetarian appeals are persuasive messages promoting the adoption of a plant-based diet on moral grounds. Individuals may vary in their receptivity to such appeals, depending on their morally relevant traits (e.g., agreeableness), beliefs (e.g., speciesism), and motives (e.g., concerns about animal welfare).

METHODS

We explored (Study 1, N = 907) and then attempted to confirm (Study 2, N = 980) differential responses to three vegetarian appeals-two highlighting moral concerns (animal welfare, the environment) and a third focusing on individual health (control condition).

RESULTS

Both studies revealed several differential effects of our vegetarian appeals on the perceived effectiveness of the appeal and resultant intentions to reduce meat consumption. These mostly consisted of differences in receptivity to appeals focused on animal welfare. However, only one such effect observed in Study 1 was clearly replicated in Study 2: People who more strongly believed that eating meat was "normal" rated the vegetarian appeals focused on animal welfare as less effective.

CONCLUSION

Ethical vegetarian appeals may elicit different responses from different people, particularly those focused on animal welfare, depending on how normative one believes meat-eating to be. Such insights can inform behavior change efforts in this area.

COVID-19 in college: Risk perception and planned protective behavior

Objective: The Theory of Planned Behavior has been applied to COVID-19 protective behaviors, but evidence suggests this theory may be less predictive over time and less valid in individualistic societies. The current study applied this theory among American college students as vaccines became available and added perceived risk. Participants: 242 undergraduate students at two universities. Methods: Participants completed an online survey and analyses were conducted using PROCESS. Results: Perceived risk was indirectly related to protective behavior via intentions which were significantly impacted by positive attitudes, descriptive norms, and perceived behavioral control. Conclusions: Even within an individualistic culture and when vaccines were becoming available, the Theory of Planned Behavior predicts protective behaviors. Including risk perception also furthers understanding of this theory by identifying one factor related to norms and perceived behavioral control. These results may inform the design of interventions designed to increase compliance with pandemic-related policies and other positive behaviors.

Similarities and differences between vegetarians and vegans in motives for meat-free and plant-based diets

Plant-based diets are quickly gaining popularity for their benefits to animal welfare, the environment, and public health. Compared to meat-eaters, meat-abstainers such as vegetarians and vegans are especially motivated by animal rights and the environment. However, little is known about the motivational and psychological factors that distinguish vegetarians from vegans, and what prevents vegetarians to shift towards a fully plant-based diet. In a sample of vegans (n = 335) and vegetarians (n = 182), we investigated a) motives for reducing or quitting meat consumption and b) motives for reducing or quitting animal product (dairy and egg products) consumption, as well as moral psychological and social-contextual factors that may explain potential differences. Results demonstrate that vegetarians and vegans tend to be similar in their motives to abstain from meat consumption and are most strongly motivated by animal rights. However, vegetarians are less motivated by health, environmental, and especially animal rights for dairy/egg reduction compared to meat reduction and compared to vegans. Lower moral concern for animals, stronger beliefs in human supremacy over animals, and heightened veganism threat among vegetarians (vs. vegans) partly explained why vegetarians were less strongly motivated by animal rights for dairy/egg reduction. Human supremacy beliefs also explained differences between vegetarians and vegans in health and environmental motives for dairy/egg reduction. Furthermore, vegetarians reported significantly less social support for plant-based diets and perceived more practical barriers to plant-based diets than vegans. These findings reveal meaningful differences in the motivational and psychological profiles of vegetarians and vegans and highlight the value of distinguishing between motives for meat-free diets and motives for plant-based diets.

Barriers to Adopting a Plant-Based Diet in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Review

Adopting a plant-based diet (PBD) has been shown to reduce the risk of developing certain diseases and is linked to environmental benefits. This review synthesises the evidence on the barriers adults aged 18 to 65 living in high-income countries (HIC) may experience when adopting a PBD. A systematic literature review was conducted using four search databases: Medline, Embase, Global Health, and Web of Science. Barriers were mapped to behaviour change strategies using the COM-B model. Ten studies were included in the final review, including 1740 participants. Five were qualitative, four were cross-sectional, and one was a pre- and-post-intervention study. In total, 40 barriers were identified and synthesised into 11 themes: financial, lack of knowledge, emotional, health, convenience, social, enjoyment of meat, environmental, accessibility, personal ability, and media. Of the 40 barriers, nutritional intake/requirements (categorised into the "health" theme) had the most evidence. This barrier encompassed concerns around being able to meet nutritional needs if an individual were to adopt a PBD. Habits (in the "personal ability" theme), which included established eating habits and habitual behaviours relating to animal-source foods, had the second most evidence alongside the barrier of not knowing what to eat as part of a PBD (in the "lack of knowledge" theme). Education interventions and communication/marketing policies were the behaviour change mechanisms mapped onto these barriers. Future interventions should focus on informing individuals about what to consume as part of a nutritionally balanced PBD and facilitating habitual dietary change.

Post hoc analysis of food costs associated with Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet, whole food, plant-based diet, and typical baseline diet of individuals with insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus in a nonrandomized crossover trial with meals provided

BACKGROUND

Americans consume diets that fall short of dietary recommendations, and the cost of healthier diets is often cited as a barrier to dietary change. We conducted a nonrandomized crossover trial with meals provided utilizing 2 diets: Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) and whole food, plant-based (WFPB), and thus had intake data from baseline and both intervention diets.

OBJECTIVES

Using actual diet records, describe food costs of baseline diets of individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) as well as therapeutic DASH and WFPB diets.

METHODS

Three-day food records were collected and analyzed for each 7-d diet phase: baseline, DASH, and WFPB. Nutrient content was analyzed using the Nutrient Data System for Research and cost was determined using Fillet, an application to manage menu pricing. Food costs were calculated for each diet as consumed and adjusted to a standardized 1800 kcal/d. Ingredient-only costs of food away from home (FAFH) were approximated and analyzed. Costs were analyzed using linear mixed-effect models as a function of diet.

RESULTS

Fifteen subjects enrolled; 12 completed all dietary phases. The baseline, DASH, and WFPB diets, as consumed, cost $15.72/d (95% CI; $13.91, $17.53), $12.74/d ($11.23, $14.25), and $9.78/d ($7.97, $11.59), respectively. When adjusted to an 1800 kcal/d intake, the baseline, DASH, and WFPB diets cost $15.69/d ($13.87, $17.52), $14.92/d ($13.59, $16.26), and $11.96/d ($10.14, $13.78), respectively. When approximated ingredient-only costs of FAFH were analyzed, as consumed baseline [$11.01 ($9.53, $12.49)] and DASH diets [$11.81 ($10.44, $13.18)] had similar costs; WFPB diet [$8.83 ($7.35, $10.31)] cost the least.

