Pharmacological characterization of Ro 63-1908 (1-[2-(4-hydroxy-phenoxy)-ethyl]-4-(4-methyl-benzyl)-piperidin-4-ol), a novel subtype-selective N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist

Ro 63-1908, 1-[2-(4-hydroxy-phenoxy)-ethyl]-4-(4-methyl-benzyl)-piperidin-4-ol, is a novel subtype-selective N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist that has been characterized in vitro and in vivo. Ro 63-1908 inhibited [(3)H]dizocilpine ((3)H-MK-801) binding in a biphasic manner with IC(50) values of 0.002 and 97 microM for the high- and low-affinity sites, respectively. Ro 63-1908 selectively blocked recombinant receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes containing NR1C + NR2B subunits with an IC(50) of 0.003 microM and those containing NR1C + NR2A subunits with an IC(50) of >100 microM, thus demonstrating greater than 20,000-fold selectivity for the recombinant receptors expressing NR1C + NR2B. Ro 63-1908 blocked these NMDA NR2B-subtype receptors in an activity-dependent manner. Ro 63-1908 was neuroprotective against glutamate-induced toxicity and against oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced toxicity in vitro with IC(50) values of 0.68 and 0.06 microM, respectively. Thus, the in vitro pharmacological characterization demonstrated that Ro 63-1908 was a potent and highly selective antagonist of the NR2B subtype of NMDA receptors. Ro 63-1908 was active against sound-induced seizures (ED(50) = 4.5 mg/kg i.p. when administered 30 min beforehand) in DBA/2 mice. The dose required to give a full anticonvulsant effect did not produce a deficit in the Rotarod test. NMDA-induced seizures were also inhibited by Ro 63-1908 with an ED(50) of 2.31 mg/kg i.v. when administered 15 min before testing. Ro 63-1908 gave a dose-related neuroprotective effect against cortical damage in a model of permanent focal ischemia. Maximum protection of 39% was seen at a plasma concentration of 450 ng/ml. There were, however, no adverse cardiovascular or CNS side-effects seen at this dosing level.

Discovery of (R)-1-[2-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-propyl]-4-(4-methyl-benzyl)-piperidin-4-ol: a novel NR1/2B subtype selective NMDA receptor antagonist

Starting from Ro-25-6981 as a lead compound, highly potent and selective NR1/2B subtype selective NMDA receptor antagonists, with low activity at alpha(1) adrenergic receptors were developed.

Evidence that nicotinic alpha(7) receptors are not involved in the hyperlocomotor and rewarding effects of nicotine

Neuronal nicotinic receptors are comprised of combinations of alpha(2-9) and beta(2-4) subunits arranged to form a pentameric receptor. Currently, the principal central nervous system (CNS) subtypes are believed to be alpha(4)beta(2) and a homomeric alpha(7) receptor, although other combinations almost certainly exist. The identity of the nicotinic receptor subtype(s) involved in the rewarding effects of nicotine are unknown. In the present study, using some recently described subtype selective nicotinic agonists and antagonists, we investigated the role of the alpha(7) nicotinic receptor in the mediation of nicotine-induced hyperactivity and self-administration in rats. The alpha(7) receptor agonists AR-R 17779 and DMAC failed to stimulate locomotor activity in both nicotine-nontolerant and -sensitized rats. In contrast, nicotine and the putative alpha(4)beta(2) subtype selective agonist SIB1765F increased activity in both experimental conditions. In nicotine-sensitized rats, the high affinity (including the alpha(4)beta(2) subtype) nicotinic antagonist dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE), but not the selective alpha(7) antagonist methyllycaconitine (MLA), antagonized a nicotine-induced hyperactivity. Similarly, DHbetaE, but not MLA, pretreatment reduced nicotine self-administration. Electrophysiology experiments using Xenopus oocytes expressing the human alpha(7) receptor confirmed AR-R 17779 and DMAC to be potent agonists at this site, and further studies demonstrated the ability of systemically administered AR-R 17779 to penetrate into the CNS. Taken together, these results indicate a negligible role of alpha(7) receptors in nicotine-induced hyperlocomotion and reward in the rat, and support the view for an involvement of a member from the high-affinity nicotinic receptor subclass, possibly alpha(4)beta(2). Issues such as drug potency, CNS penetration, and desensitization of the alpha(7) receptor are discussed.

Functional consequences of reduction in NMDA receptor glycine affinity in mice carrying targeted point mutations in the glycine binding site

We have used site-directed mutagenesis in conjunction with homologous recombination to generate two mouse lines carrying point mutations in the glycine binding site of the NMDAR1 subunit (Grin1). Glycine concentration-response curves from acutely dissociated hippocampal neurons revealed a 5- and 86-fold reduction in receptor glycine affinity in mice carrying Grin1(D481N) and Grin1(K483Q) mutations, respectively, whereas receptor glutamate affinity remained unaffected. Homozygous mutant Grin1(D481N) animals are viable and fertile and appear to develop normally. However, homozygous mutant Grin1(K483Q) animals are significantly lighter at birth, do not feed, and die within a few days. No gross abnormalities in CNS anatomy were detected in either Grin1(D481N) or Grin1(K483Q) mice. Interestingly, in situ hybridization and Western blot analysis revealed changes in the expression levels of NMDA receptor subunits in Grin1(D481N) mice relative to wild type that may represent a compensatory response to the reduction in receptor glycine affinity. Grin1(D481N) mice exhibited deficits in hippocampal theta burst-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) and spatial learning and also a reduction in sensitivity to NMDA-induced seizures relative to wild-type controls, consistent with a reduced activation of NMDA receptors. Mutant mice exhibited normal prepulse inhibition but showed increased startle reactivity. Preliminary analysis indicated that the mice exhibit a decreased natural aversion to an exposed environment. The lethal phenotype of Grin1(K483Q) animals confirms the critical role of NMDA receptor activation in neonatal survival. A milder reduction in receptor glycine affinity results in an impairment of LTP and spatial learning and alterations in anxiety-related behavior, providing further evidence for the role of NMDA receptor activation in these processes.

