Spanish adaptation and validation of the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI)

The Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) is a widely used questionnaire that measures the tendency to drive dangerously on the road through three different types of behaviors: aggressive driving, risky driving, and experiencing negative emotions while driving. This study aimed to develop a Spanish version of the DDDI and verify the reliability and validity of this questionnaire in the Spanish population. A community sample of 2174 Spanish participants (51.1% male; age range: 18-79 years) completed the 28-item Spanish version of the DDDI. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a three-factor model fitted adequately to the data. Analysis of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent validity showed that the Spanish adaptation of the DDDI had good psychometric properties and retains the theoretical consistency of the original scale. Gender and age differences were observed. The Spanish version of the DDDI can be considered a good instrument for assessing dangerous driving behavior, thus contributing to the cross-cultural study of these types of behaviors and the possible development of intervention programs aimed at reducing road traffic accidents.

Examining the predictive potential of depressed mood and alcohol misuse on risky driving

AIMS

Male driving while impaired (DWI) offenders are at heightened risk for engaging in risky driving. Males in a depressed mood are also more prone to alcohol misuse, which may further contribute to risky driving. This manuscript investigates the predictive potential of combined depressed mood and alcohol misuse on risky driving outcomes 3 and 9 years after baseline in male DWI offenders.

METHODS

At baseline, participants completed questionnaires assessing depressed mood (Major Depression scale of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III), alcohol misuse (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test), and sensation-seeking (Sensation Seeking Scale-V). Risky driving data (Analyse des comportements routiers; ACR3) were collected at follow-up 3 years after baseline. Driving offence data were obtained for 9 years after baseline.

RESULTS

There were 129 participants. As 50.4% of the sample were missing ACR3 scores, multiple imputation was conducted. In the final regression model, R2 = 0.34, F(7,121) = 8.76, P < 0.001, alcohol misuse significantly predicted ACR3, B = 0.56, t = 1.96, P = 0.05. Depressed mood, however, did not significantly predict ACR3 and sensation-seeking was not a significant moderator. Although the regression model predicting risky driving offences at Year 9 was significant R2 = 0.37, F(10,108) = 6.41, P < 0.001, neither depressed mood nor alcohol misuse was a significant predictor.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings identify alcohol misuse as a predictor of risky driving 3 years after baseline among male DWI offenders. This enhances our prediction of risky driving, extending beyond the widely researched acute impacts of alcohol by exploring chronic patterns.

Relations between risk perception, perceptions of peers' driving, and risky driving among Cambodian adolescents

Introduction

Traffic accidents are a leading cause of death globally, with substantial economic impact particularly in low-and-middle-income countries (LMIC). Adolescents are at particular risk, partly due to their tendency to engage in risky driving. However, most research designed to identify potential causes of risky adolescent driving has been conducted in Western, high-income countries, which often have substantial cultural differences from LMIC that potentially influence risky adolescent driving.

Methods

The present study, one of the first focused on this topic in Southeast Asia, cross-sectionally assessed 425 adolescent motorbike drivers in the Southeast Asian LMIC Cambodia. Adolescents' (a) beliefs about peers' driving (social norms) and (b) driving risk perception were assessed as predictors of four risky driving behaviors: aggressive driving; distracted driving; intoxicated driving; violating driving laws.

Results

Canonical correlation analysis identified a general relation between (a) beliefs about peers' driving, and (b) all four risky driving behaviors, with R2 = 0.35 indicating over one-third of the variance in risky driving was explained by perceptions of peers' driving. Risk perception was not involved in the significant canonical relation, however. Gender moderated two of the underlying relations, with females showing larger relations between perceptions of friends' driving, and distracted driving and violating driving laws.

Discussion

These findings provide useful directions for future research (e.g., assessing the accuracy of Cambodian adolescents' perceptions of peers' driving) useful for helping stakeholders tailor road safety programs (e.g., providing adolescent drivers with accurate information regarding their peers' actual driving behaviors) for adolescent motorcyclists in Cambodia and similar countries.