CONCLUSIONS

In this short-term study with meals provided, the food costs of plant-predominant diets offering substantial metabolic health benefits were less than or similar to baseline food costs of adults with insulin-treated T2DM. Longer-term data without meal provision are needed for more generalizable results. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04048642.

Plant-based recovery from restrictive eating disorder: A qualitative enquiry

OBJECTIVES

Plant-based/vegan diets are growing in popularity. There are growing numbers of individuals adopting plant-based diets and there are legitimate concerns from professionals that this can enable food restriction or mask disordered eating. The aim of this study was to examine the role a plant-based diet can play for those in recovery from restrictive eating disorders (anorexia and bulimia nervosa).

METHODS

Interviews conducted with fourteen individuals who identified as having a restrictive eating disorder for which a plant-based diet played/plays an important part in their recovery. Semi-structured interviews explored the individual's lived experiences and motivations of adopting a plant-based diet, and perceptions of the role it played in recovery. Data was transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

RESULTS

Three key themes with six contributory subthemes were identified. Key themes were plant-based as a gateway to recovery, the changing value of food, and the function of control. Theme content highlighted an evolving role of identity and community, with a shift in meaning and value of food described, and for some, the development of a new relationship with their body. This facilitated a de-coupling of anxieties about food and promoted positive experiences of eating, esteem and empowerment.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings present a unique insight into the role that plant-based eating may play in recovery for some restrictive eating disorders. The data demonstrated that motivations to control food intake may contribute to the decision to eat plant-based. However, for these individuals it provided a "gateway" to a new more meaningful relationship with food. These findings highlight some of the risks and benefits of eating plant-based in recovery and an important role for health professionals in understanding/supporting individuals during recovery. w/c 280.

Health psychology and climate change: time to address humanity's most existential crisis

Climate change is an ongoing and escalating health emergency. It threatens the health and wellbeing of billions of people, through extreme weather events, displacement, food insecurity, pathogenic diseases, societal destabilisation, and armed conflict. Climate change dwarfs all other challenges studied by health psychologists. The greenhouse gas emissions driving climate change disproportionately originate from the actions of wealthy populations in the Global North and are tied to excessive energy use and overconsumption driven by the pursuit of economic growth. Addressing this crisis requires significant societal transformations and individual behaviour change. Most of these changes will benefit not only the stability of the climate but will yield significant public health co-benefits. Because of their unique expertise and skills, health psychologists are urgently needed in crafting climate change mitigation responses. We propose specific ways in which health psychologists at all career stages can contribute, within the spheres of research, teaching, and policy making, and within organisations and as private citizens. As health psychologists, we cannot sit back and leave climate change to climate scientists. Climate change is a health emergency that results from human behaviour; hence it is in our power and responsibility to address it.

Sensory Evaluation of Plant-Based Meat: Bridging the Gap with Animal Meat, Challenges and Future Prospects

Globally, the demand for plant-based meat is increasing rapidly as these products are becoming quite popular among vegans and vegetarians. However, its development is still in the early stage and faces various technological challenges; the imitation of the sensory profile of meat is the most challenging part as these products are meant to be an alternative to animal meat. The development of a product similar to meat requires accurate selection of ingredients and processing techniques. An understanding of the relevant sensory profile can help in constructing products and technologies that are consumer-centric and sustainable. In this review, we focus on the comparative differences in the sensory profiles of animal meat and plant-based meat alternatives, particularly regarding the color, texture, and flavor, along with the methods used to compare them. This paper also explains the sensory evaluation and how it affects consumer preference and acceptability. Additionally, a direction for further research on developing better plant-based meat products is suggested.

Eco-Innovation in the Food Industry: Exploring Consumer Motivations in an Emerging Market

The utilization of eco-innovative products has witnessed a surge in adoption, driven by their inherent capacity to address pressing environmental concerns. To comprehensively fathom the underlying motivations propelling consumers to embrace these products, we conducted an in-depth investigation employing "The Not Company" (Chile) as a compelling case study. We conducted qualitative interviews with a cohort of 20 Chilean consumers, guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior theoretical framework. The research methodology harnessed the principles of thematic analysis, yielding insights that underscore the significance of key determinants in shaping consumers' choices towards eco-innovative products. Specifically, our findings highlighted that consumer choices in this domain are profoundly influenced by their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Moreover, within these overarching categories, we unearthed sub-themes illuminating the intricate influences guiding consumer choices. These sub-themes encompassed beliefs about food manufacturing and packaging, the persuasive impact of social media and advertising, and the indelible impressions left by prior encounters with eco-innovative products. This study highlights consumers' fundamental role in the broader eco-innovation landscape, particularly within the food industry context.

How (not) to talk about plant-based foods: using language to support the transition to sustainable diets

Reducing meat consumption is essential to curb further climate change and limit the catastrophic environmental degradation resulting from the current global food system. However, consumers in industrialised countries are hesitant to reduce their meat intake, often because they find plant-based foods less appealing. Despite the climate emergency, eating meat is still perceived as the norm, and recommended in most national dietary guidelines. To support the transition to more sustainable diets by providing insights for increasing the appeal of plant-based foods to mainstream consumers, this review presents recent research findings on how people think and communicate about meat-based and plant-based foods. The key findings we review include: (1) while vegans think about plant-based foods in terms of enjoyable eating experiences, omnivores think about plant-based foods in terms of health, vegan identity and other abstract information that does not motivate consumption in the moment. (2) Packages of ready-meals and social media posts on Instagram present plant-based foods with fewer references to enjoyable eating experiences than meat-based foods. (3) Presenting plant-based foods with language that references enjoyable eating experiences increases their appeal, especially for habitual meat eaters. This language includes words about sensory features of the food (e.g., crunchy, creamy), eating context (e.g. pub; with family) and immediate positive consequences of eating (e.g. comforting, delicious). In contrast, the term 'vegan' is strongly associated with negative stereotypes. Hence, rather than referring to being vegan, meat-free or healthy, the language used for plant-based foods should refer to sensory appeal, attractive eating situations and enjoyment.

