Parental dietary fat intake alters offspring microbiome and immunity

Prenatal Stress and Ethanol Exposure: Microbiota-Induced Immune Dysregulation and Psychiatric Risks

Changes in maternal gut microbiota due to stress and/or ethanol exposure can have lasting effects on offspring's health, particularly regarding immunity, inflammation response, and susceptibility to psychiatric disorders. The literature search for this review was conducted using PubMed and Scopus, employing keywords and phrases related to maternal stress, ethanol exposure, gut microbiota, microbiome, gut-brain axis, diet, dysbiosis, progesterone, placenta, prenatal development, immunity, inflammation, and depression to identify relevant studies in both preclinical and human research. Only a limited number of reviews were included to support the arguments. The search encompassed studies from the 1990s to the present. This review begins by exploring the role of microbiota in modulating host health and disease. It then examines how disturbances in maternal microbiota can affect the offspring's immune system. The analysis continues by investigating the interplay between stress and dysbiosis, focusing on how prenatal maternal stress influences both maternal and offspring microbiota and its implications for susceptibility to depression. The review also considers the impact of ethanol consumption on gut dysbiosis, with an emphasis on the effects of prenatal ethanol exposure on both maternal and offspring microbiota. Finally, it is suggested that maternal gut microbiota dysbiosis may be significantly exacerbated by the combined effects of stress and ethanol exposure, leading to immune system dysfunction and chronic inflammation, which could increase the risk of depression in the offspring. These interactions underscore the potential for novel mental health interventions that address the gut-brain axis, especially in relation to maternal and offspring health.

Maternal high fat diet induces circadian clock-independent endocrine alterations impacting the metabolism of the offspring

Maternal obesity has long-term effects on offspring metabolic health. Among the potential mechanisms, prior research has indicated potential disruptions in circadian rhythms and gut microbiota in the offspring. To challenge this hypothesis, we implemented a maternal high fat diet regimen before and during pregnancy, followed by a standard diet after birth. Our findings confirm that maternal obesity impacts offspring birth weight and glucose and lipid metabolisms. However, we found minimal impact on circadian rhythms and microbiota that are predominantly driven by the feeding/fasting cycle. Notably, maternal obesity altered rhythmic liver gene expression, affecting mitochondrial function and inflammatory response without disrupting the hepatic circadian clock. These changes could be explained by a masculinization of liver gene expression similar to the changes observed in polycystic ovarian syndrome. Intriguingly, such alterations seem to provide the first-generation offspring with a degree of protection against obesity when exposed to a high fat diet.

Vertical Transfer of Maternal Gut Microbes to Offspring of Western Diet-Fed Dams Drives Reduced Levels of Tryptophan Metabolites and Postnatal Innate Immune Response

Maternal obesity and/or Western diet (WD) is associated with an increased risk of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) in offspring, driven, in part, by the dysregulation of the early life microbiome. Here, using a mouse model of WD-induced maternal obesity, we demonstrate that exposure to a disordered microbiome from WD-fed dams suppressed circulating levels of endogenous ligands of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR; indole, indole-3-acetate) and TMAO (a product of AHR-mediated transcription), as well as hepatic expression of Il10 (an AHR target), in offspring at 3 weeks of age. This signature was recapitulated by fecal microbial transfer from WD-fed pregnant dams to chow-fed germ-free (GF) lactating dams following parturition and was associated with a reduced abundance of Lactobacillus in GF offspring. Further, the expression of Il10 was downregulated in liver myeloid cells and in LPS-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) in adult offspring, suggestive of a hypo-responsive, or tolerant, innate immune response. BMDMs from adult mice lacking AHR in macrophages exhibited a similar tolerogenic response, including diminished expression of Il10. Overall, our study shows that exposure to maternal WD alters microbial metabolites in the offspring that affect AHR signaling, potentially contributing to innate immune hypo-responsiveness and progression of MASLD, highlighting the impact of early life gut dysbiosis on offspring metabolism. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the complex interplay between maternal diet, gut microbial function, and the development of neonatal innate immune tolerance and potential therapeutic interventions targeting these pathways.

The intake of ultra-processed foods and homocysteine levels in women with(out) overweight and obesity: The Rotterdam Periconceptional Cohort

PURPOSE

Today's diet consists of a substantial proportion of ultra-processed foods (UPF), especially in women with overweight and obesity in the reproductive period. High UPF intake results in an inadequate and unbalanced diet leading to derangements of several metabolic pathways detrimental to pregnancy and birth outcomes. Therefore, we aim to investigate whether UPF intake in the periconceptional period affects total homocysteine plasma levels (tHcy).

METHODS

1532 participants were included from the prospective Rotterdam Periconceptional Cohort. UPF intake was calculated using Food Frequency Questionnaires including items classified as 4 in the Nova classification, and tHcy was measured by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry system, with an interassay coefficient of variation of < 5.5%. Multivariable linear regression modeling was used and adjusted for covariates and significant interaction terms.

RESULTS

Women with overweight or obesity showed significantly higher percentage of UPF intake (respectively, 50.3 and 51.3%) and higher tHcy (respectively, 6.6 and 6.3 µmol/L, Kruskal-Wallis test; respectively, p < 0.001 and p = 0.04) compared to women with normal BMI (UPF intake: 46.8%, tHcy: 6.1 µmol/L). A 10% higher intake of UPF was associated with an increase in tHcy (adjusted: β = 1.31, 95% CI = 0.38-2.23). Analysis stratified for BMI classification showed comparable associations in normal weight participants (adjusted: β = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.06-2.07); however, no significant association in participants with overweight (adjusted: β = 0.06, 95% CI = - 0.95-1.07) and obesity (adjusted: β = 1.70, 95% CI = - 0.52-3.92) was shown.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that a higher intake of UPF is associated with increased tHcy. Better knowledge and awareness of the nutritional quality of the diet in the periconceptional period may contribute to 1-CM and subsequently improve pregnancy course and outcome.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER AND DATE

NTR4356, November 2010.

Maternal obesity and placental function: impaired maternal-fetal axis

The prevalence of maternal obesity rapidly increases, which represents a major public health concern worldwide. Maternal obesity is characteristic by metabolic dysfunction and chronic inflammation. It is associated with health problems in both mother and offspring. Increasing evidence indicates that the placenta is an axis connecting maternal obesity with poor outcomes in the offspring. In this brief review, we have summarized the current data regarding deregulated placental function in maternal obesity. The data show that maternal obesity induces numerous placental defects, including lipid and glucose metabolism, stress response, inflammation, immune regulation and epigenetics. These placental defects affect each other and result in a stressful intrauterine environment, which transduces and mediates the adverse effects of maternal obesity to the fetus. Further investigations are required to explore the exact molecular alterations in the placenta in maternal obesity, which may pave the way to develop specific interventions for preventing epigenetic and metabolic programming in the fetus.