Psychological predictors of risky driving: the role of age, gender, personality traits (Zuckerman's and Gray's models), and decision-making styles

The present study was planned to study the relationships between age, personality (according to Zuckerman's and Gray's psychobiological models) and decision-making styles in relation to risky driving behaviors. The participants were habitual drivers, 538 (54.3%) men and 453 (45.7%) women, with a mean age around 45 years and mainly of middle socioeconomic status. The results indicate that the youngest men and women reported more Lapses, Ordinary violations, and Aggressive violations than the oldest men and women. Women reported more Lapses (d = -0.40), and men more Ordinary (d = 0.33) and Aggressive violations (d = 0.28) when driving. Linear and non-linear analysis clearly support the role of both personality traits and decision-making styles in risky driving behaviors. Aggressiveness, Sensitivity to Reward, Sensation Seeking played the main role from personality traits, and Spontaneous and Rational decision-making style also accounted for some variance regarding risky driving behaviors. This pattern was broadly replicated in both genders. The discussion section analyses congruencies with previous literature and makes recommendations on the grounds of observed results.

Evidence of risky driving in Korean older adults: A longitudinal cohort

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to determine the differences in the risk factors for dangerous driving between older adults with normal cognition and those with cognitive impairment.

DESIGN

The driving risk questionnaire (DRQ) that was applied to a community-dwelling older adult cohort and 2 years of accident/violation records from the National Police Agency were analyzed. We conducted regression analyses with the presence or absence of risky driving based on records (accidents + violations) 2 years before and after evaluation as a dependent variable and dichotomized scores of each risky driving factor as independent variables.

RESULTS

According to four identified factors-crash history, safety concern, reduced mileage, and aggressive driving-significant associations were found between risky driving over the past 2 years and crash history and for aggressive driving in the normal cognition group. In the cognitive impairment group, only crash history was significantly associated, although safety concerns showed a trend toward significance.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, it was suggested that the factors of DRQ have a significant association with actual risky driving. Our results are expected to contribute to establishing the evidence for evaluating and predicting risky driving and advising whether to continue driving in clinics.

Risky Roads in Kuwait: An Uneven Toll on Migrant Workers

This descriptive study reveals trends in citations and traffic-related mortality in Kuwait. Secondary data were utilized, where data on road traffic citations were obtained from the traffic police in the Ministry of Interior for the years from 2011 to 2015, and road traffic mortality data for the study period were obtained from the Ministry of Health.

OBJECTIVE

To describe recent trends in data related to road traffic safety in Kuwait over time, which could serve as an important indicator for the level of enforcement of existing traffic regulations. Descriptive summary statistics are presented.

RESULTS

There was a total of 24.2 million traffic violations during the study period. The number rose dramatically from 4 million citations in 2011 to nearly 6.5 million in 2015. The indirect method of citation (issued indirectly via surveillance methods) constituted a higher percentage of citations, 70.4%, compared to the direct method of citation (issued directly by the police officer), 29.6%. Furthermore, the top reason for citation was speeding, followed by parking in no parking/handicapped zones, driving with an expired license, and crossing a red light. Road traffic fatalities (RTFs) in Kuwait from 2011 to 2015 totaled 2282. About 450 people die each year in Kuwait from road traffic injuries and a slightly decreasing trend was found. Non-Kuwaitis have RTF counts that are four times higher than Kuwaitis, with 1663 and 263 deaths, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Road traffic safety continues to be a major problem in Kuwait. Increases in citation issuance show a rise in traffic regulation enforcement, yet risky driving behaviors continue to account for most violations issued. Harsher penalties, road safety education, and implementing graduated driving licensing may be warranted to increase the safety of the roads.