Vegan diet: nutritional components, implementation, and effects on adults' health

Vegan diet has emerged as a popular dietary choice for people worldwide in recent times, due to concerns such as health issues, animal rights and welfare, and the sustainability of the environment. The purpose of this literature review was to explain how a vegan diet may affect the health of adults and to point out beneficial components found in it as well as any difficulties associated with its implementation. Evidence supports that a vegan diet can reduce the risk of chronic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and certain types of cancer. A well-planned vegan diet must include adequate calories and nutrients, as well as the necessary supplements, such as vitamin B12, vitamin D and EPA/DHA. Given the current growing interest in plant-based diets among the general population, it is crucial to understand both the barriers, risks, and benefits of the vegan diet among physicians, policy makers, and the general population.

Polarizing Plates: Both Omnivores and Vegans Represent In-Group Foods With Eating Simulations

In two pre-registered experiments, we assessed how people cognitively represent meat and plant-based foods, to examine processes underlying dietary polarization in society. Food descriptions from U.K.-based omnivores (NExp. 1 = 109; NExp. 2 = 436) and vegans (NExp. 1 = 111; NExp. 2 = 407) were coded for features about consumption and reward (e.g., "rich," "indulgent," and "treat") or features independent of the consumption situation (e.g., "healthy," "protein," and "eco-friendly"). Participants used more consumption and reward features for diet-congruent dishes (meat dishes for omnivores and plant-based dishes for vegans) than for diet-incongruent dishes (vice versa). Omnivores focused on abstract, long-term consequences of plant-based foods, whereas vegans focused on the socio-political associations with meat foods. Consumption and reward features also positively predicted attractiveness ratings, the likelihood of ordering a dish, and eating intentions. These findings indicate the cognitive processes of polarized dietary groups that may hinder the mainstream transition to more sustainable food choices.

Novel plant-based meat alternatives: future opportunities and health considerations

Present food systems threaten population and environmental health. Evidence suggests reduced meat and increased plant-based food consumption would align with climate change and health promotion priorities. Accelerating this transition requires greater understanding of determinants of plant-based food choice. A thriving plant-based food industry has emerged to meet consumer demand and support dietary shift towards plant-based eating. 'Traditional' plant-based diets are low-energy density, nutrient dense, low in saturated fat and purportedly associated with health benefits. However, fast-paced contemporary lifestyles continue to fuel growing demand for meat-mimicking plant-based convenience foods which are typically ultra-processed. Processing can improve product safety and palatability and enable fortification and enrichment. However, deleterious health consequences have been associated with ultra-processing, though there is a paucity of equivocal evidence regarding the health value of novel plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) and their capacity to replicate the nutritional profile of meat-equivalents. Thus, despite the health halo often associated with plant-based eating, there is a strong rationale to improve consumer literacy of PBMAs. Understanding the impact of extensive processing on health effects may help to justify the use of innovative methods designed to maintain health benefits associated with particular foods and ingredients. Furthering knowledge regarding the nutritional value of novel PBMAs will increase consumer awareness and thus support informed choice. Finally, knowledge of factors influencing engagement of target consumer subgroups with such products may facilitate production of desirable, healthier PBMAs. Such evidence-based food manufacturing practice has the potential to positively influence future individual and planetary health.

Relational climate and openness to plant-forward diets among cohabitating couples

Plant-forward diets offer a potential solution to many of the health and ecological crises that we find ourselves facing today. A key barrier to the adoption and maintenance of plant-forward diets is an anticipated lack of support from family members, friends and romantic partners. The present study examined how relational climate (i.e., the cohesion and flexibility of a partnership) contributes to the tension individuals anticipate in their relationship when a member reduces their animal-product consumption, and their own openness to reducing. Four hundred and ninety-six coupled individuals took part in an online survey. Analyses revealed that couples with more flexible leadership styles anticipated less tension should they or their partner adopt a plant-forward diet. However, dimensions of relational climate were largely unrelated to openness to plant-forward diets. Romantic couples who perceived themselves to be matched in terms of dietary habits were less open to reducing their animal-product consumption than unmatched couples. Politically left-leaning couples and females were more open to plant-forward diets. The meat attachments of male partners were reported as a particular barrier to dietary goals, as were practical concerns about meal coordination, finance, and health. Implications for promoting plant-forward dietary transitions are discussed.

The cheese paradox: How do vegetarians justify consuming non-meat animal products?

Researchers interested in animal ethics have proposed the 'meat paradox' - psychological discomfort arising from people's affinity for animals and conflicting desire to consume their flesh. Yet what can be said about the psychology of consuming an animal's non-meat products, in an age where most beings in these industries are harmed, and ultimately killed? Non-meat animal products (NMAPs) such as eggs and dairy entail the same, and perhaps even worse ethical issues as meat yet receive disproportionately less critical attention. Therefore, unlike meat, very little is known about the psychology of egg and dairy consumption. This study looks at vegetarians to address this gap, because they are more likely to show empathetic concern for animals than meat-eaters, yet actively choose to include these products in their diet, a conflict ripe for exploration. Interview data were analysed via thematic analysis, finding that vegetarians perceive robust ethical issues with NMAPs but give various justifications pertaining to personal benefits and social norms. Cognitive dissonance was evident and participants used various strategies to resolve it. This paper expands research on food psychology and animal ethics and may also be used to inform NMAP reduction strategies, an important pursuit in the quest for a more sustainable and compassionate world.

Vitamin B12 levels in children and adolescents on plant-based diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis

CONTEXT

The popularity of plant-based diets, characterized by a partial or complete exclusion of animal products, has increased significantly over the last 10 years. The exclusion of animal products removes the most common sources of vitamin B12, which can lead to vitamin B12 deficiency and result in irreversible damage, such as growth stunting.

OBJECTIVE

This aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to qualitatively evaluate all studies on this subject and to quantify the potential difference in vitamin B12 levels in healthy children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed and Embase databases were searched for relevant studies investigating vitamin B12 levels in healthy children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years on plant-based diets.

DATA EXTRACTION

Studies were assessed qualitatively with the AXIS tool and quantitatively with Stata 16.0 software.

DATA ANALYSIS

Overall, children and adolescents on plant-based diets had a significantly lower vitamin B12 level than omnivorous children and adolescents (-97 pmol/L; 95%CI, -187 to -7; I2 = 98.5%), a difference that remained statistically significant after adjusting for methodological confounders. After subgroup analyses, this effect was not statistically significant for children and adolescents on vegetarian diets but remained significant in children and adolescents on vegan or macrobiotic diets. Moreover, total vitamin B12 intake nullified the mean difference in vitamin B12 levels.