Binding characteristics of a potent AMPA receptor antagonist [3H]Ro 48-8587 in rat brain

A new AMPA receptor antagonist, Ro 48-8587, was characterized pharmacologically in vitro. It is highly potent and selective for AMPA receptors as shown by its effects on [3H]AMPA, [3H] kainate, and [3H] MK-801 binding to rat brain membranes and on AMPA- or NMDA-induced depolarization in rat cortical wedges. [3H]Ro 48-8587 bound with a high affinity (KD = 3 nM) to a single population of binding sites with a Bmax of 1 pmol/mg of protein in rat whole brain membranes. [3H]Ro 48-8587 binding to rat whole brain membranes was inhibited by several compounds with the following rank order of potency: Ro 48-8587 > 6-nitro-7-sulphamoylbenzo[f] quinoxaline-2,3-dione (NBQX) > YM 90K > 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) > quisqualate > AMPA > glutamate > kainate > NMDA. The distribution and abundance of specific binding sites (approximately 95% of total) in sections of rat CNS, revealed by quantitative receptor radioautography and image analysis, indicated a very discrete localization. Highest binding values were observed in cortical layers (binding in layers 1 and 2 > binding in layers 3-6), hippocampal formation, striatum, dorsal septum, reticular thalamic nucleus, cerebellar molecular layer, and spinal cord dorsal horn. At 1 nM, the values for specific binding were highest in the cortical layers 1 and 2 and lowest in the brainstem (approximately 2.6 and 0.4 pmol/mg of protein, respectively). Ro 48-8587 is a potent and selective AMPA receptor antagonist with improved binding characteristics (higher affinity, selectivity, and specific binding) compared with those previously reported.

State-dependent NMDA receptor antagonism by Ro 8-4304, a novel NR2B selective, non-competitive, voltage-independent antagonist

1. Subunit-selective blockade of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors provides a potentially attractive strategy for neuroprotection in the absence of undesirable side effects. Here, we describe a novel NR2B-selective NMDA antagonist, 4-¿3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenyl)-3,6-dihydro-2H-pyridin-1-yl]-2-hydroxy-propoxy ¿-benzamide (Ro 8-4304), which exhibits >100 fold higher affinity for recombinant NR1(001)/NR2B than NR1(001)/NR2A receptors. 2. Ro 8-4304 is a voltage-independent, non-competitive antagonist of NMDA receptors in rat cultured cortical neurones and exhibits a state-dependent mode of action similar to that described for ifenprodil. 3. The apparent affinity of Ro 8-4304 for the NMDA receptor increased in an NMDA concentration-dependent manner so that Ro 8-4304 inhibited 10 and 100 microM NMDA responses with IC50s of 2.3 and 0.36 microM, respectively. Currents elicited by 1 microM NMDA were slightly potentiated in the presence of 10 microM Ro 8-4304, and Ro 8-4304 binding slowed the rate of glutamate dissociation from NMDA receptors. 4. These results were predicted by a reaction scheme in which Ro 8-4304 exhibits a 14 and 23 fold higher affinity for the activated and desensitized states of the NMDA receptor, respectively, relative to the agonist-unbound resting state. Additionally, Ro 8-4304 binding resulted in a 3 4 fold increase in receptor affinity for glutamate site agonists. 5. Surprisingly, whilst exhibiting a similar affinity for NR2B-containing NMDA receptors as ifenprodil, Ro 8-4304 exhibited markedly faster kinetics of binding and unbinding to the NMDA receptor. This spectrum of kinetic behaviour reveals a further important feature of this emerging class of NR2B-selective compounds.

Ro 25-6981, a highly potent and selective blocker of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors containing the NR2B subunit. Characterization in vitro

The interaction of Ro 25-6981 with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors was characterized by a variety of different tests in vitro. Ro 25-6981 inhibited 3H-MK-801 binding to rat forebrain membranes in a biphasic manner with IC50 values of 0.003 microM and 149 microM for high- (about 60%) and low-affinity sites, respectively. NMDA receptor subtypes expressed in Xenopus oocytes were blocked with IC50 values of 0.009 microM and 52 microM for the subunit combinations NR1C & NR2B and NR1C & NR2A, respectively, which indicated a >5000-fold selectivity. Like ifenprodil, Ro 25-6981 blocked NMDA receptor subtypes in an activity-dependent manner. Ro 25-6981 protected cultured cortical neurons against glutamate toxicity (16 h exposure to 300 microM glutamate) and combined oxygen and glucose deprivation (60 min followed by 20 h recovery) with IC50 values of 0.4 microM and 0.04 microM, respectively. Ro 25-6981 was more potent than ifenprodil in all of these tests. It showed no protection against kainate toxicity (exposure to 500 microM for 20 h) and only weak activity in blocking Na+ and Ca++ channels, activated by exposure of cortical neurons to veratridine (10 microM) and potassium (50 mM), respectively. These findings demonstrate that Ro 25-6981 is a highly selective, activity-dependent blocker of NMDA receptors that contain the NR2B subunit.

A novel mechanism of activity-dependent NMDA receptor antagonism describes the effect of ifenprodil in rat cultured cortical neurones

1. Ifenprodil is a selective, atypical non-competitive antagonist of NMDA receptors that contain the NR2B subunit with an undefined mechanism of action. Ifenprodil is neuroprotective in in vivo models of cerebral ischaemia but lacks many of the undesirable side-effects associated with NMDA antagonist. 2. Using whole-cell voltage-clamp recordings, we have studied the mechanism of inhibition of NMDA-evoked currents by ifenprodil in rat cultured cortical neurones in the presence of saturating concentrations of glycine. 3. Ifenprodil antagonized NMDA receptors in an activity-dependent manner, whilst also increasing the receptor affinity for glutamate recognition-site agonists. Ifenprodil inhibition curves against 10 and 100 microM NMDA-evoked currents yielded IC50 values of 0.88 and 0.17 microM, respectively. Thus, the apparent affinity of ifenprodil for the NMDA receptor is increased in an NMDA concentration-dependent manner. 4. Currents evoked by 0.3 and 1 microM NMDA were potentiated to approximately 200% of control levels in the presence of 3 microM ifenprodil. Thus, with increasing concentration of NMDA the effect of ifenprodil on NMDA-evoked currents changed from one of potentiation to one of increasing inhibition. 5. These results are predicted by a reaction scheme in which ifenprodil exhibits a 39- and 50-fold higher affinity for the agonist-bound activated and desensitized states of the NMDA receptor, respectively, relative to the resting, agonist-unbound state. Furthermore, ifenprodil binding to the NMDA receptor results in a 6-fold higher affinity for glutamate site agonists. 6. This represents a novel mechanism of NMDA receptor antagonism that, together with the subunit selectivity, probably contributes to the attractive neuropharmacological profile of this and related compounds.