Risky-Driving-Image Recognition Based on Visual Attention Mechanism and Deep Learning

Risky driving behavior seriously affects the driver's ability to react, execute and judge, which is one of the major causes of traffic accidents. The timely and accurate identification of the driving status of drivers is particularly important, since drivers can quickly adjust their driving status to avoid safety accidents. In order to further improve the identification accuracy, this paper proposes a risky-driving image-recognition system based on the visual attention mechanism and deep-learning technology to identify four types of driving status images including normal driving, driving while smoking, driving while drinking and driving while talking. With reference to ResNet, we build four deep-learning models with different depths and embed the proposed visual attention blocks into the image-classification model. The experimental results indicate that the classification accuracy of the ResNet models with lower depth can exceed the ResNet models with higher depth by embedding the visual attention modules, while there is no significant change in model complexity, which could improve the model recognition accuracy without reducing the recognition efficiency.

Born to Be a Risky Driver? The Relationship Between Cloninger's Temperament and Character Traits and Risky Driving

Temperament refers to basic, largely inherited, relatively stable personality traits which have been present since early childhood. Considering the very fundamental role of temperament in human development and behaviour, it is reasonable to assume that temperament is also related to risky driving and drivers' view of themselves as drivers. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between Cloninger's temperament dimensions, risky driving and drivers' view of their perceptual motor and safety skills. The sample consisted of 335 Turkish drivers (aged 19-57; 53.7% men) who completed an Internet-based survey including Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and Driver Skill Inventory (DSI). Correlation analyses showed that TCI scale Cooperativeness correlated negatively with all DBQ scales indicating risky driving and positively with safety skills. In regression analyses after controlling age, gender and lifetime mileage, cooperativeness still was significantly related to all DBQ scales and safety skills. Persistence correlated negatively with ordinary violations, lapses and errors and positively with perceptual motor skills. In regression analyses, persistence was related to errors and lapses. Reward dependence was positively related to lapses and harm avoidance negatively to perceptual motor skills. The results of the present study indicate that largely innate temperament character traits may influence an individual's predisposition to risky driving. Future studies about temperament and risky driving with larger samples allowing sub-group analyses are needed.

An on-road examination of daytime and evening driving on rural roads: physiological, subjective, eye gaze, and driving performance outcomes

Experiencing sleepiness when driving is associated with increased crash risk. An increasing number of studies have examined on-road driver sleepiness; however, these studies typically assess the effect of sleepiness during the late night or early morning hours when sleep pressure is approaching its greatest. An on-road driving study was performed to assess how a range of physiological and sleepiness measures are impacted when driving during the daytime and evening when moderate sleepiness is experienced. In total, 27 participants (14 women and 13 men) completed a driving session in a rural town lasting approximately 60 minutes, while physiological sleepiness (heart rate variability), subjective sleepiness, eye tracking data, vehicle kinematic data and GPS speed data were recorded. Daytime driving sessions began at 12:00 or 14:00, with the evening sessions beginning at 19:30 or 20:30; only a subset of participants (n = 11) completing the evening sessions (daytime and evening order counterbalanced). The results suggest reductions in the horizontal and vertical scanning ranges occurred during the initial 40 minutes of driving for both daytime and evening sessions, but with evening sessions reductions in scanning ranges occurred across the entire driving session. Moreover, during evening driving there was an increase in physiological and subjective sleepiness levels. The results demonstrate meaningful increases in sleepiness and reductions in eye scanning when driving during both the daytime and particularly in the evening. Thus, drivers need to remain vigilant when driving during the daytime and the evening.

Alcohol and Alcohol Combined with Texting: Evaluation of Driving Impairment Effects in a Closed-Course Section

OBJECTIVE

Examine the driving impairment effects of alcohol alone and of alcohol combined with texting.