CONCLUSION

Despite high heterogeneity across studies, these results indicate that children and adolescents on plant-based diets, especially those on vegan and macrobiotic diets, may be at risk of developing vitamin B12 deficiency.

Selected plants producing mucilage: Overview, composition, and their potential as functional ingredients in the development of plant-based foods

The increase in the preference for vegan and vegetarian diets is directly related to changing eating habits and the need for plant-based alternatives to animal-based products, which are better for health, due to the high content of essential amino acids and lipid profile rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, and have lower environmental impacts. In this scenario, there is a growing demand for plant-based foods, making it necessary to find new plant-based ingredients for application in foods and beverages. Flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry contain mucilage, a component with potential application in plant-based products. These hydrocolloids can be used as gelling agents, texture modifiers, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in solid and semi-solid foods. This review presents the extraction, characterization, and application of flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry mucilage for use in plant-based foods. It was found that mucilage composition varies due to the extraction method used, extraction conditions, and geographic location of the seed or leaf. However, applications in plant-based foods are currently limited, mainly focused on applying chia mucilage in bakery products and packaging. Research on applying flaxseed and Barbados gooseberry mucilage to plant-based products is limited, though it has been shown to have potential applications in packaging. Mucilage may also increase the nutritional profile of the product and provide better technological, functional, and sensory characteristics. Therefore, because of mucilage's excellent functional and technological properties, it is a promising candidate to act as an ingredient in plant-based food products.

The impact of diet on wastewater treatment works phosphorus loading

Phosphorus (P) is a building block for life in which the human body requires 0.55 g of per day. In some cases, this requirement is exceeded by 2 g per day, with P additives contributing to half of this exceedance. The use of P has become prominent as demand for processed convenience foods has increased. P can cause significant eutrophication once discharged to the environment. As of October 2019, 55% of assessed rivers and 73% of assessed lakes in England failed the current water quality standards. A survey was conducted to calculate the average P consumption of individuals who identify as meat eaters, flexitarians, vegetarians and vegans based on stated eating habits and reported P levels in foods, revealing an estimated P consumption of 1715, 1664, 1244, 1125 mg P/day respectively. It was estimated that current diets contribute 45% of the P load to UK wastewater treatment works (WwTW). If the UK population were to all convert to veganism this would decrease by 54% reducing the load to WwTW by over 15,000 tonnes of P per year, or 9000 tonnes of P per year if there was a move towards a 50% vegetarian or vegan population. Finally, the population needs to be better informed on what is in their food and the associated environmental impacts.

Iodine in plant-based dairy products is not sufficient in the UK: A market survey

BACKGROUND

Following a well-balanced diet ensures that a person gets all the essential elements for health sustenance. However, in the United Kingdom an increasing proportion of people are transiting to become vegans who exclude animal-based products in their diets. Consequently, people may have a deficit of essential elements such as iodine which is not present in most plant-based meals, additionally iodide fortified table salt is not commonly used in the UK. Without iodine people consuming a vegan diet risk developing iodine deficiency and diseases like goiter.

METHODS

The objective of this study is to determine the difference in iodine content and iodine speciation between plant-based and dairy products. More than 100 market samples of plant-based and dairy milk products were collected in Scotland, UK.

RESULTS

Iodine concentrations in dairy milk is ten times higher compared to plant-based milks. Similar differences were also apparent for butter, yogurt and cheese. A total of 20% of plant-based milk products were fortified with iodine, however these products had lower iodine concentrations compare to the equivalent dairy products. In this study we calculated that people with average diet have an iodine intake of 226 + /- 103 μg day^-1 from dairy products which satisfies the WHO recommended intake of adults and 90% of the recommend intake for pregnant and breast-feeding women. A diet from substituted dairy products gives only 21.8 µg day^-1 for the respective WHO guideline intake values, which accounts only 15% of the iodine intake for adults and 9% for pregnant and lactating women. Iodine fortified diet could increase the iodine intake to 55% or 33% of the WHO recommended daily intake respectively.

CONCLUSION

Plant-based dairy consumers are encouraged to use iodine fortified dairy products or use of iodized salt in the UK for home cooking, otherwise there are at risk to get iodine deficient.

Forty-five years of research on vegetarianism and veganism: A systematic and comprehensive literature review of quantitative studies

Meat production and consumption are sources of animal cruelty, responsible for several environmental problems and human health diseases, and contribute to social inequality. Vegetarianism and veganism (VEG) are two alternatives that align with calls for a transition to more ethical, sustainable, and healthier lifestyles. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic literature review of 307 quantitative studies on VEG (from 1978 to 2023), collected from the Web of Science in the categories of psychology, behavioral science, social science, and consumer behavior. For a holistic view of the literature and to capture its multiple angles, we articulated our objectives by responding to the variables of "WHEN," "WHERE," "WHO," "WHAT," "WHY," "WHICH," and "HOW" (6W1H) regarding the VEG research. Our review highlighted that quantitative research on VEG has experienced exponential growth with an unbalanced geographical focus, accompanied by an increasing richness but also great complexity in the understating of the VEG phenomenon. The systematic literature review found different approaches from which the authors studied VEG while identifying methodological limitations. Additionally, our research provided a systematic view of factors studied on VEG and the variables associated with VEG-related behavior change. Accordingly, this study contributes to the literature in the field of VEG by mapping the most recent trends and gaps in research, clarifying existing findings, and suggesting directions for future research.

Perspective: Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Can Help Facilitate and Maintain a Lower Animal to Plant Protein Intake Ratio

The health and environmental advantages of plant-predominant diets will likely lead to increasing numbers of consumers reducing their reliance on animal products. Consequently, health organizations and professionals will need to provide guidance on how best to make this change. In many developed countries, nearly twice as much protein is derived from animal versus plant sources. Potential benefits could result from consuming a higher share of plant protein. Advice to consume equal amounts from each source is more likely to be embraced than advice to eschew all or most animal products. However, much of the plant protein currently consumed comes from refined grains, which is unlikely to provide the benefits associated with plant-predominant diets. In contrast, legumes provide ample amounts of protein as well other components such as fiber, resistant starch, and polyphenolics, which are collectively thought to exert health benefits. But despite their many accolades and endorsement by the nutrition community, legumes make a negligible contribution to global protein intake, especially in developed countries. Furthermore, evidence suggests the consumption of cooked legumes will not substantially increase over the next several decades. We argue here that plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) made from legumes are a viable alternative, or a complement, to consuming legumes in the traditional manner. These products may be accepted by meat eaters because they can emulate the orosensory properties and functionality of the foods they are intended to replace. PBMAs can be both transition foods and maintenance foods in that they can facilitate the transition to a plant-predominant diet and make it easier to maintain. PBMAs also have a distinct advantage of being able to be fortified with shortfall nutrients in plant-predominant diets. Whether existing PBMAs provide similar health benefits as whole legumes, or can be formulated to do so, remains to be established.