Dextromethorphan: cellular effects reducing neuronal hyperactivity

Dextromethorphan is a dextrorotary morphinan without affinity for opioid receptors, commonly used as an antitussive medication. During the past 5 years, interest in the compound and its demethylated derivative, dextrorphan, has been revived because additional neuroprotective and antiepileptic properties were found in in vitro studies, animal experiments, and a few clinical cases. Both morphinans are able to inhibit N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channels and voltage-operated calcium and sodium channels with different potencies. The inhibition of the NMDA receptor is believed to be the predominant mechanism of action responsible for the anticonvulsant and neuroprotective properties of the compounds.

Tonic inhibition of neuronal calcium channels by G proteins removed during whole-cell patch-clamp experiments

The barium current through voltage-dependent calcium channels was recorded from cultured rat cortical neurons with the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. The maximal current evoked by depolarising pulses from -80 mV to 0 mV was divided into inactivating and non-inactivating fractions. During the first minutes of whole-cell recording, the amplitude of the inactivating fraction increased from less than 0.1 nA to an average value of 1 nA, whereas the amplitude of the non-inactivating component remained essentially the same. This increase in amplitude was prevented when the "perforated-patch technique" was used, suggesting that some intracellular factor that inhibited the barium current was lost or destroyed during conventional whole-cell experiments. When GTP[gamma-S] or GTP was added to the pipette solution, no increase or only a weak rise of the inactivating current was seen, whereas GDP[beta-S] accelerated its increase. The results suggest that some of the calcium channels expressed in cultured cortical neurons are inhibited by a G protein even in the absence of added neurotransmitter. The current increase observed during whole-cell recordings may be due to a loss of intracellular GTP and the subsequent inactivation of an inhibitory G protein.

Dextromethorphan blocks N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced currents and voltage-operated inward currents in cultured cortical neurons

The effect of dextromethorphan on several types of cation currents in cultured rat cortical neurons and PC12 cells was studied by using the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. The Ba2+ current through L- and N-type Ca2+ channels was blocked with similar potencies (52-71 microM) in both types of cells. The effect was not voltage-dependent, in contrast to that of amlodipine (a dihydropyridine). Dextromethorphan was able to block the Ba2+ current completely unlike amlodipine and omega-conotoxin (an N-type channel blocker) which produced only partial inhibition. The voltage-activated Na+ and Ca2+ channels in cortical neurons were inhibited by similar concentrations of dextromethorphan (IC50 approximately 80 microM). The morphinan was at least 100 times more potent (IC50 = 0.55 microM) as a blocker of the current induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) in cortical neurons. Currents induced by (RS)-alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid ((RS)-AMPA) or kainic acid were not significantly affected even at 1 mM. The results suggest that the neuroprotective effect of dextromethorphan, previously found to occur in a concentration range of 10-100 microM, may be due to a complete blockade of the NMDA receptor channel and a partial inhibition of voltage-dependent Ca2+ and Na+ channels.

Single-channel activity in cultured cortical neurons of the rat in the presence of a toxic dose of glutamate

Rat cortical neurons grown in cell culture were exposed to 500 microM glutamate for 5 min during continuous current recording from cell-attached patches. The Ca(2+-dependence and ion selectivity of the membrane channels activated during and after glutamate application were studied in inside-out patches. Glutamate blocked spontaneous action potential firing. In 77% of the experiments glutamate activated several types of ion channels indirectly, i.e. via a change of cytoplasmic factors. Channel activity did not disappear after removing glutamate from the bath. A K+ channel requiring intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) was activated in 44% of the experiments (conductance for inward currents in cell-attached patches 118 +/- 6 pS; 'BK channel'). Another Ca(2+)-dependent channel permeable for Cl- (conductance for outward currents in cell-attached patches 72 +/- 17 pS), acetate and methanesulphonate appeared in 26% of the patches. Other K+ channels of smaller conductance were infrequently observed. During and after glutamate application the activity of the BK channel showed an initial increase followed by a transient decay and a second rise to a plateau, probably reflecting a similar time course of changes in [Ca2+]i. Both phases of increasing channel activity required the presence of extracellular Ca2+ suggesting that [Ca2+]i was mainly increased by Ca2+ influx. The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists dizocilpine (MK-801, 10 microM) and DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (AP5; 100 microM), added within 5 min after glutamate application, stopped BK channel activity and restored the spontaneous action potential firing. We conclude that the influx of Ca2+ through NMDA receptor channels causes a strong activation of Ca(2+)-dependent K+ channels, which is likely to result in pronounced loss of intracellular K+. NMDA receptor channels seem to remain active for a long time (> 10 min) after the end of glutamate application.