Novel Perspective on the Regulation of Offspring Food Allergy by Maternal Diet and Nutrients

There has been a dramatic surge in the prevalence of food allergy (FA) that cannot be explained solely by genetics, identifying mechanisms of sensitization that are driven by environmental factors has become increasingly important. Diet, gut microbiota, and their metabolites have been shown to play an important role in the development of FA. In this review, we discuss the latest epidemiological evidence on the impact of two major dietary patterns and key nutrients in early life on the risk of offspring developing FA. The Western diet typically includes high sugar and high fat, which may affect the immune system of offspring and increase susceptibility to FA. In contrast, the Mediterranean diet is rich in fiber, which may reduce the risk of FA in offspring. Furthermore, we explore the potential mechanisms by which maternal dietary nutrients during a window of opportunity (pregnancy, birth, and lactation) influences the susceptibility of offspring to FA through multi-interface crosstalk. Finally, we discuss the limitations and gaps in the available evidence regarding the relationship between maternal dietary nutrients and the risk of FA in offspring. This review provides novel perspective on the regulation of offspring FA by maternal diet and nutrients.

Maternal consumption of a high-fat diet modulates the inflammatory response in their offspring, mediated by the M1 muscarinic receptor

Introduction

High-fat diet (HFD) consumption is associated with various metabolic disorders and diseases. Both pre-pregnancy and maternal obesity can have long-term consequences on offspring health. Furthermore, consuming an HFD in adulthood significantly increases the risk of obesity and metabolic disorders. However, an intriguing phenomenon known as the obesity paradox suggests that obesity may confer a protective effect on mortality outcomes in sepsis. In sepsis, activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) can help mitigate systemic inflammation. We employed a metabolic programming model to explore the relationship between maternal HFD consumption and offspring response to sepsis.

Methods

We fed female mice either a standard diet (SC) or an HFD during the pre-pregnancy, pregnancy, and lactation periods. Subsequently, we evaluated 28-day-old male offspring.

Results

Notably, we discovered that offspring from HFD-fed dams (HFD-O) exhibited a higher survival rate compared with offspring from SC-fed dams (SC-O). Importantly, inhibition of the m1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (m1mAChR), involved in the CAP, in the hypothalamus abolished this protection. The expression of m1mAChR in the hypothalamus was higher in HFD-O at different ages, peaking on day 28. Treatment with an m1mAChR agonist could modulate the inflammatory response in peripheral tissues. Specifically, CAP activation was greater in the liver of HFD-O following agonist treatment. Interestingly, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge failed to induce a more inflammatory state in HFD-O, in contrast to SC-O, and agonist treatment had no additional effect. Analysis of spleen immune cells revealed a distinct phenotype in HFD-O, characterized by elevated levels of CD4+ lymphocytes rather than CD8+ lymphocytes. Moreover, basal Il17 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels were lower while Il22 mRNA levels were higher in HFD-O, and we observed the same pattern after LPS challenge.

Discussion

Further examination of myeloid cells isolated from bone marrow and allowed to differentiate showed that HFD-O macrophages displayed an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Additionally, treatment with the m1mAChR agonist contributed to reducing inflammatory marker levels in both groups. In summary, our findings demonstrate that HFD-O are protected against LPS-induced sepsis, and this protection is mediated by the central m1mAChR. Moreover, the inflammatory response in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow-differentiated macrophages is diminished. However, more extensive analysis is necessary to elucidate the specific mechanisms by which m1mAChR modulates the immune response during sepsis.

Thermoneutral Housing Enables Studies of Vertical Transmission of Obesogenic Diet-Driven Metabolic Diseases

Vertical transmission of obesity is a critical contributor to the unabated obesity pandemic and the associated surge in metabolic diseases. Existing experimental models insufficiently recapitulate "human-like" obesity phenotypes, limiting the discovery of how severe obesity in pregnancy instructs vertical transmission of obesity. Here, via utility of thermoneutral housing and obesogenic diet feeding coupled to syngeneic mating of WT obese female and lean male mice on a C57BL/6 background, we present a tractable, more "human-like" approach to specifically investigate how maternal obesity contributes to offspring health. Using this model, we found that maternal obesity decreased neonatal survival, increased offspring adiposity, and accelerated offspring predisposition to obesity and metabolic disease. We also show that severe maternal obesity was sufficient to skew offspring microbiome and create a proinflammatory gestational environment that correlated with inflammatory changes in the offspring in utero and adulthood. Analysis of a human birth cohort study of mothers with and without obesity and their infants was consistent with mouse study findings of maternal inflammation and offspring weight gain propensity. Together, our results show that dietary induction of obesity in female mice coupled to thermoneutral housing can be used for future mechanistic interrogations of obesity and metabolic disease in pregnancy and vertical transmission of pathogenic traits.

The Role of Gut Microbiota in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Affecting Intergenerational Glucose Metabolism: Possible Mechanisms and Interventions

The incidence of type 2 diabetes is increasing every year and has become a serious public health problem. In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors in early life development are risk factors for diabetes. There is growing evidence that the gut microbiota plays an important role in glucose metabolism, and the gut microbiota of pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) differs significantly from that of healthy pregnant women. This article reviews the role of maternal gut microbiota in offspring glucose metabolism. To explore the potential mechanisms by which the gut microbiota affects glucose metabolism in offspring, we summarize clinical studies and experimental animal models that support the hypothesis that the gut microbiota affects glucose metabolism in offspring from dams with GDM and discuss interventions that could improve glucose metabolism in offspring. Given that adverse pregnancy outcomes severely impact the quality of survival, reversing the deleterious effects of abnormal glucose metabolism in offspring through early intervention is important for both mothers and their offspring.

Early-life microbiota-immune homeostasis

As the prevalence of allergy and autoimmune disease in industrialized societies continues to rise, improving our understanding of the mechanistic roles behind microbiota-immune homeostasis has become critical for informing therapeutic interventions in cases of dysbiosis. Of particular importance, are alterations to intestinal microbiota occurring within the critical neonatal window, during which the immune system is highly vulnerable to environmental exposures. This review will highlight recent literature concerning mechanisms of early-life microbiota-immune homeostasis as well as discuss the potential for therapeutics in restoring dysbiosis in early life.

Maternal Obesity and Kawasaki Disease-like Vasculitis: A New Perspective on Cardiovascular Injury and Inflammatory Response in Offspring Male Mice

Maternal obesity affects the risk of cardiovascular disease and inflammatory response in offspring. However, the impact of maternal obesity on offspring with Kawasaki disease (KD), the leading cause of childhood acquired heart disease, is still an understudied area. This study aimed to elucidate the impact of maternal obesity on offspring in KD-like vasculitis and the underlying mechanisms. Offspring of obese female mice and normal diet dams were randomly divided into two subgroups. The pups were injected intraperitoneally with either Candida albicans water-soluble fraction (CAWS) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) to establish the obesity (OB)-CAWS group, OB group, wild type (WT)-CAWS group, and WT group. Their weight was monitored during the study. After four weeks, echocardiography was applied to obtain the alternation of cardiac structures. Mouse cytokine panel, Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining, western blot, and real-time qPCR were used to study the pathological changes and protein and RNA expression alternations. Based on the study of pathology, serology and molecular biology, maternal obesity lead to more severe vasculitis and induced altered cardiac structure in the offspring mice and promoted the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines through activating the NF-κB signaling pathway. Maternal obesity aggravated the inflammatory response of offspring mice in KD-like vasculitis.