Can in vitro meat be a viable alternative for Turkish consumers?

High meat consumption places a heavy burden on the environment. This study aimed to highlight the practices of Turkish consumers in consuming red meat and to understand their attitudes toward in vitro meat (IVM). The relationships between red meat consumption rationalization, attitudes toward IVM, and intentions to consume IVM were examined for Turkish consumers. It was found that Turkish consumers' attitudes toward IVM were averse. Even if the respondents considered IVM a viable alternative to conventional meat, they did not consider it ethical, natural, healthy, tasty, or safe. Additionally, Turkish consumers did not evince interest in regular consumption or intention to try IVM. Although various studies have focused on consumers' attitudes toward IVM in developed economies, the current study is the first attempt to understand the phenomenon in the Turkish market as an emerging economy. These results provide important information for researchers and stakeholders in the meat sector, such as manufacturers and processors.

Recent Innovations in Non-dairy Prebiotics and Probiotics: Physiological Potential, Applications, and Characterization

Non-dairy sources of prebiotics and probiotics impart various physiological functions in the prevention and management of chronic metabolic disorders, therefore nutraceuticals emerged as a potential industry. Extraction of prebiotics from non-dairy sources is economical and easily implemented. Waste products during food processing, including fruit peels and fruit skins, can be utilized as a promising source of prebiotics and considered "Generally Recognized As Safe" for human consumption. Prebiotics from non-dairy sources have a significant impact on gut microbiota and reduce the population of pathogenic bacteria. Similarly, next-generation probiotics could also be isolated from non-dairy sources. These sources have considerable potential and can give novel strains of probiotics, which can be the replacement for dairy sources. Such strains isolated from non-dairy sources have good probiotic properties and can be used as therapeutic. This review will elaborate on the potential non-dairy sources of prebiotics and probiotics, their characterization, and significant physiological potential.

Health- or Environmental-Focused Text Messages to Increase Consumption of a Sustainable Diet among Young Adults: Importance of Expected Taste

Taste is a frequently cited barrier to the greater adoption of plant-based foods, a dietary pattern associated with both health and environmental benefits. To examine the role of expected taste in promoting greater adoption of plant-based foods, we examined the impact of a text-message intervention on the expected taste of both meat- and plant-protein foods. Young adults (n = 159) were randomly assigned to receive either health- or environment-focused text messages twice a week for eight weeks. Study measures (pre- and post-) included dietary recalls, the expected tastiness of meat- and plant-protein images and plant-based diets, consumption intention, and person-related factors such as moral satisfaction and the subjective norms of plant-based eating and health and environmental values. Participants rating plant-protein foods tastier at baseline were more likely to report higher actual (p < 0.001) and intended (p = 0.017) consumption of plant proteins following the intervention. While text messages had a limited effect on altering the expected taste of specific plant-protein foods, the messages did elevate the expected tastiness of plant-based diets. Baseline person-related factors positively predicted changes in expected tastiness of plant-based diets. Messages promoting plant-based foods may be more effective if these foods are first perceived as tasty. Furthermore, incorporating person-related considerations into messaging strategies may improve the expected taste of plant-based foods.

Explaining vegetarian and vegan dietary behavior among U.S. and Dutch samples applying a reasoned action approach

The present research applied the framework of the Reasoned Action Approach (RAA) to investigate intention formation of adopting vegetarian and vegan diets among U.S. and Dutch samples. First, a belief elicitation study was carried out to determine salient beliefs regarding both dietary behaviors. The U.S. sample (N = 59) together provided a total of 551 beliefs (298 vegetarian, 253 vegan) and the Dutch sample (N = 30) 294 beliefs (171 vegetarian, 123 vegan). Second, a regression study determined which reasoned action variables—Attitude, Perceived Norm and Perceived Control—explained Intention to adopt a vegetarian or a vegan diet for two separate samples. For both samples RAA-variables explained Intention relatively well (i.e., between 30 and 43% of the variance). For U.S. participants (N = 204), Instrumental and Experiential Attitude were significant predictors of their Intention to have a vegetarian or a vegan diet. For Dutch participants (N = 345), Instrumental and Experiential Attitude and Descriptive Norm predicted Intention to adopt a vegetarian diet. For adopting a vegan diet, Experiential Attitude was the only predicting variable for the Dutch sample. Almost all salient beliefs collected in the belief elicitation study significantly correlated with Intention to adopt diet, regardless of which RAA-variable they belonged to. Based on our findings, we critically evaluate the use of RAA in explaining behavioral Intentions, especially for behavior with a strong social component. Moreover, we show the importance of—the often not employed—belief elicitation phase and as such, discourage using only a regression approach. From a societal perspective, we argue that there is a strong need for interventions if one wants to encourage behavior change in the field of vegetarianism and veganism as—amongst others—average Intention scores were very low. In addition, we show that while the U.S. and Dutch samples, sharing Western norms and values, often overlapped, they also differed in subtle—yet potentially important—ways when it comes to motivations and cognitions with regard to vegetarian and vegan dietary behavior. Hence, interventions may have to include different content in order to be effective for these seemingly similar target groups and target behaviors.