Pharmacological and Electrophysiological Properties of Recombinant GABAA Receptors Comprising the alpha3, beta1 and gamma2 Subunits

To assess the role of subunits for channel function and drug modulation in recombinant GABAA receptors, the alpha3beta1gamma2 subunits and the dual combinations alpha3beta1, beta1gamma2 and alpha3gamma2 were expressed by transfection of human embryonic kidney cells and by RNA injection in Xenopus oocytes (alpha3beta1gamma2 combination). GABA-induced chloride currents were recorded using the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique (transfected cells) or the voltage-clamp technique (oocytes). The currents recorded from the alpha3beta1gamma2 subunit combination in transfected cells were reduced by bicuculline and picrotoxin, enhanced by flunitrazepam in a flumazenil-sensitive manner and reduced by beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid methyl ester (beta-CCM). The GABA-induced current was reduced by beta-CCM in all combinations containing the gamma2 subunit, but potentiation by flunitrazepam was only obtained when the gamma2 subunit was coexpressed in the presence of the alpha3 subunit (alpha3beta1gamma2 or alpha3gamma2). The GABA sensitivities of the receptors were similar when the alpha3beta1gamma2 combination was expressed in oocytes (half-maximum effective concentration=240 microM) or in the kidney cell line (270 microM). However, the currents were less potentiated by flunitrazepam in oocytes (129% of controls) than in transfected cells (189%). These results suggest that the alpha3beta1gamma2 subunit combination, which is coexpressed in various brain regions as shown by in situ hybridization histochemistry, may represent a building block of functional GABAA receptors in situ.

Action of diazepam on the voltage-dependent Na+ current. Comparison with the effects of phenytoin, carbamazepine, lidocaine and flumazenil

The influence of diazepam, an agonist, and flumazenil (Ro 15-1788), an antagonist of the benzodiazepine receptor, on repetitive firing of action potentials in cultured spinal neurons and on voltage-dependent Na+ currents in cultured N2A neuroblastoma cells was examined. The effects were compared to those of the antiepileptics phenytoin and carbamazepine and the local anesthetic lidocaine. The whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used for potential and current recording. Diazepam (10 microM) or phenytoin (10 microM) reduced the duration of repetitive action potential discharges in 50 or 67% of the spinal neurons, respectively. At a concentration of 100 microM repetitive firing was completely blocked. Flumazenil (100 microM) had no effect. In N2A neuroblastoma cells diazepam, phenytoin, carbamazepine and lidocaine, but not flumazenil, at a concentration of 100 microM reduced the Na+ current to 60-67% of control. At 10 microM no or only a weak depression was seen with any drug. In the presence of diazepam (100 microM) the Na+ channel inactivation curve was shifted in the hyperpolarizing direction by -4.8 +/- 0.5 mV. Phenytoin, carbamazepine and lidocaine (all 100 microM) caused stronger shifts of -17.4 +/- 2.1, -10.6 +/- 0.9 and -17.0 +/- 2.1 mV, respectively. Inhibition of the Na+ current by diazepam increased use-dependently over 9 depolarizing pulses repeated at high frequency (200 Hz), whereas use-dependent effects of the other compounds developed less rapidly. At a low stimulation rate (7 Hz) use-dependent block was pronounced with lidocaine, but weak or absent with diazepam and carbamazepine.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The effect of subunit composition of rat brain GABAA receptors on channel function

Different combinations of cloned rat brain subunit isoforms of the GABAA receptor channel were expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The voltage-clamp technique was then used to measure properties of the GABA-induced membrane currents and to study the effects of various modulators of the GABAA receptor channel (diazepam, DMCM, pentobarbital, and picrotoxin). This approach was used to obtain information on the minimal structural requirements for several functional properties of the ion channel. The combination alpha 5 beta 2 gamma 2 was identified as the minimal requirement reproducing consensus properties of the vertebrate GABAA receptor channel, including cooperativity of GABA-dependent channel gating with a Ka in the range of 10 microM, modulation by various drugs acting at the benzodiazepine binding site, picrotoxin sensitivity, and barbiturate effects.

How do sulfonylureas approach their receptor in the B-cell plasma membrane?

Since it was unknown whether the uncharged or the anionic form of hypoglycemic sulfonylureas and meglitinide is the effective modulator of ATP-dependent K+ channels and insulin secretion, we studied the inhibitory effects of tolbutamide and meglitinide on the ATP-dependent K+ current at different external pH. The whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used in mouse pancreatic B-cells. When the concentrations of the undissociated forms of these drugs were kept constant at increasing pH of the bath solution (6.4 to 8.4), the rate of development and the degree of K+ channel block varied only slightly. Raising the pH-value in the bath solution at constant total concentration of tolbutamide diminished both the rate of development and the degree of K+ channel block. It is concluded that the undissociated forms of tolbutamide and related compounds are the effective forms. Examination of the K+ current records during the application and removal of different concentrations of tolbutamide, meglitinide, glipizide and glibenclamide at pH 7.4 indicated that the kinetics of the current records reflected not only association and dissociation of the drug-receptor complex but perhaps also the kinetic of drug distribution between bath and the lipid phase of the plasma membrane. As there is evidence against an interaction between sulfonylureas and their receptor via a binding site freely accessible from the cytoplasm, the drugs probably get access to their binding site on the receptor from the lipid phase of the B-cell plasma membrane.

Expression of K channels in Xenopus laevis oocytes injected with poly(A+) mRNA from the insulin-secreting beta-cell line, HIT T15

Two types of exogenous K channel were identified in Xenopus laevis oocytes injected with poly(A+) mRNA from the insulin-secreting cell line HIT T15. One of these was the ATP-regulated K channel (G channel) as evidenced by its conductance and inhibition by tolbutamide. The other resembled the Ca-activated K channel from beta-cells.

Cytosolic ADP enhances the sensitivity to tolbutamide of ATP-dependent K+ channels from pancreatic B-cells

The effects of intracellular purine nucleotides on tolbutamide-induced block of ATP-dependent K+ channels from mouse pancreatic B-cells were studied using the patch-clamp technique. When applied to the inside of excised patches, tolbutamide alone blocked channel activity half-maximally at 55 microM and the concentration-response curve for the inhibition of K+ channels by tolbutamide was flat. ADP (1 mM), but not other nucleotides (AMP, GTP or GDP) increased the steepness of the concentration-response curve and decreased the half-maximally effective tolbutamide concentration to 4.2 microM. It is suggested that the ATP-dependent K+ channel or a closely related structure contains a receptor which is accessible for cytosolic ADP and controls the sensitivity to tolbutamide.