METHODS

Fifteen drivers (nine male, six female; mean age: 31.1 ± 6.9 years, range: 23 to 43 years) with similar drinking habit (i.e., social drinkers) completed a lap in a closed-course section in six different situations: (I) sober; (II) sober and while texting; (III) 30 minutes after ingesting a moderate dose of ethanol (0.50 g/kg); (IV) 30 minutes after drinking and while texting; (V) 60 minutes after drinking, (VI) 60 minutes after drinking and while texting. Driving performance was analyzed by means of maximum and mean speed, braking time and braking distance; and ability to control the car (i.e., evaluating if the drivers hit a traffic cone or exceeded the boundaries of the course). P values of < 0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

Pre and post-alcohol consumption results show a significant increase concerning the drivers' mean and maximum speed after drinking (p < 3.2x10^-8). However, neither alcohol nor texting had significant effects on braking parameters (p > 0.05). Traffic cones were knocked down only in texting experiments. In addition, when using the cell phone drivers tended to reduce the speed, and to accelerate abruptly right after they finish texting.

CONCLUSION

Our findings strengthen the hypothesis that even moderate alcohol doses may significantly impair the driving performance. Additionally, alcohol and texting have complementary effects on driving impairment, and their combination represents a significant risk factor for crashes.

Examining the relationship between poor sleep health and risky driving behaviors among college students

Objective: Risky driving behaviors, such as texting while driving, are common among young adults and increase risk of traffic accidents and injuries. We examine the relationship between poor sleep and risky driving behaviors among college students as potential targets for traffic injury prevention.Methods: Data for this study were obtained from a cross-sectional survey administered to a college student sample in the United States Midwest (n = 1,305). Sleep was measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Risky driving behaviors were measured, including sending texts/emails; reading texts/emails while driving; talking on the phone while driving; falling asleep while driving; and driving under the influence. Risky driving behavior was defined as a response of "just once," "rarely," "sometimes," "fairly often" or "regularly" (reference = "never"). Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between sleep and risky driving, after adjusting for confounders.Results: Among participants, 75% reported sending texts/emails while driving, 82% reported reading texts/emails while driving, and 84% reported phone talking while driving; 20% reported falling asleep while driving; 8% reported driving under the influence; and 62% reported 3 or more risky behaviors. Compared to those reporting no sleep disturbance, those with sleep disturbance "once or twice a week" were more likely to report sending a text/email while driving (aOR: 2.9, 95%CI:1.7-4.9), reading a text/email while driving (aOR:3.1,95%CI:1.5-5.5), talking on the phone while driving (aOR:1.9, 95%CI:1.0-3.4), and falling asleep while driving (aOR:3.4,95%CI:1.5-7.4). Compared to those reporting no daytime dysfunction, those reporting issues "once or twice a week" were more likely to report talking on the phone while driving (aOR:1.7, 95%CI:1.1-2.7) and falling asleep while driving (aOR:3.6,95%CI:2.3-5.6).Conclusions: Future research may consider designing behavioral interventions that aim to improve sleep, reduce drowsy driving among young adults.

Analysis of factors influencing aggressive driver behavior and crash involvement

OBJECTIVE

Aggressive driver behavior is one of the major contributing factors to road crashes. However, the relationship between aggressive driver behavior and crash risk is scarcely explored. The present study focused on quantifying the effect of aggressive driver behavior on crash probability.

METHOD AND DATA SOURCES

A sample of 405 Indian drivers were analyzed to model the aggressive driver behavior using self-reported measures. Generalized linear models were developed to quantify the effects of independent variables such as age, gender, personality traits (e.g., driving anger, physical aggression, hostility), and individual predilections to commit violations (e.g., excessive speeding and frequent risky overtaking) on aggressive driver behavior and crash probabilities.

RESULTS

K-means clustering technique was applied to the Aggressive Driving Scale (ADS) scores to cluster the drivers into three groups (aggressive, normal, and cautious). Gender was significantly correlated with aggressive driver behavior. Compared to female drivers, male drivers were 2.57 times more likely to engage in aggressive driving. Driver's age was negatively correlated with aggressive driving. With one-year increment in driver's age, the tendency of a driver to engage in aggressive driving was reduced by 26%. In addition, the likelihood of being engaged in aggressive driving was increased by 2.98 times and 2.15 times for the drivers who engage in excessive speeding and frequent risky overtaking, respectively. Driver's personality traits were significantly correlated with aggressive drivers. The crash involvement model showed that aggressive drivers were 2.79 times more likely to be involved in road crashes than cautious drivers. Further, married drivers were 2.17 times less likely to be involved in crashes, whereas for professional drivers the crash involvement probability was increased by 75%.