Consumers' attitudes towards alternatives to conventional meat products: Expectations about taste and satisfaction, and the role of disgust

The livestock sector has environmental, health, and animal welfare impacts. This UK-based, quantitative study aimed to elucidate consumers' valuation of alternatives to conventional meat products. In an online study, 151 meat eaters and 44 non-meat eaters were shown pictures of meat, dairy, and bakery products, including beef burger, cheese sandwich and blueberry muffin. Each product was evaluated with three different labels (e.g., 'conventional', 'plant-based' and 'cultured' for beef burger). Participants rated expected taste pleasantness, fullness, satisfaction, healthiness, disgust and willingness-to-pay for each product/label combination. The results obtained demonstrate that alternatives to conventional meat products overall are acceptable to both meat and non-meat eaters. Although meat eaters' expected plant-based meat alternatives to be less satisfying, due to lower expected taste pleasantness and fillingness (Cohen's d = 0.14 to 0.63), they perceived the plant-based alternatives to be more healthy (d ≥ 1.18). Cultured meat products were perceived by meat eaters to be equally or more healthy, but more disgusting (d ≥ 0.41), than conventional meat products. These results suggest there is an opportunity to promote (motivate) acceptance of alternatives to conventional meat products based on their perceived healthiness, to at least partly balance reduced expected taste pleasantness and other negative attributes (i.e., barriers).

Effects of experimentally induced self-affirmation on the openness to meat reduction and alternative protein sources

Introduction

Consumption of animals entails disregarding the pain of sentient beings, and acknowledging this can threaten an individual's image of oneself as a moral person. Also, abstaining from meat in a meat-eating culture can threaten an individual's valued group identity. Previous research on inter-group relations suggests that self-affirmation, affirmation of personally or collectively important values, can help individuals alleviate self-threats since it enhances one's global self-image and decreases threat perceptions.

Methods

We tested for potential effects of self-affirmation on openness toward reducing meat consumption in an experimental study. Participants (N = 277) were randomized into an individual affirmation, group affirmation, or a control condition. Individual affirmation participants ranked a list of values and then wrote a short paragraph about their first-ranked value. Group affirmation participants did a similar task, focusing on the values of their ethnic group, while participants in the control condition had an unrelated task of ranking their color preferences. Participants then read a persuasive message presenting health risks related to meat consumption and the health benefits of reducing meat. Finally, they indicated their openness toward reducing meat consumption and acceptability of plant-based alternatives and lab-grown meat.

Results and Discussion

Results show that affirmed participants expressed more readiness to reconsider their meat consumption habits, reduced perceptions of vegetarianism as a threat to the local culture, and more positive perceptions of the idea of lab-grown meat. However, self-esteem and frequency of meat consumption pose important limitations to the experimental effects. We discuss the findings from the perspective of self-and collective identity threats and the potential of self-affirmations to create a more open debate about animal product consumption.

Investigating the market for cultivated meat as pet food: A survey analysis

The number of people reducing their meat consumption due to ethical and environmental concerns is growing. However, meat reducers sometimes care for omnivorous or carnivorous pets, creating the 'vegetarian's dilemma'. Some meat-reducers opt to feed plant-based diets to companion animals, but others express reservations. Cultivated meat offers a possible third path, but consumer perceptions of cultivated meat as pet food have received little scholarly attention. Using survey data from 729 respondents, we analyzed consumers' willingness to feed cultivated meat to companion animals, particularly with reference to their own current dietary practices, and their own willingness to eat cultivated meat. Though not all our respondents willing to eat cultivated meat were willing to feed it to their companions, a large majority were (81.4%, 193/237). However, for those unwilling to eat cultivated meat, the story was more complicated. Vegans and vegetarians were less likely to say they would eat cultivated meat (16.4%, 39/238) than meat-eating respondents (40.3%, 198/491). However, among vegans and vegetarians who would not consume cultivated meat, the majority (55.9%, 86/154) indicated that they would still feed it to their pets. Among meat-eating respondents, only a small minority (9.6%, 11/114) unwilling to eat cultivated meat would feed it to their pets. Consequently, we suggest that the potential market for cultivated meat for pet food is markedly different from the potential market for cultivated meat from human consumption. A key concern among our respondents about feeding cultivated meat to pets was a worry that it was not healthy, indicating that there may be easy gains in cultivated pet food's uptake through messaging relating to safety and nutritional completeness.

People's Values and Preferences about Meat Consumption in View of the Potential Environmental Impacts of Meat: A Mixed-methods Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Health is not the only aspect people consider when choosing to consume meat; environmental concerns about the impact of meat (production and distribution) can influence people's meat choices.

METHODS

We conducted a mixed-methods systematic review, searched six databases from inception to June 2020, and synthesised our findings into narrative forms. We integrated the evidence from quantitative and qualitative data sets into joint displays and assessed the confidence in the evidence for each review finding following the GRADE-CERQual approach.

RESULTS

Of the 23,531 initial records, we included 70 studies: 56 quantitative, 12 qualitative, and 2 mixed-methods studies. We identified four main themes: (1) reasons for eating meat; (2) reasons for avoiding meat; (3) willingness to change meat consumption; and (4) willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly meat. The overall confidence was low for the reasons for eating and/or buying meat, for avoiding meat, and for willingness to change meat consumption, and was moderate for willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly meat.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of people's general beliefs about meat and its impact on the environment, most people may be unwilling to change their meat consumption. Future research should address the current limitations of the research evidence to assess whether people are willing to make a change when properly informed.

Consumers' Attitudes towards Animal Suffering: A Systematic Review on Awareness, Willingness and Dietary Change

Planetary and human health depend on Westerners' ability to reduce meat consumption. Meat production degrades the environment while excessive meat intake is associated with cancer and cardiovascular disease, among others. Effective reasons and motivations are needed for consumers to change their diet. The fact that modern animal agriculture inflicts a great deal of pain on animals from their birth to their slaughter, animal welfare/suffering may drive consumers to curtail their meat consumption. This systematic review examined a total of 90 papers to ascertain consumers' awareness of the pain animals experience in animal agriculture, as well as consumer attitudes towards meat reduction due to animal welfare. Results show that consumers have low awareness of animal agriculture. Awareness of animal agricultural practices and animal sentience is associated with increased negative attitudes towards animal suffering. Animal suffering due to farming practices, transportation, slaughter, and animal sentience are factors that may encourage a reduction in meat consumption, and even dietary change in the short term. There is also evidence that animal suffering may be a more compelling motivation for consumers' willingness to change their diet than for health or environmental reasons. Therefore, increasing consumers' awareness of animal suffering in meat production is paramount to contributing to reduced pressure on the environment and improved human health.