Single Ca channel currents in mouse pancreatic B-cells

Barium currents flowing through single Ca2+ channels were recorded from outside-out patches isolated from mouse pancreatic B-cells. Only one type of Ca2+ channels was observed. In 110 mM Ba2+, the single channel conductance was 24pS (at negative membrane potentials) and the current amplitude at 0 mV was -0.7 pA. Channel openings were activated by depolarisations more positive than -30 mV and showed little inactivation during 200 ms pulses. Open times were increased by BAY K 8644 an decreased by micromolar Cd2+. Channel activity was subject to rundown in excised patches and little activity remained after 10 min. These properties resemble those of L-type Ca2+ channels in other tissues. It is suggested that this Ca2+ channel participates in the generation of the B-cell action potential and mediates the increase in Ca2+ influx required for insulin secretion.

Forskolin-induced block of delayed rectifying K+ channels in pancreatic beta-cells is not mediated by cAMP

K+ channels in the membrane of murine pancreatic beta-cells were studied using the patch-clamp technique. The delayed outward current was activated in whole-cell experiments by depolarizing voltage pulses to potentials between -30 mV and 0 mV. Forskolin blocked the current rapidly (less than 5 s) and reversibly with 50% inhibition at 13 microM. The inhibition did not depend on a stimulation of the adenylate cyclase since it occurred even in presence of 1 mM cAMP in the pipette solution which replaced the cytoplasm. Membrane permeant cAMP analogues and phosphodiesterase inhibitors did not influence the delayed outward current. In experiments on outside-out patches forskolin (100 microM) shortened the openings of a channel of about 10 pS conductance at 0 mV and a time course of activation and inactivation similar to the whole-cell current. Another smaller, slowly activating channel and the Ca2+- and ATP-dependent K+ channels were influenced only weakly or not at all. It is therefore concluded that the 10-pS channel generates most of the delayed outward K+ current in murine pancreatic beta-cells. The Ca2+-independent part of the delayed outward current in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells was also blocked by forskolin (100 microM).

Effects of calcium "antagonists" on vertebrate skeletal muscle cells

Clinically potent skeletal muscle relaxants are used primarily for their effects on the central nervous system. But they also have direct effects on muscle contraction that possibly involve Ca2+ channels. We compared the effects of dantrolene, an agent known to have a direct action on vertebrate skeletal muscle, with other substances used as (1) relaxants and (2) antagonists of Ca-dependent excitation-contraction coupling. Isolated intact frog muscle cells were injected with the photoprotein aequorin, and membrane potential changes, intracellular Ca2+ transients, and contractile force were measured. Dantrolene (10(-8) to 10(-5) M) decreased the amplitude of Ca2+ transients, did not affect their rates of decay, and reduced contractile force. We also used an integrated digital-imaging system to record microscopic changes, namely, active shortening in myofibrils and changes in striation spacing. Dantrolene did not increase the time between contraction in myofibrils near the surface compared with myofibrils near the center of a cell. Hence dantrolene does not suppress Ca2+ transients by disturbing current flow in the transverse tubular system. Each of the following actually increased Ca2+ transients and contractile force evoked by action potentials: baclofen (10(-7) to 10(-5) M) less than flordipine (10(-6) M) less than meprobamate (10(-7) to 10(-3) M) less than chlordiazepoxide (10(-5) X 10(-4) M) less than procaine (10(-5) to 5 X 10(-4] less than GABA (10(-5) M) less than D-600 (10(-6) M) less than nylidrin (10(-5) M)--in order of increasing potency. Ca2+ channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of intact skeletal muscle are evidently inhibited by dantrolene but not by Ca2+ antagonists.

Concentration-dependent effects of tolbutamide, meglitinide, glipizide, glibenclamide and diazoxide on ATP-regulated K+ currents in pancreatic B-cells

The influence of the hypoglycemic drugs tolbutamide, meglitinide, glipizide and glibenclamide on ATP-dependent K+ currents of mouse pancreatic B-cells was studied using the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. In the absence of albumin, tolbutamide blocked the currents half maximally at 4.1 mumol/l. In the presence of 2 mg/ml albumin half maximal inhibition of the currents was observed at 2.1 mumol/l meglitinide, 6.4 nmol/l glipizide and 4.0 nmol/l glibenclamide. The hyperglycemic sulfonamide diazoxide opened ATP-dependent K+ channels. Half maximally effective concentrations of diazoxide were 20 mumol/l with 0.3 mmol/l ATP and 102 mumol/l with 1 mmol/l ATP in the recording pipette. Thus, the action of diazoxide was dependent on the presence of ATP in the recording pipette. The free concentrations of the drugs which influenced ATP-dependent K+ currents were comparable with the free plasma concentrations in humans and the free concentrations which affected insulin secretion in vitro. The results support the view that the target for the actions of sulfonylureas and of diazoxide is the ATP-dependent K+ channel of the pancreatic B-cell or a structure closely related to this channel.

Changes of membrane currents in cardiac cells induced by long whole-cell recordings and tolbutamide

Single isolated myocytes were obtained from the ventricles of adult guinea pig hearts. The whole-cell recording configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used to measure membrane currents. A decrease (run-down) of the Ca2+ inward current and an increase of a time-independent K+ outward current were observed during long lasting (1-3h) recordings. The time at which the outward current developed depended on the intracellular ATP concentration in the pipette, suggesting that this current is identical to the ATP-dependent K+ current described by Noma and Shibasaki (1985). However, the maximum outward current reached in the experiments was independent of the ATP concentration indicating a limited diffusion of ATP in the cell interior. In single-channel experiments on isolated patches of cell membrane and in whole-cell recordings the ATP-dependent K+ current could be blocked by the hypoglycaemic sulphonylurea tolbutamide. The IC50 of 0.38 mM was about 50 times higher than that reported for pancreatic beta-cells (Trube et al. 1986). The Ca2+ inward current and the inwardly rectifying K+ current were not affected by tolbutamide (3 mM).