CONCLUSIONS

The results revealed that in addition to age and gender personality traits were significant predictors of driving aggression. Further, the driver's marital status was negatively correlated with the crash involvement and professional drivers were more likely to be involved in crashes than nonprofessional drivers. The study findings can be used in identifying specific risk-prone drivers to provide safety measures via in-vehicle Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS).

Evaluating an Intervention to Reduce Risky Driving Behaviors: Taking the Fear Out of Virtual Reality

Educational programs are the most common type of intervention to reduce risky driving behavior. Their success, however, depends on the content of the material used and the mode of delivery. In the present study, we examined the impact of fear versus positively framed road safety films and traditional technologies (2D) versus emerging technologies (VR) on young drivers' self-reported risky driving behaviors. One hundred and forty-six university students completed a similar set of questionnaires pre-intervention and post-intervention, two weeks later. In addition, they were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions (VR vs. 2D; positive vs. negative). In the VR conditions, the film was presented using an HTC VIVE Virtual Reality headset. In the 2D conditions, the film was presented on a computer screen. Measures evaluating attitudes toward risky driving behavior were completed at both time frames, questions regarding the participants' emotional arousal were asked at pre-intervention as a manipulation check, and questions regarding willingness to take risks in potentially dangerous driving situations were asked at follow-up. The findings indicate that the positively framed films significantly decreased self-reported risky driving behaviors in both modalities, but especially when viewed in VR format. In contrast, the fear appeal film, when shown in VR, failed to reduce risky driving behaviors, and in fact, increased young drivers' self-reported risky driving behaviors. Theoretical frameworks regarding the strengths and weaknesses of fear appeals and positively framed appeals are discussed to aid future research to reduce risky driving. Practical implications on the future usage of VR are also considered.

Risky Driver Recognition with Class Imbalance Data and Automated Machine Learning Framework

Identifying high-risk drivers before an accident happens is necessary for traffic accident control and prevention. Due to the class-imbalance nature of driving data, high-risk samples as the minority class are usually ill-treated by standard classification algorithms. Instead of applying preset sampling or cost-sensitive learning, this paper proposes a novel automated machine learning framework that simultaneously and automatically searches for the optimal sampling, cost-sensitive loss function, and probability calibration to handle class-imbalance problem in recognition of risky drivers. The hyperparameters that control sampling ratio and class weight, along with other hyperparameters, are optimized by Bayesian optimization. To demonstrate the performance of the proposed automated learning framework, we establish a risky driver recognition model as a case study, using video-extracted vehicle trajectory data of 2427 private cars on a German highway. Based on rear-end collision risk evaluation, only 4.29% of all drivers are labeled as risky drivers. The inputs of the recognition model are the discrete Fourier transform coefficients of target vehicle’s longitudinal speed, lateral speed, and the gap between the target vehicle and its preceding vehicle. Among 12 sampling methods, 2 cost-sensitive loss functions, and 2 probability calibration methods, the result of automated machine learning is consistent with manual searching but much more computation-efficient. We find that the combination of Support Vector Machine-based Synthetic Minority Oversampling TEchnique (SVMSMOTE) sampling, cost-sensitive cross-entropy loss function, and isotonic regression can significantly improve the recognition ability and reduce the error of predicted probability.