Examining dietary behaviours, diet quality, motives and supplementation use in physically active individuals following vegetarian-based eating patterns

The adoption of vegetarian-based dietary patterns among athletes has been gaining popularity. However, limited research examines the dietary behaviours within this group. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine self-reported dietary behaviours in a cohort of physically active individuals following vegetarian-based dietary patterns, recruited via social media. A 52-item online survey was created with questions related to demographics, physical activity, eating patterns and supplementation use. An external link to the Australian Automated Self-Administered 24-h (ASA24-AU) recall was included to examine nutrient intakes. Dietary quality was assessed using the Alternate Healthy Eating Index-2010 (AHEI-2010) and the Dietary Phytochemical Index (DPI) tools. A total of 781 (84.8%) respondents completed the survey in 2018. Principal motives for adhering to a vegetarian-based dietary pattern included animal rights (86.5%), environmental concerns (75.4%), health reasons (69.6%) and improving physical performance (24.1%). Vitamin B12 was the most commonly reported supplement (58.1%) followed by protein powder (36.3%) and vitamin D (35.9%). A total of 133 respondents completed the ASA24-AU dietary recall with generally adequate nutrient intakes and a high-quality diet as assessed by the AHEI-2010 and DPI. A significant minority of physically active individuals following vegetarian-based diets do so with the aspiration of improving their exercise performance. Dietary quality was considered high in this group for recreational physical activity, although intakes of vitamin B12 and LC n-3 PUFA were low.

Vegan stereotypes and person perception in a job application situation – differences depending on the type of job and the gender of the candidate

The objective of the study was to examine the influence of vegan stereotypes on person perception in the context of a job application. The study was conducted online on a representative sample of Polish adults (N = 838). Participants evaluated a fictitious CV of a candidate applying for a job. The CV varied in three dimensions: (a) diet of the candidate (vegan or not); (b) gender of the candidate; and (c) job position (stereotypically male or female). The candidate was evaluated on the dimensions of warmth and competence (based on the stereotype content model). A three-way analysis of variance (2x2x2) showed that in the case of a male candidate applying for a stereotypically male job (financial analyst), information about veganism lowered his perception on the competence dimension (stereotype inconsistency). These results indicate that vegans are targets of ambivalent stereotypes and that bias toward this group depends on the gender of the person following a vegan diet.

What do Consumers Read About Meat? An Analysis of Media Representations of the Meat-environment Relationship Found in Popular Online News Sites in the UK

Previous scholarship suggests that elite media have tended to pay little attention to the adverse environmental impacts associated with meat consumption and production. Through content analysis of 116 articles from 2019, published on eight popular online news sites consumed by a wide range of demographics in the UK, including lower-income groups (the sector most likely to eat meat), we identify common anti-meat and pro-meat environmental narratives, solutions and recommendations, and the dominant sentiment towards both meat consumption and production. We observed a significantly greater presence of anti-meat consumption and/or production narratives than pro-meat. Over half the articles showed anti-meat consumption sentiment, with only 5% predominately in favour. 10% were against unspecified or industrial production practices, 28% were against industrial-scale farming but supported sustainable methods; and none were entirely in favour of the meat industry. These findings are reflected in the dominant recommendation, present in over 60% of articles, to eat less meat. Our results add substantially to previous media research, particularly showing the increased volume of coverage of the meat-environment nexus, varying levels of contestation around meat eating, and the division of responsibility between consumers and industry.

The Influence of Framing Plant-Based Products in Terms of Their Health vs. Environmental Benefits: Interactions with Individual Wellbeing

Significant reductions in the consumption of meat and dairy products are required to limit environmental damage and meet climate targets. However, individuals choosing to adopt plant-based diets still form a minority. Whilst different types of message framings have been suggested to be a potential means of encouraging the uptake of plant-based diets, recent findings have often failed to document any differences in people's willingness to reduce their consumption of animal products based on whether messages emphasize the health or environmental benefits of plant-based diets. This research examined whether individual wellbeing might interact with health versus environmental message frames to determine people's liking and willingness to pay for plant-based products. Across two experiments with a university (Study 1) and a non-student, adult sample (Study 2), participants were exposed to different hypothetical labels for plant-based foods and asked to rate their liking and willingness to pay for each. In line with existing findings, results demonstrated a trend whereby showing health (versus environmental) information on food labels did not in itself influence participants perceptions of the food products. Higher levels of positive wellbeing were associated with greater liking and willingness to pay for the plant-based foods (B values ranging from 0.04 to 0.45). Further, there was an interaction effect whereby levels of negative affect were differentially linked to liking and willingness to pay across the health and environmental framing conditions (B values ranging from 0.03 to 0.38). In particular, negative affect appears to have a greater negative impact on the product liking and willingness to pay when environmental label framings are used. This effect was most pronounced for the product liking dependent variable (B = -0.29 in the environmental framing condition). This research therefore extends understandings of the more specific instances in which message framings can impact perceptions of plant-based foods. The implications of the findings for understanding how best to promote uptake of plant-based diets are discussed.

The relationship between meat disgust and meat avoidance-A chicken-and-egg problem

Feelings of disgust toward meat have been researched for at least 30 years, but so far the causal relationship that may link meat disgust and meat consumption has remained elusive. Two possible pathways have been proposed in previous literature: the more common pathway seems to be that meat disgust is developed after a transition to vegetarianism, potentially via the process of moralization and recruitment of (moral) disgust. Other accounts suggest the existence of a second pathway in which disgust initiates the avoidance of meat and this can be explained by existing theories of disgust functioning as a pathogen avoidance mechanism and meat serving as a pathogen cue. However, the evidence base for either relationship remains thin and to our knowledge no research has examined whether temporary meat abstention can lead to increases in meat disgust, as the first pathway suggests. We measured meat disgust and meat intake in n = 40 meat eaters before and after attempting a meat-free diet for 1 month (while taking part in the annual vegan campaign Veganuary). Although most participants lapsed to eating meat during this period, we found that reductions in meat intake during the month were predictive of increases in meat disgust afterwards. This supports the view that meat disgust is expressed as a result of meat avoidance in meat eaters. Implications for theoretical understanding of the relationship between meat disgust and meat avoidance, as well as the development of disgust based interventions are discussed.

Social Licence to Operate: What Can Equestrian Sports Learn from Other Industries?