Dual effects of ATP on K+ currents of mouse pancreatic beta-cells

K+ currents through ATP-dependent channels were recorded from inside-out patches of beta-cell membrane as previously described (Rorsman and Trube 1985). Channels were opened by removing ATP from the intracellular side of the membrane. The open probability and/or the number of active channels declined spontaneously ("run-down") when ATP was absent for periods longer than about 30 s. Channels subject to the run-down could be activated again after applying a blocking concentration (greater than 0.1 mM) of ATP in presence of 1 mM MgCl2 for at least 2 min. ATP in absence of Mg and the ATP-analogues AMP-PNP, AMP-PCP and ATP gamma S were ineffective in reactivating the channels. This suggests that phosphorylation of the channels or associated proteins or hydrolysis of ATP may be necessary for keeping the channels available. In contrast to the differential effects on the run-down, ATP in presence and absence of Mg and the ATP analogues were similarly effective in blocking the channels at concentrations above 0.1 mM. Using an experimental protocol avoiding the run-down the dose-inhibition curve for ATP was found to reach 50% at 18 microM.

Opposite effects of tolbutamide and diazoxide on the ATP-dependent K+ channel in mouse pancreatic beta-cells

The influence of the antidiabetic sulphonylurea tolbutamide on K+ channels of mouse pancreatic beta-cells was investigated using different configurations of the patch clamp technique. The dominant channel in resting cells is a K+ channel with a single-channel conductance of 60 pS that is inhibited by intracellular ATP or, in intact cells, by stimulation with glucose. In isolated patches of beta-cells membrane, this channel was blocked by tolbutamide (0.1 mM) when applied to either the intracellular or extracellular side of the membrane. The dose-dependence of the tolbutamide-induced block was obtained from whole-cell experiments and revealed that 50% inhibition was attained at approximately 7 microM. In cell-attached patches low concentrations of glucose augmented the action of tolbutamide. Thus, the simultaneous presence of 5 mM glucose and 0.1 mM tolbutamide abolished channel activity and induced action potentials. These were not produced when either of these substances was added alone at these concentrations. The inhibitory action of tolbutamide or glucose on the K+ channel was counteracted by the hyperglycaemic sulphonamide diazoxide (0.4 mM). Tolbutamide (1 mM) did not affect Ca2+-dependent K+ channels. It is concluded that the hypo- and hyperglycaemic properties of tolbutamide and diazoxide reflect their ability to induce the closure or opening, respectively, of ATP-regulated K+ channels.

Calcium and delayed potassium currents in mouse pancreatic beta-cells under voltage-clamp conditions

Pancreatic islets of NMRI mice were dissociated into single cells which were kept in tissue culture for 1-3 days. The whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique was used to study inward and delayed outward currents of beta-cells under voltage-clamp conditions at 20-22 degrees C. Outward currents were suppressed by substituting the impermeant cation N-methyl-D-glucamine for intracellular K+. The remaining inward current had a V-shaped current-voltage relation reaching a peak value of 39 +/- 4 pA (mean +/- S.E. of mean) around -15 mV. It was identified as a Ca2+ current, because the peak amplitude was increased 1.6 times by increasing external [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]o) from 2.6 mM to 10 mM and it was blocked by Co2+ (5 mM) or nifedipine (5 microM) but not by TTX (20 microM). The activation time constant of the inward current at -10 mV was 1.28 +/- 0.08 ms. The relation between the degree of activation (estimated from the size of the tail currents) and membrane potential V followed the sigmoidal function f = 1/(1 + exp [(Vh-V)/k]) with half-maximal activation potential, Vh = 4 +/- 1 mV and slope factor, k = 14 +/- 1 mV (for [Ca2+]o 10 mM). The inward current inactivated only weakly during depolarizing pulses of 0.1-1 s duration. The delayed outward current (in experiments with 155 mM-internal [K+] ([K+]i)) had a linear voltage dependence at potentials above -20 mV; its amplitude at -10 mV was 210 +/- 30 pA. Tail currents related to the activation of the outward current had K+-dependent reversal potentials. The current was blocked by extracellularly applied tetraethylammonium (20 mM) and 4-aminopyridine (2 mM). It was not affected by glibenclamide (3 microM), tolbutamide (0.2 mM) and alterations of intracellular [Ca2+] (1 nM-1 microM). The activation time constant of the outward current at -10 mV was 21 +/- 3 ms. The voltage dependence of activation could be described by the sigmoidal function (see above) with Vh = 19 +/- 1 mV and k = 5.6 +/- 0.4 mV. The outward current inactivated during long (15 s) depolarizing pre-pulses (time constant at -10 mV: 2.6 +/- 0.6 s). 50% inactivation occurred at Vh = -36 +/- 2 mV, k was -4.1 +/- 0.2 mV. Inward and outward currents during depolarizing voltage pulses in beta-cells are similar to Ca2+ and delayed K+ currents in other cell types. These currents seem sufficient to generate the action potentials of the beta-cell.

Inward-rectifying channels in isolated patches of the heart cell membrane: ATP-dependence and comparison with cell-attached patches

Inward rectifying potassium single-channel currents were studied in the membrane of guinea pig cardiac myocytes. In isolated inside-out patches two different channels were observed: a channel of 25 pS conductance ([K+]o = 147 mM, T = 21 degrees C), if the solution at the cytoplasmic face of the patch contained 4 mM ATP and a channel of 80 pS conductance without ATP. The 25-pS-channel was also regularly seen in cell-attached patches (Sakmann and Trube 1984a,b), but the 80-pS-channel appeared only after inhibiting cellular metabolism by DNP. The percentage of time which the 25-pS-channel spent in the open state was 3.3 times larger in isolated patches compared to cell-attached patches. However, both types of single channel currents disappeared several minutes after the isolation of the patches. In contrast to the 25-pS-channel, the 80-pS-channel, which is activated by the lack of ATP, carried measurable outward currents saturating at 1.5 pA (inward rectification). It is suggested that the 80-pS-channel mediates part of the increase in potassium current during metabolic inhibition. The openings of this channel appeared in bursts. The mean open time was 1.6 ms and the mean duration of the gaps within bursts 0.33 ms at -80 mV.