Dietary Patterns, Gut Microbiota Remodeling, and Cardiometabolic Disease

The cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, collectively known as cardiometabolic disease (CMD), are high morbidity and mortality pathologies associated with lower quality of life and increasing health-care costs. The influence of the gut microbiota (GM) in dictating the interpersonal variability in CMD susceptibility, progression and treatment response is beginning to be deciphered, as is the mutualistic relation established between the GM and diet. In particular, dietary factors emerge as pivotal determinants shaping the architecture and function of resident microorganisms in the human gut. In turn, intestinal microbes influence the absorption, metabolism, and storage of ingested nutrients, with potentially profound effects on host physiology. Herein, we present an updated overview on major effects of dietary components on the GM, highlighting the beneficial and detrimental consequences of diet-microbiota crosstalk in the setting of CMD. We also discuss the promises and challenges of integrating microbiome data in dietary planning aimed at restraining CMD onset and progression with a more personalized nutritional approach.

Dietary Intake of Pregnant Women with and without Inflammatory Bowel Disease in the United States

BACKGROUND

Pregnancy is a vulnerable time where the lives of mother and baby are affected by diet, especially high-risk pregnancies in women with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Limited research has examined diet during pregnancy with IBD.

AIMS

Describe and compare the diet quality of pregnant women with and without IBD, and examine associations between dietary intake and guidelines during pregnancy.

METHODS

Three 24 h recalls were utilized to assess the diets of pregnant women with IBD (n = 88) and without IBD (n = 82) during 27-29 weeks of gestation. A customized frequency questionnaire was also administered to measure pre- and probiotic foods.

RESULTS

Zinc intake (p = 0.02), animal protein (g) (p = 0.03), and ounce equivalents of whole grains (p = 0.03) were significantly higher in the healthy control (HC) group than the IBD group. Nutrients of concern with no significant differences between groups included iron (3% IBD and 2% HC met the goals), saturated fat (only 1% of both groups met the goals), choline (23% IBD and 21% HC met the goals), magnesium (38% IBD and 35% HC met the goals), calcium (48% IBD and 60% HC met the goals), and water intake (49% IBD and 48% HC met the goals).

CONCLUSIONS

Most pregnant women in this cohort fell short of the dietary nutrients recommended in pregnancy, especially concerning for women with IBD.

Transgenerational impacts of oral probiotic administration in pregnant mice on offspring gut immune cells and colitis susceptibility

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The study of the impact of environmental factors during pregnancy on fetal development has so far been focused primarily on those negatively affecting human health; however, little is known about the effects of probiotic treatment during pregnancy on inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). In this study, we investigated whether oral administration of heat-killed probiotics isolated from fermented foods decreased the vulnerability of offspring to IBD.

METHODS

Probiotics were administered to the pregnant mice until the birth of pups, after which the parent mice were maintained with autoclaved water. Partial pups were evaluated for dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. The influence of CD11c⁺ CD103⁺ dendritic cells (DCs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) in mesenteric lymph nodes of parent mice and their pups was analyzed.

RESULTS

Oral administration of heat-killed probiotics to pregnant dams significantly decreased inflammation induced by dextran sodium sulfate in pups. Probiotic treatment increased the number of CD103⁺ DCs, and the expression of β8-integrin in CD103⁺ DCs and Tregs in mesenteric lymph nodes, not only in dams themselves but also in their offspring.

CONCLUSIONS

Oral administration of probiotics during gestation induced transgenerational immunomodulatory effects on the gut-associated immune system and resilience to experimental colitis in the offspring. Our results suggest that consumption of fermented foods during pregnancy can be effective in preventing inflammatory diseases such as IBD beyond generation.

Clostridioides difficile-mesocolonic oedema in neonatal suckling piglets develops regardless of the fibre composition in sow's diets

Maternal dietary factors have been reported to influence Clostridioides difficile colonisation in the offspring. Twenty suckling piglets from sows fed diets supplemented with high-fermentable sugar beet pulp (SBP) or low-fermentable lignocellulose (LNC) fibres during gestation and lactation were dissected in the first week after birth. Postmortem analysis included clinical mesocolon and faecal scoring, concentration of C. difficile and respective toxins in colon digesta and faeces, immunoglobulins in serum and inflammatory markers in serum and colon tissues. Sow colostrum was assessed for nutrients, immunoglobulins and biogenic amines. Toxin-neutralising IgG antibodies were measured in colostrum and serum of the sows, and in colon digesta and serum of the piglets. Mesocolonic oedema of different severity was present in most of the piglets from both sows' feeding groups. Concentrations of C. difficile, toxins and calprotectin in colon digesta and faecal contents did not differ between the study piglets. Calprotectin correlated positively with mesocolon score (rho = 413, P = 0.07). Piglets from sows fed LNC vs SBP tended to have higher IgA (P = 0.089), IgG (P = 0.053), total Ig (P = 0.053), albumin (P = 0.075) and total protein content (P = 0.007) in serum. Colon tissues of piglets from the SFB vs LNC had upregulated expression of ZO-1 (P = 0.021), PCNA (P = 0.015) and TGF-β (P = 0.014). Titers of anti-toxin-IgG-antibodies in serum and colostrum and in piglet colon digesta and serum did not differ between sows from both dietary groups, but they all showed strong positive correlations. In conclusion, dietary sugar beet pulp or lignocellulose fed to sows did not influence the concentrations of C. difficile and toxins titers in colon digesta and faeces of neonatal piglets.

Maternal Macro- and Micronutrient Intake During Pregnancy: Does It Affect Allergic Predisposition in Offspring?

This review article explores the available literature on the association of maternal nutrient intake with development of allergies in offspring. It examines the mechanisms for maternal diet-mediated effects on offspring immunity and dissects recent human and animal studies that evaluate the role of both maternal macro- and micronutrient intake on offspring susceptibility to asthma, eczema, food allergy, and atopy.

Maternal obesity blunts antimicrobial responses in fetal monocytes

Maternal pre-pregnancy (pregravid) obesity is associated with adverse outcomes for both mother and offspring. Amongst the complications for the offspring is increased susceptibility and severity of neonatal infections necessitating admission to the intensive care unit, notably bacterial sepsis and enterocolitis. Previous studies have reported aberrant responses to LPS and polyclonal stimulation by umbilical cord blood monocytes that were mediated by alterations in the epigenome. In this study, we show that pregravid obesity dysregulates umbilical cord blood monocyte responses to bacterial and viral pathogens. Specifically, interferon-stimulated gene expression and inflammatory responses to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and E. coli were significantly dampened, respectively . Although upstream signaling events were comparable, translocation of the key transcription factor NF-κB and chromatin accessibility at pro-inflammatory gene promoters following TLR stimulation was significantly attenuated. Using a rhesus macaque model of western style diet-induced obesity, we further demonstrate that this defect is detected in fetal peripheral monocytes and tissue-resident macrophages during gestation. Collectively, these data indicate that maternal obesity alters metabolic, signaling, and epigenetic profiles of fetal monocytes leading to a state of immune paralysis during late gestation and at birth.