Simple Summary

Most societies regulate human activities using laws that state clearly what is, and is not, legally permissible. However, there is a second layer of permission that is granted—or revoked—by the public. This second layer is known as a ‘social licence to operate’ (SLO), and it represents an intangible, implicit agreement between the public and an industry or group. The public may approve of an activity, in which case it can proceed with minimal formalised restrictions, or it may disapprove, and this may herald legal restrictions, or even an outright ban. This review discusses the concept of SLO in relation to equestrianism. Experience from other industries suggests that, to maintain its SLO, equestrianism should take an ethics-based, proactive, progressive, and holistic approach to the protection of equine welfare, and should establish the trust of all stakeholders, including the public. Trust will only ensue if society is confident that equestrianism operates transparently, that its leaders and practitioners are credible, legitimate, and competent, and that its practice reflects society’s values. Earning and maintaining this status will undoubtedly require substantial effort and funding—inputs that should be regarded as an investment in the future of the sport.

Abstract

The concept of ‘social licence to operate’ (SLO) is relevant to all animal-use activities. An SLO is an intangible, implicit agreement between the public and an industry/group. Its existence allows that industry/group to pursue its activities with minimal formalised restrictions because such activities have widespread societal approval. In contrast, the imposition of legal restrictions—or even an outright ban—reflect qualified or lack of public support for an activity. This review discusses current threats to equestrianism’s SLO and suggests actions that those across the equine sector need to take to justify the continuation of the SLO. The most important of these is earning the trust of all stakeholders, including the public. Trust requires transparency of operations, establishment and communication of shared values, and demonstration of competence. These attributes can only be gained by taking an ethics-based, proactive, progressive, and holistic approach to the protection of equine welfare. Animal-use activities that have faced challenges to their SLO have achieved variable success in re-establishing the approval of society, and equestrianism can learn from the experience of these groups as it maps its future. The associated effort and cost should be regarded as an investment in the future of the sport.

Pleasure vs. identity: More eating simulation language in meat posts than plant-based posts on social media #foodtalk

Current levels of meat consumption in Western societies are unsustainable and contribute to the climate emergency. However, most people are not reducing their intake. Here, we examine the language used on social media to describe meat and plant-based foods, since the ways people think and communicate about food could hinder the transition towards sustainable eating. In two pre-registered studies, we analysed the degree to which the language in food posts on Instagram reflects eating simulations, which have been found to be associated with desire for appetitive stimuli. Specifically, thinking about or presenting foods or drinks in terms of rewarding simulations (i.e., re-experiences of enjoying their consumption) has been found to increase their appeal. Here, we analysed the words used in Instagram hashtags (NStudy1 = 852; NStudy2 = 3104) and caption text (NStudy1 = 682) to examine how much they refer to eating simulations (e.g., taste, texture, enjoyment, eating context) or to other food-related features (e.g., ingredients, preparation, health, category information). As hypothesized, meat posts contained more eating simulation hashtags than plant-based and vegetarian posts, which instead contained more eating-independent hashtags, for example referring to health or to vegan identity. Findings for the text words were generally in the same direction but much weaker. Thus, meat food posts contained hashtag language that is likely more appealing to mainstream consumers, because it refers to the enjoyable experience of eating the food, rather than the food being healthy or identity affirming. This pattern reflects polarisation surrounding sustainable foods, which may hinder the shift towards plant-based diets needed to curb climate change.

Vegan labeling for what is already vegan: Product perceptions and consumption intentions

Given the increasing popularity of vegan labels, our study examines the effect of vegan labeling on product perceptions and consumption intentions. We focus on randomly-vegan products which are products that have neither undergone any special reformulation to be vegan nor explicitly aim to serve the market segment of vegans and vegetarians. Food marketers are often tempted to add a vegan label to their randomly-vegan products to capitalize on the growing popularity of vegan food. Our results show that labeling randomly-vegan products biases the perceived healthiness, expected taste, and perceived sustainability, but only if consumers do not expect such randomly-vegan products to be vegan by default. This translates into altered consumption intentions for these unexpected-vegan products with a vegan label (vs. no label). Importantly, this applies to both utilitarian and hedonic products. No effects attributed to the vegan label (vs. no label) were found for randomly-vegan products that consumers expected to be vegan by default.

A Narrative Review of Alternative Protein Sources: Highlights on Meat, Fish, Egg and Dairy Analogues

The research and development of alternatives to meat (including fish) and dairy products for human consumption have been increasing in recent years. In the context of these alternatives, there is a diversity of products such as tofu, tempeh, seitan, pulses, algae, seeds, nuts and insects. Apart from these, some products require new technical processes such as needed by milk drink alternatives, mycoprotein and meat, cheese and fish analogues. The aim of these analogues is to mimic the physical and organoleptic properties of animal origin products through fibrous composition and mix of ingredients from vegetable sources using adequate technology, which allow providing similar texture and flavor. Using a narrative approach to review literature, the objectives of this paper are to systematize the arguments supporting the adoption of meat, eggs and dairy alternatives, to identify the diversity of alternatives to these products on the market, including the related technological processes, and to project the challenges that the food industry may face soon. From a total of 302 scientific papers identified in databases, 186 papers were considered. More research papers on products associated with alternatives to milk were found. Nevertheless, there are products that need more research as analogues to meat and dairy products. A general scheme that brings together the main reasons, resources and challenges that the food industry faces in this promising area of alternatives to meat and dairy products is presented.

Animal rights, environment, or health? Effects of argument type and dissonance on the attitudes toward the consumption of animals

The scientific literature and advocacy organisations highlight three harm-related arguments as paramount reasons for the reduction and cessation of the consumption of animal-derived products (ADP) - violence toward animals, damage to the environment, and human health. However, research on their comparative effects is scarce and there is no clear definition of which type of argument is the most effective in restricting ADP consumption. Based on cognitive dissonance theory, this study aimed to investigate the effects of these types of arguments on meat-eaters' attitudes and beliefs toward the propositions of reducing and ceasing ADP consumption. The study sample comprised 545 Brazilian adults. We adopted an experimental between-subjects design based on the presentation of vignettes. Each participant responded to one of the vignettes (animal rights, environmental, or health arguments) or a control condition. Results showed that greater levels of ADP-related dissonance provoked greater positive attitudes toward the reduction and cessation of ADP consumption. Compared to baseline, the animal rights and environmental messages significantly increased dissonance and positive attitudes toward ADP restriction, but not the health argument. Participants most frequently adopted the dissonance-management strategies of denial of responsibility, denial of harm, and the articulation of beliefs favourable to change. The discussion highlights that the different effects of social influence contexts and argument types depend on their capacity to reveal ADP consumption as morally problematic behaviour. To our knowledge, this is the first study to experimentally compare the effects of animal rights, environmental and health-related arguments in generating ADP-related dissonance and attitude change.