Association of Environmental Risk Factors and Personality Traits With Risky Driving Behaviors in a Sample of Young Adults From Saudi Arabia

Road traffic accidents represent a serious problem in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), with rates of such accidents far exceeding the rates in developed nations. Even so, there remains relatively little knowledge regarding the driving behaviors among Saudi Arabians. The current study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the environmental and trait-based contributors to risky driving behaviors among male and female drivers in the KSA. To do so, a sample of college students from a large university in the KSA was analyzed. The results revealed that delinquent peers, low levels of self-control, and higher levels of driving anger were associated with involvement in risky driving behaviors for both male and female drivers. Understanding the interconnections among peers, self-control, anger, and risky driving behaviors may provide some insight into how to reduce risky driving behaviors. Focusing on ways to reduce exposure to risk factors for risky driving behaviors may be one strategy for reducing these types of driving behaviors.

Processes of a Transformation of Young Drivers' Responsibility for Health-Carpe Diem

Research most often deals with the relationship between risky behaviour on the road and other aspects of young adults’ lifestyle. It is rare that the sense of responsibility for one’s own life and health and for that of other people on the road is understood, due to the limitation of perceptual data. In this study, we researched 198 young adults (M = 19.75; SD = 1.11) using the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control, the Inventory of Health Behaviours, the Criteria of Health List and a student health survey. The chance of risky driving will increase by 50.7% among young adults as their understanding of health as a state increases. On the other hand, when young people feel that others are responsible for their lives, the likelihood of risky driving will drop by 6.4%. The hedonistic life orientation of a young adult had a significant impact on the results obtained which was connected with their understanding of health.

Associations of mental health with driving while impaired and risky driving in emerging adults

OBJECTIVE

Examined cross-sectional associations of driving while impaired (DWI) and risky driving with mental and psychosomatic health among U.S. emerging adults.

METHODS

Data were from years 1-4 after high school (waves 4-7) of the NEXT Generation Health Study, a nationally representative study starting with 10th grade (2009-2010). Outcome variables were DWI (dichotomous variable: ≥ 1 day vs. 0 days in the last 30 days) and risky driving Checkpoints Self-Reported Risky Driving Scale (C-RDS). Independent variables included depressive symptoms and psychosomatic symptoms. Multivariate logistic and linear regressions were conducted with complex survey features considered.

RESULTS

Higher depressive and psychosomatic symptoms were associated with modestly higher likelihood of DWI (Adjusted odds ratio [AOR] ranged from 1.02 to 1.03 and from 1.04 to 1.05, respectively) and higher C-RDS scores (b ranged from 0.06 to 0.12 and from 0.08 to 0.23, respectively) in years 1-4 after high school.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive and psychosomatic symptoms were associated with greater DWI and risky driving in all 4 years after high school. Negative mental and psychosomatic health should be targeted components of DWI and risky driving prevention to lower fatal motor vehicle crashes among emerging adults.

Sleep-impaired emotional regulation, impaired cognition, and poor sleep health are associated with risky sleepy driving in young adults

Objective: Driving during young adulthood is a time of increased crash risk. Many factors (e.g., driving experience, aggression) contribute to the increased risk, but factors associated with daytime sleepiness and sleep health may also contribute. The current study examined the relationships between experiences of sleepiness, sleep timing and stability, sleep-impaired emotional regulation, and sleep-impaired cognition among younger persons engaging in 2 risky sleepy driving behaviors: Continuing to drive while sleepy and having experienced a sleep-related close call.Method: The study was advertised in the Queensland University of Technology's online environment and 137 young adults (58.39% women) aged 18 to 25 years completed an anonymous online questionnaire assessing aspects related to daytime sleepiness, sleep timing and stability, sleep-impaired emotional regulation, and sleep-impaired cognition.Results: In total, 15.38% of the participants reported that they had experienced a sleep-related close call. The main outcomes were that both age and the sleep-impaired emotional regulation variable were associated with the outcome variables. The study variables accounted for 18.94% of the variance in continuing to drive while sleepy, and the same variables accounted for 42.69% of the variance (Nagelkerke's R² statistic) in having had a sleep-related close call. Shorter sleep durations and greater levels of sleep-impaired cognition were significantly associated with having a sleep-related close call.Conclusion: Different variables were associated with the 2 risky driving behaviors, suggesting different underlying factors. Sleep-impaired emotional regulation and/or sleep-impaired cognition could be used to signal drivers that they are impaired by sleepiness.