Characterization of the Cafeteria Diet as Simulation of the Human Western Diet and Its Impact on the Lipidomic Profile and Gut Microbiota in Obese Rats

The obesity pandemic has been strongly associated with the Western diet, characterized by the consumption of ultra-processed foods. The Western lifestyle causes gut dysbiosis leading to impaired fatty acid metabolism. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate shifts in gut microbiota and correlate these with serum fatty acid profiles in male Wistar rats fed a cafeteria diet. Ten male rats were fed with standard diet (CTL, n = 5) and cafeteria diet (CAF, n = 5) for fifteen weeks. Body weight and food intake were recorded once and three times per week, respectively. At the end of the study, fresh fecal samples were collected, tissues were removed, and serum samples were obtained for further analyses. Gut microbiota was analyzed by sequencing the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene. Serum fatty acid profiles were fractioned and quantified via gas chromatography. The CAF diet induced an obese phenotype accompanied by impaired serum fatty acids, finding significantly higher proportions of total saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and C20:3 n-6, and lower C18:1 n-7 and C18:3 n-3 in the phospholipid (PL) fraction. Furthermore, circulating C10:0, total n-3 and n-7 decreased and total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), including oleic acid C18:1 n-9, increased in the cholesterol ester (CE) fraction. The obesity metabotype may be mediated by gut dysbiosis caused by a cafeteria diet rich in C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 n-9 and C18:2 n-6 fatty acids resulting in a 34:1 omega-6/omega-3 ratio. Therefore, circulating C10:0 was associated with several genera bacteria such as Prevotella (positive) and Anaerotruncus (negative). Two classes of Firmicutes, Bacilli and Erysipelotrichi, were positively correlated with PL- C20:3 n-6 and CE- 18:1 n-9, respectively. TM7 and Bacteroidetes were inversely correlated with PL-SFAs and CE- 18:2 n-6, respectively.

Maternal Obesity and Gut Microbiota Are Associated with Fetal Brain Development

Obesity in pregnancy induces metabolic syndrome, low-grade inflammation, altered endocrine factors, placental function, and the maternal gut microbiome. All these factors impact fetal growth and development, including brain development. The lipid metabolic transporters of the maternal-fetal-placental unit are dysregulated in obesity. Consequently, the transport of essential long-chain PUFAs for fetal brain development is disturbed. The mother’s gut microbiota is vital in maintaining postnatal energy homeostasis and maternal-fetal immune competence. Obesity during pregnancy changes the gut microbiota, affecting fetal brain development. Obesity in pregnancy can induce placental and intrauterine inflammation and thus influence the neurodevelopmental outcomes of the offspring. Several epidemiological studies observed an association between maternal obesity and adverse neurodevelopment. This review discusses the effects of maternal obesity and gut microbiota on fetal neurodevelopment outcomes. In addition, the possible mechanisms of the impacts of obesity and gut microbiota on fetal brain development are discussed.

The Legacy of Parental Obesity: Mechanisms of Non-Genetic Transmission and Reversibility

While a dramatic increase in obesity and related comorbidities is being witnessed, the underlying mechanisms of their spread remain unresolved. Epigenetic and other non-genetic mechanisms tend to be prominent candidates involved in the establishment and transmission of obesity and associated metabolic disorders to offspring. Here, we review recent findings addressing those candidates, in the context of maternal and paternal influences, and discuss the effectiveness of preventive measures.

Maternal obesity and the impact of associated early-life inflammation on long-term health of offspring

The prevalence of obesity is increasingly common in the United States, with ~25% of women of reproductive age being overweight or obese. Metaflammation, a chronic low grade inflammatory state caused by altered metabolism, is often present in pregnancies complicated by obesity. As a result, the fetuses of mothers who are obese are exposed to an in-utero environment that has altered nutrients and cytokines. Notably, both human and preclinical studies have shown that children born to mothers with obesity have higher risks of developing chronic illnesses affecting various organ systems. In this review, the authors sought to present the role of cytokines and inflammation during healthy pregnancy and determine how maternal obesity changes the inflammatory landscape of the mother, leading to fetal reprogramming. Next, the negative long-term impact on offspring’s health in numerous disease contexts, including offspring’s risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders (autism, attention deficit and hyperactive disorder), metabolic diseases (obesity, type 2 diabetes), atopy, and malignancies will be discussed along with the potential of altered immune/inflammatory status in offspring as a contributor of these diseases. Finally, the authors will list critical knowledge gaps in the field of developmental programming of health and diseases in the context of offspring of mothers with obesity, particularly the understudied role of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Paternal transgenerational nutritional epigenetic effect: A new insight into nutritional manipulation to reduce the use of antibiotics in animal feeding

The use of antibiotics in animal feeding has been banned in many countries because of increasing concerns about the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics and potential issues on food safety. Searching for antibiotic substitutes is essential. Applying transgenerational epigenetic technology to animal production could be an alternative. Some environmental changes can be transferred to memory-like responses in the offspring through epigenetic mechanisms without changing the DNA sequence. In this paper, we reviewed those nutrients and non-nutritional additives that have transgenerational epigenetic effects, including some amino acids, vitamins, and polysaccharides. The paternal transgenerational nutritional epigenetic regulation was particularly focused on mechanism of the substantial contribution of male stud animals to the animal industries. We illustrated the effects of paternal transgenerational epigenetics on the metabolism and immunity in farming animals and proposed strategies to modulate male breeding livestock or poultry.

Host Age Prediction from Fecal Microbiota Composition in Male C57BL/6J Mice

The lifelong relationship between microorganisms and hosts has a profound impact on the overall health and physiology of the holobiont. Microbiome composition throughout the life span of a host remains largely understudied. Here, the fecal microbiota of conventionally raised C57BL/6J male mice was characterized throughout almost the entire adult life span, from "maturing" (9 weeks) until "very old" (112 weeks) age. Our results suggest that microbiota changes occur throughout life but are more pronounced in maturing to middle-age mice than in mice later in life. Phylum-level analysis indicates a shift of the Bacteroidota-to-Firmicutes ratio in favor of Firmicutes in old and very old mice. More Firmicutes amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were transient with varying successional patterns than Bacteroidota ASVs, which varied primarily during maturation. Microbiota configurations from five defined life phases were used as training sets in a Bayesian model, which effectively enabled the prediction of host age. These results suggest that age-associated compositional differences may have considerable implications for the interpretation and comparability of animal model-based microbiome studies. The sensitivity of the age prediction to dietary perturbations was tested by applying this approach to two age-matched groups of C57BL/6J mice that were fed either a standard or western diet. The predicted age for the western diet-fed animals was on average 27 ± 11 (mean ± standard deviation) weeks older than that of standard diet-fed animals. This indicates that the fecal microbiota-based predicted age may be influenced not only by the host age and physiology but also potentially by other factors such as diet. IMPORTANCE The gut microbiome of a host changes with age. Cross-sectional studies demonstrate that microbiota of different age groups are distinct but do not demonstrate the temporal change that a longitudinal study is able to show. Here, we performed a longitudinal study of adult mice for over 2 years. We identified life stages where compositional changes were more dynamic and showed temporal changes for the more abundant species. Using a Bayesian model, we could reliably predict the life stages of the mice. Application of the same training set to mice fed different dietary regimens revealed that life-stage age predictions were possible for mice fed the same diet but less so for mice fed different diets. This study sheds light on the temporal changes that occur within the gut microbiota of laboratory mice over their life span and may inform researchers on the appropriate mouse age for their research.