Low resting potentials in single isolated heart cells due to membrane damage by the recording microelectrode

Single myocytes from adult rat hearts were prepared following the method of Powell and co-workers (9, 10, 11). Low resting potentials (Em) could be improved by three techniques. (i) Elevation of Cao to 7.2 mM which, however, mostly resulted in spontaneity and irreversible contracture. (ii) Pre-incubation in a "KB medium" (6). (iii) Use of suction pipettes instead of tapered microelectrodes for intracellular recordings (2). It is concluded that low Em measured previously (11) were due to membrane damage upon microelectrode impalement accompanied by insufficient healing of the membrane around the electrode insertion.

Conductance properties of single inwardly rectifying potassium channels in ventricular cells from guinea-pig heart

Single ventricular cells were enzymatically isolated from adult guinea-pig hearts (Isenberg & Klöckner, 1982). The patch-clamp technique (Hamill, Marty, Neher, Sakmann & Sigworth, 1981) was used to examine the conductance properties of an inward-rectifying K+ channel present in their sarcolemmal membrane. When the K+ concentration on the extracellular side of the patch was between 10.8 and 300 mM, inward current steps were observed at potentials more negative than the K+ equilibrium potential (EK). At more positive potentials no current steps were detectable, demonstrating the strong rectification of the channel. The zero-current potential extrapolated from the voltage dependence of the inward currents depends on the external K4 concentration [K+]o in a fashion expected for a predominantly K+-selective ion channel. It is shifted by 49 mV for a tenfold change in [K+]o. The conductance of the channel depends on the square root of [K+]o. In approximately symmetrical transmembrane K+ concentrations (145 mM-external K+), the single-channel conductance is 27 pS (at 19-23 degrees C). In normal Tyrode solution (5.4 mM-external K+) we calculate a single-channel conductance of 3.6 pS. The size of inward current steps at a fixed negative membrane potential V increases with [K+]o. The relation between step size and [K+]o shows saturation. Assuming a Michaelis-Menten scheme for binding of permeating K+ to the channel, an apparent binding constant of 210 mM is calculated for a membrane potential of -100 mV. For this potential the current at saturating [K+]o is estimated as 6.5 pA. The rectification of the single-channel conductance at membrane potentials positive to EK occurs within 1.5 ms of stepping the membrane potential from a potential of high conductance to one of low conductance. In addition to the main conductance state, the channel can adopt several substates of conductance. The main state could be the result of the simultaneous opening of four conducting subunits, each of which has a conductance of about 7 pS in 145 mM-external K+. The density of the inward-rectifying K+ channels in the ventricular sarcolemma is 0-10 channel/10 micron2 of surface membrane; the average of twenty-eight patches was 1 channel/1.8 micron2. It is concluded that the inward-rectifying K+ channels mediate the resting K+ conductance of ventricular heart muscle and the current termed IK1 in conventional voltage-clamp experiments.

Voltage-dependent inactivation of inward-rectifying single-channel currents in the guinea-pig heart cell membrane

Inward currents through single K+ channels in isolated ventricular heart cells of the guinea-pig were recorded using the patch-clamp technique (Hamill, Marty, Neher, Sakmann & Sigworth, 1981). The voltage-dependent gating properties of the channels were examined in the potential range between 0 and -120 mV with 145 mM-KCl on the extracellular side of the membrane patch, i.e. with approximately symmetrical transmembrane K+ concentrations. When voltage pulses from 0 mV to negative test potentials were applied to patches containing several channels, more channels were open at the beginning of the pulses than in the steady state. Averages of many current responses showed inactivation of the mean current in response to the hyperpolarizing voltage pulses. The inactivation was stronger and faster at larger hyperpolarization. The lifetimes of the open and closed states of the channel and the probability of the open state p were estimated from records of the elementary currents at various constant potentials. As indicated by the inactivation of the averaged currents, the value of p was smaller at more negative potentials, approximately 0.15 at -50 mV and 0.02 at -110 mV. This caused a negative slope in the current-voltage relation of the time-averaged current at potentials more negative than -50 mV. The channel openings were grouped in complex bursts. At least three exponentials were needed to fit the frequency histogram of the lifetimes of all closed states (time constants at -50 mV: 1.1 ms, 16 ms and 3.2 s). The lifetimes of the individual openings were exponentially distributed (time constant: 70 ms). The kinetics of the channel were interpreted by two different models involving three states of a channel (closed-closed-open or closed-open-closed). The rate constants and their voltage dependence were estimated for both models. Both models describe the data equally well; the reason for this ambiguity is discussed. The channels are blocked by Cs+ or Ba2+. Cs+ (0.1 mM) caused frequent and short interruptions of the individual channel openings. Ba2+ (0.5 mM) also shortened the openings and in addition decreased the number of openings per burst. The results suggest that the inward-rectifying current IK1 in heart ventricular cells is partially inactivated by hyperpolarization. The inactivation could account for part of the time-dependent decrease in the whole-cell current previously ascribed to depletion of K+.

Measurements of single-channel currents in the membrane of isolated cells: ATP-dependence of K+-channels

Single-channel currents in ventricular cells of guinea-pig hearts were recorded by the patch-clamp technique. An inwardly rectifying K+-current was found in cell-attached membrane patches. Patches could be isolated from the cell exposing the cytoplasmic face of the membrane directly to the bathing solution. After isolation, the same current as in cell-attached patches was seen if the bath contained 4 mM ATP. Without ATP, this current disappeared and another channel of larger conductance and different kinetics was activated. Currents through the latter channel were also seen in cell-attached patches after poisoning the cells by DNP. It is suggested that the ATP-dependence of the observed membrane channels mediates the increase of potassium conductance after metabolic inhibition.

Does the organic calcium channel blocker D600 act from inside or outside on the cardiac cell membrane?