Effects of paternal high-fat diet and maternal rearing environment on the gut microbiota and behavior

Exposing a male rat to an obesogenic high-fat diet (HFD) influences attractiveness to potential female mates, the subsequent interaction of female mates with infant offspring, and the development of stress-related behavioral and neural responses in offspring. To examine the stomach and fecal microbiome's potential roles, fecal samples from 44 offspring and stomach samples from offspring and their fathers were collected and bacterial community composition was studied by 16 small subunit ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene sequencing. Paternal diet (control, high-fat), maternal housing conditions (standard or semi-naturalistic housing), and maternal care (quality of nursing and other maternal behaviors) affected the within-subjects alpha-diversity of the offspring stomach and fecal microbiomes. We provide evidence from beta-diversity analyses that paternal diet and maternal behavior induced community-wide shifts to the adult offspring gut microbiome. Additionally, we show that paternal HFD significantly altered the adult offspring Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio, an indicator of obesogenic potential in the gut microbiome. Additional machine-learning analyses indicated that microbial species driving these differences converged on Bifidobacterium pseudolongum. These results suggest that differences in early-life care induced by paternal diet and maternal care significantly influence the microbiota composition of offspring through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, having implications for adult stress reactivity.

Regulation of intestinal immunity by dietary fatty acids

Dietary fatty acids are absorbed through the intestine and are fundamental for cellular energy provision and structural formation. Dietary fatty acids profoundly affect intestinal immunity and influence the development and progression of inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal infections and tumors. Although different types of fatty acids exert differential roles in intestinal immunity, a western diet, rich in saturated fatty acids with abundant carbohydrates and studied as high-fat diet (HFD) in animal experiments, disturbs intestinal homeostasis and plays a pathogenic role in intestinal inflammatory diseases. Here, we review recent findings on the regulation of intestinal immunity by dietary fatty acids, focusing on HFD. We summarize HFD-altered immune responses leading to susceptibility to intestinal pathology and dissect the mechanisms involving the impact of HFD on immune cells, intestinal epithelial cells and the microbiota. Understanding the perturbation of intestinal immunity by HFD will provide new strategies for prevention and treatment of intestinal inflammatory diseases.

The Concept of Intrauterine Programming and the Development of the Neonatal Microbiome in the Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection

The process of intrauterine programming is related to the quality of the microbiome formed in the fetus and the newborn. The implementation of probiotics, prebiotics, and psychobiotics shows immunomodulatory potential towards the organism, especially the microbiome of the pregnant woman and her child. Nutrigenomics, based on the observation of pregnant women and the developing fetus, makes it possible to estimate the biological effects of active dietary components on gene expression or silencing. Nutritional intervention for pregnant women should consider the nutritional status of the patient, biological markers, and the potential impact of dietary intervention on fetal physiology. The use of a holistic model of nutrition allows for appropriately targeted and effective dietary prophylaxis that can impact the physical and mental health of both the mother and the newborn. This model targets the regulation of the immune response of the pregnant woman and the newborn, considering the clinical state of the microbiota and the pathomechanism of the nervous system. Current scientific reports indicate the protective properties of immunobiotics (probiotics) about the reduction of the frequency of infections and the severity of the course of COVID-19 disease. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that intrauterine programming influences the development of the microbiome for the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection based on a review of research studies.

Malnutrition and Dietary Habits Alter the Immune System Which May Consequently Influence SARS-CoV-2 Virulence: A Review

COVID-19, resulting from the SARS-CoV-2 virus, is a major pandemic that the world is fighting. SARS-CoV-2 primarily causes lung infection by attaching to the ACE2 receptor on the alveolar epithelial cells. However, the ACE2 receptor is also present in intestinal epithelial cells, suggesting a link between nutrition, virulence and clinical outcomes of COVID-19. Respiratory viral infections perturb the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota is shaped by our diet; therefore, a healthy gut is important for optimal metabolism, immunology and protection of the host. Malnutrition causes diverse changes in the immune system by repressing immune responses and enhancing viral vulnerability. Thus, improving gut health with a high-quality, nutrient-filled diet will improve immunity against infections and diseases. This review emphasizes the significance of dietary choices and its subsequent effects on the immune system, which may potentially impact SARS-CoV-2 vulnerability.

Ten-week high fat and high sugar diets in mice alter gut-brain axis cytokines in a sex-dependent manner

Diets high in fat and sugar induce inflammation throughout the body, particularly along the gut-brain axis; however, the way these changes in immune signaling mediate one another remains unknown. We investigated cytokine changes in the brain and colon following prolonged high fat or sugar diet in female and male adult C57BL/6 mice. Ten weeks of high fat diet increased levels of TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, IFNγ, and IL-10 in the female hippocampus and altered cytokines in the frontal cortex of both sexes. High sugar diet increased hippocampal cytokines and decreased cytokines in the diencephalon and frontal cortex. In the colon, high fat diet changed cytokine expression in both sexes, while high sugar diet only increased TNFα in males. Causal mediation analysis confirmed that colon IL-10 and IL-6 mediate high fat diet-induced neuroimmune changes in the female hippocampus and male frontal cortex. Additionally, high fat diet increased food consumption and weight gain in both sexes, while high sugar diet decreased male weight gain. These findings reveal a novel causal link between gut and brain inflammation specific to prolonged consumption of high fat, not high sugar, diet. Importantly, this work includes females which have been under-represented in diet research, and demonstrates that diet-induced neuroinflammation varies by brain region between sexes. Furthermore, our data suggest female brains are more vulnerable than males to inflammatory changes following excessive fat and sugar consumption, which may help explain the increased risk of inflammation-associated psychiatric conditions in women who eat a Western Diet rich in both dietary components.

Fecal microbiota relationships with childhood obesity: A scoping comprehensive review

Childhood obesity is a costly burden in most regions with relevant and adverse long-term health consequences in adult life. Several studies have associated excessive body weight with a specific profile of gut microbiota. Different factors related to fecal microorganism abundance seem to contribute to childhood obesity, such as gestational weight gain, perinatal diet, antibiotic administration to the mother and/or child, birth delivery, and feeding patterns, among others. This review reports and discusses diverse factors that affect the infant intestinal microbiota with putative or possible implications on the increase of the obesity childhood rates as well as microbiota shifts associated with excessive body weight in children.

Obesity and Maternal-Placental-Fetal Immunology and Health

Obesity rates in women of childbearing age is now at 29%, according to recent CDC reports. It is known that obesity is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, including disruptions in cellular function and cytokine levels. In pregnant women who are obese, associated placental dysfunction can lead to small for gestational age (SGA) infants. More frequently, however, maternal obesity is associated with large for gestational age (LGA) newborns, who also have higher incidence of metabolic disease and asthma due to elevated levels of inflammation. In addition, anthropogenic environmental exposures to "endocrine disrupting" and "forever" chemicals affect obesity, as well as maternal physiology, the placenta, and fetal development. Placental function is intimately associated with the control of inflammation during pregnancy. There is a large amount of literature examining the relationship of placental immunology, both cellular and humoral, with pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. Cells such as placental macrophages and NK cells have been implicated in spontaneous miscarriage, preeclampsia, preterm birth, perinatal neuroinflammation, and other post-natal conditions. Differing levels of placental cytokines and molecular inflammatory mediators also have known associations with preeclampsia and developmental outcomes. In this review, we will specifically examine the literature regarding maternal, placental, and fetal immunology and how it is altered by maternal obesity and environmental chemicals. We will additionally describe the relationship between placental immune function and clinical outcomes, including neonatal conditions, autoimmune disease, allergies, immunodeficiency, metabolic and endocrine conditions, neurodevelopment, and psychiatric disorders.

The neonatal microbiome in utero and beyond: perinatal influences and long-term impacts

The neonatal microbiome offers a valuable model for studying the origins of human health and disease. As the field of metagenomics expands, we also increase our understanding of early life influences on its development. In this review we will describe common techniques used to define and measure the microbiome. We will review in utero influences, normal perinatal development, and known risk factors for abnormal neonatal microbiome development. Finally, we will summarize current evidence that links early life microbial impacts on the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, obesity, and atopy.

Dietary Fat Effect on the Gut Microbiome, and Its Role in the Modulation of Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) report a higher frequency and severity of gastrointestinal disorders (GID) than typically developing (TD) children. GID-associated discomfort increases feelings of anxiety and frustration, contributing to the severity of ASD. Emerging evidence supports the biological intersection of neurodevelopment and microbiome, indicating the integral contribution of GM in the development and function of the nervous system, and mental health, and disease balance. Dysbiotic GM could be a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of GID in children with ASD. High-fat diets may modulate GM through accelerated growth of bile-tolerant bacteria, altered bacterial ratios, and reduced bacterial diversity, which may increase the risk of GID. Notably, saturated fatty acids are considered to have a pronounced effect on the increase of bile-tolerant bacteria and reduction in microbial diversity. Additionally, omega-3 exerts a favorable impact on GM and gut health due to its anti-inflammatory properties. Despite inconsistencies in the data elaborated in the review, the dietary fat composition, as part of an overall dietary intervention, plays a role in modulating GID, specifically in ASD, due to the altered microbiome profile. This review emphasizes the need to conduct future experimental studies investigating the effect of diets with varying fatty acid compositions on GID-specific microbiome profiles in children with ASD.

Maternal n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids restructure gut microbiota of offspring mice and decrease their susceptibility to mammary gland cancer

Our previous studies have revealed that a maternal diet rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) is associated with decreased mammary cancer risk in offspring. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the possible mechanism by which maternal n-3 PUFAs decrease the mammary cancer risk of offspring in terms of gut microbiota. C57BL/6 pregnant mice were fed a control standard chow (CON), fish oil supplemented diet (n-3 Sup-FO), flaxseed oil supplemented diet (n-3 Sup-FSO) or n-3 PUFA deficient diet (n-3 Def) (n = 10) throughout gestation and lactation. After weaning, all offspring were fed a AIN-93G diet. The tumor incidence and volume were significantly increased in n-3 Def offspring compared with the other groups. Maternal n-3 PUFA supplementation resulted in a significantly increased α-diversity of the gut microbiota in n-3 Sup-FO and n-3 Sup-FSO offspring compared with that in n-3 Def offspring. The relative abundances of Akkermansia, Lactobacillus and Mucispirillum observed in adult offspring of both the n-3 Sup-FO and n-3 Sup-FSO groups were higher than those observed in the control group, whereas the maternal n-3 Def diet was associated with decreased abundances of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Barnesiella in 7-week-old offspring. The levels of the pro-inflammatory factors IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly lower in n-3 PUFA supplemented offspring than in n-3 Def offspring. In addition, the abundance of Mucispirillum was positively associated with the concentration of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10, whereas the abundances of Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia were negatively associated with IL-1β and IL-6, respectively. Based on the bacterial composition of the gut microbiota, metabolites were predicted and the results showed that arachidonic acid metabolism and the MAPK signaling pathways were more enriched, while the butyric acid metabolic pathway was less enriched in offspring of the n-3 Def group than in those of the other three groups. Our findings suggest that decreased pro-inflammatory factors and changed gut microbiota are associated with the protective effects of maternal n-3 PUFAs against offspring's mammary tumorigenesis.

Maternal effects in mammals: Broadening our understanding of offspring programming

The perinatal period is a sensitive time in mammalian development that can have long-lasting consequences on offspring phenotype via maternal effects. Maternal effects have been most intensively studied with respect to two major conditions: maternal diet and maternal stress. In this review, we shift the focus by discussing five major additional maternal cues and their influence on offspring phenotype: maternal androgen levels, photoperiod (melatonin), microbiome, immune regulation, and milk composition. We present the key findings for each of these topics in mammals, their mechanisms of action, and how they interact with each other and with the maternal influences of diet and stress. We explore their impacts in the contexts of both predictive adaptive responses and the developmental origins of disease, identify knowledge gaps and research opportunities in the field, and place a particular emphasis on the application and consideration of these effects in non-model species and natural ecological systems.

Longitudinal Changes in Diet Cause Repeatable and Largely Reversible Shifts in Gut Microbial Communities of Laboratory Mice and Are Observed across Segments of the Entire Intestinal Tract

Dietary changes are known to alter the composition of the gut microbiome. However, it is less understood how repeatable and reversible these changes are and how diet switches affect the microbiota in the various segments of the gastrointestinal tract. Here, a treatment group of conventionally raised laboratory mice is subjected to two periods of western diet (WD) interrupted by a period of standard diet (SD) of the same duration. Beta-diversity analyses show that diet-induced microbiota changes are largely reversible (q = 0.1501; PERMANOVA, weighted-UniFrac comparison of the treatment-SD group to the control-SD group) and repeatable (q = 0.032; PERMANOVA, weighted-UniFrac comparison of both WD treatments). Furthermore, we report that diet switches alter the gut microbiota composition along the length of the intestinal tract in a segment-specific manner, leading to gut segment-specific Firmicutes/Bacteroidota ratios. We identified prevalent and distinct Amplicon Sequencing Variants (ASVs), particularly in genera of the recently described Muribaculaceae, along the gut as well as ASVs that are differentially abundant between segments of treatment and control groups. Overall, this study provides insights into the reversibility of diet-induced microbiota changes and highlights the importance of expanding sampling efforts beyond the collections of fecal samples to characterize diet-dependent and segment-specific microbiome differences.

Personalized Nutrition Approach in Pregnancy and Early Life to Tackle Childhood and Adult Non-Communicable Diseases

The development of childhood and adult non-communicable diseases (NCD) is associated with environmental factors, starting from intrauterine life. A new theory finds the roots of epigenetic programming in parental gametogenesis, continuing during embryo development, fetal life, and finally in post-natal life. Maternal health status and poor nutrition are widely recognized as implications in the onset of childhood and adult diseases. Early nutrition, particularly breastfeeding, also plays a primary role in affecting the health status of an individual later in life. A poor maternal diet during pregnancy and lack of breastfeeding can cause a nutrient deficiency that affects the gut microbiota, and acts as a cofactor for many pathways, impacting the epigenetic controls and transcription of genes involved in the metabolism, angiogenesis, and other pathways, leading to NCDs in adult life. Both maternal and fetal genetic backgrounds also affect nutrient adsorption and functioning at the cellular level. This review discusses the most recent evidence on maternal nutrition and breastfeeding in the development of NCD, the potentiality of the omics technologies in uncovering the molecular mechanisms underlying it, with the future prospective of applying a personalized nutrition approach to prevent and treat NCD from the beginning of fetal life.