The effects of extra- and intracellularly applied D600 (methoxyverapamil) and D890 (a quarternary derivative) on the action potentials of isolated guinea pig myocytes were compared. We also studied the extracellular myocytes were compared. We also studied the extracellular effects of these drugs on the calcium current (hybride sucrose gap) and contractile force of right ventricular trabeculae of the cat heart. The following results were obtained: 1. In ventricular trabeculae D600 suppressed the calcium current, tension and the plateau of the action potential. In contrast, D890 even in a 50 times higher concentration did not display any effect on these parameters. 2. In single isolated cells external application of D890 did not alter the configuration of the action potential. In contrast, external application of D600 suppressed the plateau and shortened the action potential in a dose-dependent way. 3. Intracellular injection of D600 or D890 strongly lowered the height of the plateau and abbreviated the action potential. The onset of the effects of both drugs was more rapid on intracellular application than that of external D600. Whereas the effect of an intracellular injection of D600 was reversible, that of D890 was not. These results support the hypothesis that the organic calcium channel blocker D600 enters the cell in the uncharged lipid soluble form and reaches its receptor associated with the calcium channel from inside. Because of its inability to pass the hydrophobic cell membrane, D890 is ineffective from outside but displays blocking effects on intracellular application.

Calcium in excitation--contraction coupling of frog skeletal muscle

A principal step in the process leading to muscle contraction is the intracellular release of Ca2+. We have detected and compared some physical and chemical events that reflect Ca2+ release in contracting frog skeletal muscle cells, described the effects of some agents that are believed to alter intracellular Ca2+ release during contraction, and speculated about the role of Ca2+ release in influencing some of the mechanical properties of frog muscle. The specific physical features recorded were changes in striation spacing, myofibrillar orientation, and force development. The chemical feature was the relative change in intracellular [Ca2+] recorded as light emission from cells microinjected with the Ca2+-sensitive protein aequorin. The presence or absence of a correlation among these variables has been used (i) to evaluate the action of some agents thought to change intracellular Ca2+ release in excitation--contraction (E--C) coupling, (ii) to further substantiate the effects of cell length on Ca2+ release, and (iii) to examine some details of models for E--C coupling. The results showed that potentiating agents enhance and prolong intracellular Ca2+ release without changing the rate of Ca2+ removal during E--C coupling. This extra Ca2+ does not produce the same effect on contractions at all lengths. Contractility is inversely related to cell length, and Ca2+-induced activation is normally less than maximum not only at short lengths but also at optimal striation spacings.

Calcium transients in asymmetrically activated skeletal muscle fibers

Skeletal muscle fibers of the frog Rana temporaria were held just taut and stimulated transversely by unidirectional electrical fields. We observed the reversible effects of stimulus duration (0.1-100 ms) and strength on action potentials, intracellular Ca2+ transients (monitored by aequorin), and contractile force during fixed-end contractions. Long duration stimuli (e.g., 10 ms) induced a maintained depolarization on the cathodal side of a cell and a maintained hyperpolarization on its anodal side. The hyperpolarization of the side facing the anode prevented the action potential from reaching mechanical threshold during strong stimuli. Variation of the duration or strength of a stimulus changed the luminescent response from a fiber injected with aequorin. Thus, the intracellular Ca2+ released during excitation-contraction coupling could be changed by the stimulus parameters. Prolongation of a stimulus at field strengths above 1.1 x rheobase decreased the amplitude of aequorin signals and the force of contractions. The decreases in aequorin and force signals from a given fiber paralleled one another and depended on the stimulus strength, but not on the stimulus polarity. These changes were completely reversible for stimulus strengths up to at least 4.2 x rheobase. The graded decreases in membrane depolarization, aequorin signals, and contractile force were correlated with the previously described folding of myofibrils in fibers allowed to shorten in response to the application of a long duration stimulus. The changes in aequorin signals and force suggest an absence of myofilament activation by Ca2+ in the section of the fiber closest to the anode. The results imply that injected aequorin distributes circumferentially in frog muscle with a coefficient of at least 10(-7) cm2/s, which is not remarkably different from the previously measured coefficient of 5 x 10(-8) cm2/s for its diffusion lengthwise.

Anion dependence of the contractions of skinned cardiac cells

Cardiac muscle fragments with disrupted sarcolemmas were prepared by homogenization of mouse ventricles. The rate of spontaneous contractions was increased when a solution containing isobutyrate as the main anion was substituted with a solution rich in chloride. At low calcium concentrations preparations which were quiescent in the isobutyrate solution responded to the chloride with a strong single contraction.

Contractions of skinned cardiac cells elicited by current pulses

Cardiac muscle fragments with disrupted sarcolemma were prepared by homogenization of mouse ventricles. The preparations exhibited spontaneous contractions of a rate between 3 min-1 and 12 min-1 at 20 degrees C, when they were kept in an appropriate solution. 2. Fragments of about cellular size were attached to two stiff glass microelectrodes, and additional contractions between the spontaneous beats were elicited by current pulses. The duration and intensity of the stimuli were varied to obtain strength-duration curves. Rheobase was in the range of 1.5 muA to 10 muA (no isolation of surrounding bath), chronaxia at 35 degrees C between 30 ms and 80 ms. 3. One microelectrode could be glued to a photodiode-force-transducer for simultaneous recording of contractions and electrical stimulation or potential measurement. Duration of phasic contractions was nearly 1s, force was up to 4muN (20 mN/mm2 of tension).

Negative inotropic effect of cyclic GMP in cardiac fiber fragments

The force of spontaneously beating cardiac cellular fragments obtained from mice heart by homogenization was recorded in presence of cyclic guanosine -3'.5'-monophosphate (cGMP) and cyclic 8-bromguanosine -3'.5'-monophosphate in concentrations of 3 X 10(-6) M - 33 X 10(-6) M. The nucleotide decreased the force and reduced the rate of spontaneity. Eventually the preparation became quiescent. It is thought that this nucleotide either reduces the capacity to sequester calcium or affects its release from the sarcotubular system.