Maternal pre-pregnancy weight and early life lower respiratory tract infections in a low-income urban minority birth cohort

The prevalence of maternal obesity has increased dramatically with adverse consequences on infant health. Prior studies have reported associations between maternal obesity and childhood wheeze, asthma as well as lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI). However, studies examining the association of obesity with early-life LRTIs in low-income urban minority populations are still lacking. This is a critical gap because both obesity and infant respiratory morbidity are more prevalent and severe in these communities. We examined mother-child dyads from the Boston Birth Cohort (BBC) to define the longitudinal association of maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and LRTI in infancy, defined as the presence of bronchiolitis, bronchitis, or pneumonia during the first year of life (< 12 months of age). A total of 2,790 mother-child dyads were included in our analyses. Infants born to pre-pregnancy obese mothers (n = 688, 25%) had 1.43 increased odds (adjOR = 1.43, 95% CI 1.08-1.88, p = 0.012) of developing LRTI during the first year of life when compared with newborns born to normal-weight mothers after adjusting by relevant LRTI risk factors. Notably, infants born to overweight mothers (n = 808, 29%) followed a similar trend (adjOR = 1.31, 95% CI 1.00-1.72, p = 0.048). Our study demonstrated that maternal pre-pregnancy obesity is an independent risk factor for the development of LRTI during infancy in a low-income urban minority birth cohort.

Maternal Vegetable and Fruit Consumption during Pregnancy and Its Effects on Infant Gut Microbiome

Maternal nutrition intake during pregnancy may affect the mother-to-child transmission of bacteria, resulting in gut microflora changes in the offspring, with long-term health consequences in later life. Longitudinal human studies are lacking, as only a small amount of studies showing the effect of nutrition intake during pregnancy on the gut microbiome of infants have been performed, and these studies have been mainly conducted on animals. This pilot study explores the effects of high or low fruit and vegetable gestational intake on the infant microbiome. We enrolled pregnant women with a complete 3-day dietary record and received postpartum follow-up. The 16S rRNA gene sequence was used to characterize the infant gut microbiome at 2 months (n = 39). Principal coordinate analysis ordination revealed that the infant gut microbiome clustered differently for high and low maternal fruit and vegetable consumption (p < 0.001). The linear discriminant analysis effect size and feature selection identified 6 and 17 taxa from both the high and low fruit and vegetable consumption groups. Among the 23 abundant taxa, we observed that six maternal intake nutrients were associated with nine taxa (e.g., Erysipelatoclostridium, Isobaculum, Lachnospiraceae, Betaproteobacteria, Burkholderiaceae, Sutterella, Clostridia, Clostridiales, and Lachnoclostridium). The amount of gestational fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with distinct changes in the infant gut microbiome at 2 months of age. Therefore, strategies involving increased fruit and vegetable consumption during pregnancy should be employed for modifying the gut microbiome early in life.

Phenotypic and Epigenetic Adaptations of Cord Blood CD4+ T Cells to Maternal Obesity

Pregravid obesity has been shown to disrupt the development of the offspring's immune system and increase susceptibility to infection. While the mechanisms underlying the impact of maternal obesity on fetal myeloid cells are emerging, the consequences for T cells remain poorly defined. In this study, we collected umbilical cord blood samples from infants born to lean mothers and mothers with obesity and profiled CD4 T cells using flow cytometry and single cell RNA sequencing at resting and following ex vivo polyclonal stimulation. We report that maternal obesity is associated with higher frequencies of memory CD4 T cells suggestive of in vivo activation. Moreover, single cell RNA sequencing revealed expansion of an activated subset of memory T cells with maternal obesity. However, ex vivo stimulation of purified CD4 T cells resulted in poor cytokine responses, suggesting functional defects. These phenotypic and functional aberrations correlated with methylation and chromatin accessibility changes in loci associated with lymphocyte activation and T cell receptor signaling, suggesting a possible link between maternal obesogenic environment and fetal immune reprogramming. These observations offer a potential explanation for the increased susceptibility to microbial infection in babies born to mothers with obesity.

The interplay between gut microbiota and autism spectrum disorders: A focus on immunological pathways

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in social and cognitive activities, stereotypical and repetitive behaviors and restricted areas of interest. A remarkable proportion of ASD patients represent immune dysregulation as well as gastrointestinal complications. Hence, a novel concept has recently emerged, addressing the possible intercommunication between the brain, the immune system, the gut and its commensals. Here, we provide an overview of how gut microbes and their metabolites are associated with neurobehavioral features of ASD through various immunologic mechanisms. Moreover, we discuss the potential therapeutic options that could modify these features.

Can we modulate the breastfed infant gut microbiota through maternal diet?

Initial colonisation of the infant gut is robustly influenced by regular ingestion of human milk, a substance that contains microbes, microbial metabolites, immune proteins, and oligosaccharides. Numerous factors have been identified as potential determinants of the human milk and infant gut microbiota, including maternal diet; however, there is limited data on the influence of maternal diet during lactation on either of these. Here, we review the processes thought to contribute to human milk and infant gut bacterial colonisation and provide a basis for considering the role of maternal dietary patterns during lactation in shaping infant gut microbial composition and function. Although only one observational study has directly investigated the influence of maternal diet during lactation on the infant gut microbiome, data from animal studies suggests that modulation of the maternal gut microbiota, via diet or probiotics, may influence the mammary or milk microbiota. Additionally, evidence from human studies suggests that the maternal diet during pregnancy may affect the gut microbiota of the breastfed infant. Together, there is a plausible hypothesis that maternal diet during lactation may influence the infant gut microbiota. If substantiated in further studies, this may present a potential window of opportunity for modulating the infant gut microbiome in early life.

Virus Infections and Host Metabolism-Can We Manage the Interactions?

When viruses infect cells, they almost invariably cause metabolic changes in the infected cell as well as in several host cell types that react to the infection. Such metabolic changes provide potential targets for therapeutic approaches that could reduce the impact of infection. Several examples are discussed in this review, which include effects on energy metabolism, glutaminolysis and fatty acid metabolism. The response of the immune system also involves metabolic changes and manipulating these may change the outcome of infection. This could include changing the status of herpesviruses infections from productive to latency. The consequences of viral infections which include coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), may also differ in patients with metabolic problems, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), obesity, and endocrine diseases. Nutrition status may also affect the pattern of events following viral infection and examples that impact on the pattern of human and experimental animal viral diseases and the mechanisms involved are discussed. Finally, we discuss the so far few published reports that have manipulated metabolic events in-vivo to change the outcome of virus infection. The topic is expected to expand in relevance as an approach used alone or in combination with other therapies to shape the nature of virus induced diseases.

Evidence for maternal diet-mediated effects on the offspring microbiome and immunity: implications for public health initiatives

Diets rich in saturated fats have become a staple globally. Fifty percent of women of childbearing age in the United States are obese or overweight, with diet being a significant contributor. There is increasing evidence of the impact of maternal high-fat diet on the offspring microbiome. Alterations of the neonatal microbiome have been shown to be associated with multiple morbidities, including the development of necrotizing enterocolitis, atopy, asthma, metabolic dysfunction, and hypertension among others. This review provides an overview of the recent studies and mechanisms being examined on how maternal diet can alter the immune response and microbiome in offspring and the implications for directed public health initiatives for women of childbearing age. IMPACT: Maternal diet is important in shaping the offspring microbiome and neonatal immune system. Reviews the current literature in the field and suggests potential mechanisms and areas of research to be targeted. Highlights the current scope of our knowledge of ideal nutrition during pregnancy and consideration for enhanced public health initiatives to promote well-being of the future generation.

Microbiome and Gestational Diabetes: Interactions with Pregnancy Outcome and Long-Term Infant Health

Microbiota composition is progressively being connected to different physiologic effects, such as glucose metabolism, and also to different pathologies, such as gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). GDM is a public health concern that affects an important percentage of pregnancies and is correlated with many adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. An increasing number of studies are showing some connections between specific microbial composition of the gut microbiota and development of GDM and adverse outcomes in mothers and neonates. The aim of this review is to analyze the available data on microbial changes that characterize healthy pregnancies and pregnancies complicated by GDM and to understand the correlation of these changes with adverse maternal outcomes; this review will also discuss the consequences of these maternal gut microbiome alterations on neonatal microbiota composition and neonatal long-term outcomes.

Maternal Sweeteners Intake Modulates Gut Microbiota and Exacerbates Learning and Memory Processes in Adult Male Offspring

Background: There is increasing evidence that gut microbiota in offspring is derived in part from maternal environment such as diet. Thus, sweeteners intake including caloric or non-caloric during perinatal period can induce gut dysbiosis and program the offspring to develop cognitive problems later in life. Objective: To determine the effect of maternal high-sweeteners intake during gestation and lactation on gut microbiota shifts in adult male offspring rats and the impact on cognitive dysfunction. Methods: Thirty-four male pups from dams fed standard diet (Control-C, n = 10), high-sucrose diet (HS-C, n = 11), high-honey diet (Ho-C, n = 8), and high-stevia diet (HSt-C, n = 5) were fed standard diet after weaning, and body weight and food intake were recorded once a week for 26 weeks. Learning and memory tests were performed at week 23 of life using the Barnes maze. Fecal samples from the breastfeeding and adulthood periods were collected and analyzed by sequencing the 16S rRNA V3-V4 region of gut microbiota. Results: Maternal high-sucrose and stevia diets programmed the male offspring, and changes in microbial diversity by Shannon index were observed after weaning (p < 0.01). Furthermore, maternal high-stevia diet programming lasted into adulthood. The increase of Firmicutes abundance and the decrease in phylum Bacteroidetes were significant in HS-C and HSt-C groups. This led to an increase in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes index, although only in HS-C group was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Of note, the downstream gram-negative Bacteroidales and the upregulation of the gram-positive Clostridiales abundance contribute to cognitive dysfunction. Conclusion: These results suggest that dams fed a high-sucrose and stevia diets during gestation and lactation favor a deficient memory performance in adult male offspring rats through shifts gut microbiota diversity and relative abundance at several taxa.

Maternal sitagliptin treatment attenuates offspring glucose metabolism and intestinal proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α expression in male rats

Increasing evidence shows that maternal overnutrition may increase the risk of diabetes in offspring. We hypothesized that maternal sitagliptin intervention may improve glucose intolerance through gut targeting. Female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were fed a normal diet (ND) or a high-fat diet (HFD) for 4 weeks before mating. ND pregnant rats were divided into two subgroups: ND group (ND alone) and the ND-sitagliptin group (ND combined with 10 mg/kg/day sitagliptin treatment). HFD pregnant rats were randomized to one of two groups: HFD group (HFD alone) and the HFD-sitagliptin group (HFD combined with 10 mg/kg/day sitagliptin treatment) during pregnancy and lactation. Glucose metabolism was assessed in offspring at weaning. Intestinal gene expression levels were investigated. Maternal sitagliptin intervention moderated glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in male pups. Moreover, maternal sitagliptin treatment inhibited offspring disordered intestinal expression of proinflammatory markers, including interleukin-6 (Il6), ll1b, and tumor necrosis factor (Tnf), at weaning and reduced intestinal IL-6, TNF-α expression by immunohistochemical staining and serum IL-6, TNF-α levels. However, maternal sitagliptin intervention did not affect offspring serum anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 level. Our results are the first to show that maternal sitagliptin intervention moderated glucose metabolism in male offspring. It may be involved with moderating intestinal IL-6 and TNF-α expression in male rat offspring.

Maternal Linoleic Acid Overconsumption Alters Offspring Gut and Adipose Tissue Homeostasis in Young but Not Older Adult Rats

Maternal n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) consumption during gestation and lactation can predispose offspring to the development of metabolic diseases such as obesity later in life. However, the mechanisms underlying the potential programming effect of n-6 PUFA upon offspring physiology are not yet all established. Herein, we investigated the effects of maternal and weaning linoleic acid (LA)-rich diet interactions on gut intestinal and adipose tissue physiology in young (3-month-old) and older (6-month-old) adult offspring. Pregnant rats were fed a control diet (2% LA) or an LA-rich diet (12% LA) during gestation and lactation. At weaning, offspring were either maintained on the maternal diet or fed the other diet for 3 or 6 months. At 3 months of age, the maternal LA-diet favored low-grade inflammation and greater adiposity, while at 6 months of age, offspring intestinal barrier function, adipose tissue physiology and hepatic conjugated linoleic acids were strongly influenced by the weaning diet. The maternal LA-diet impacted offspring cecal microbiota diversity and composition at 3 months of age, but had only few remnant effects upon cecal microbiota composition at 6 months of age. Our study suggests that perinatal exposure to high LA levels induces a differential metabolic response to weaning diet exposure in adult life. This programming effect of a maternal LA-diet may be related to the alteration of offspring gut microbiota.

Supplementation with a prebiotic (polydextrose) in obese mouse pregnancy improves maternal glucose homeostasis and protects against offspring obesity

OBJECTIVES

We hypothesised that maternal diet-induced-obesity has adverse consequences for offspring energy expenditure and susceptibility to obesity in adulthood, and that the prebiotic polydextrose (PDX) would prevent the consequences of programming by maternal obesity.

METHODS

Female mice were fed a control (Con) or obesogenic diet (Ob) for 6 weeks prior to mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. Half the obese dams were supplemented with 5% PDX (ObPDX) in drinking water throughout pregnancy and lactation. Offspring were weaned onto standard chow. At 3 and 6 months, offspring energy intake (EI) and energy expenditure (EE by indirect calorimetry) were measured, and a glucose-tolerance test performed. Offspring of control (OffCon), obese (OffOb) and PDX supplemented (OffObP) dams were subsequently challenged for 3 weeks with Ob, and energy balanced reassessed. Potential modifiers of offspring energy balance including gut microbiota and biomarkers of mitochondrial activity were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Six-month-old male OffOb demonstrated increased bodyweight (BW, P < 0.001) and white adipose tissue mass (P < 0.05), decreased brown adipose tissue mass (BAT, P < 0.01), lower night-time EE (P < 0.001) versus OffCon, which were prevented in OffObP. Both male and female OffOb showed abnormal glucose-tolerance test (peak [Glucose] P < 0.001; AUC, P < 0.05) which was prevented by PDX. The Ob challenge resulted in greater BW gain in both male and female OffOb versus OffCon (P < 0.05), also associated with increased EI (P < 0.05) and reduced EE in females (P < 0.01). OffObP were protected from accelerated BW gain on the OB diet compared with controls, associated with increased night-time EE in both male (P < 0.05) and female OffObP (P < 0.001). PDX also prevented an increase in skeletal muscle mtDNA copy number in OffOb versus OffCon (P < 0.01) and increased the percentage of Bacteroides cells in faecal samples from male OffObP relative to controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal obesity adversely influences adult offspring energy balance and propensity for obesity, which is ameliorated by maternal PDX treatment with associated changes in gut microbiota composition and skeletal muscle mitochondrial function.