Validity and Reliability of the Attitudes toward Traffic Safety Scale in Argentina

The main objective of this research was to investigate the psychometric properties of a Spanish-language version of the Attitudes toward Traffic Safety Scale (ATTS) for the assessment of risky driving attitudes among Spanish-speaking populations. Five hundred and fifty-eight drivers from Argentina participated in the study. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the ATTS three-factor structure: Attitude towards violations and speeding, attitude towards the careless driving of others and attitude towards drinking and driving, χ2(87) = 205.91, p < .001; χ2/df = 2.36; GFI = .94; CFI = .93; TLI = .91; RMSEA = .05; 90% CI [.04, .06]. A model with one higher-order factor (overall attitude toward risky driving) also fits the data. Reliability estimates were acceptable for the total scale (α = .81) and for all subscales (with α values ranging from .74 to .84), and concurrent validity was supported by theoretically expected correlations with self-reported risky driving behavior (r ranging from .27 to .45, ps < .01). Subsequent comparison between zero-order correlation and partial correlation (controlling for Driver Impression Management) between ATTS subscales and self-reported risky driving behavior revealed minor or no effects of social desirability bias. Implications for road safety intervention are discussed.

Kinematic risky driving behavior among younger and older drivers: Differences over time by age group and sex

Objective: This research examined the incidence rates of elevated gravitational force events (kinematic risky driving, KRD) among 16- to 17-year-old drivers compared to those of 18- to 20-year-old, 21- to 25-year-old, and 35- to 55-year-old drivers over a 12-month period. Methods: Data were sampled from the Strategic Highway Research Program 2 (SHRP2) naturalistic driving study that recruited a U.S. national sample of study participants. General linear mixed models (GLIMMIX) for recurrent events were used to estimate KRD incident rates for age cohorts in 3-month periods. Results: KRD incidence rates for 16- to 17-year-old drivers were higher than the rates for older drivers at each 3-month period. Analyses of individual differences for the 12-month period indicated that incidence rates for the 16- to 17-year-old group were 1.84 times higher than the rates for 18- to 20-year-old drivers, 2.86 higher than those for 21- to 25-year-old drivers, and 4.92 times higher than those for 35- to 55-year-old drivers. The incident rate for 16- to 17-year-old males was 1.9 times higher than that for same-aged females in the first 3 months and 2.3 times higher over 12 months. Over the study period, KRD rates of 16- to 17-year-old participants declined 24.5% among females and 18.0% among males. Conclusions: KRD rates were higher among younger relative to older, more experienced drivers and did not decline over time, consistent with a protracted period of risky driving behavior. The persistently higher KRD rate among young drivers suggests the need to enhance crash prevention approaches, such as feedback about abrupt maneuvering, to young drivers and their parents.

Impulsive and Self-Regulatory Processes in Risky Driving Among Young People: A Dual Process Model

The present study empirically examined a novel dual process model of self-reported aberrant driving behavior in young and novice drivers that incorporates both impulsive and self-regulatory processes. Four hundred and nine participants aged 18-25 years (M age = 21.18 years, SD = 2.12; 65.5% females) completed online questionnaires on impulsivity, normlessness, sensation seeking, emotion and self-regulation, and attitudes toward driving safety. Path analysis showed that motor impulsivity was associated with self-reported driving violations, errors, and lapses, whereas sensation seeking was uniquely directly associated with self-reported errors. Non-planning impulsivity, normlessness and sensation seeking had significant indirect effects on self-reported errors, via self-regulation. Finally, motor impulsivity and normlessness had a significant indirect effect on self-reported violations, errors and lapses, via attitudes to driving safety. Based on our findings we suggest that a dual-process approach is relevant to the study of aberrant driving behavior in young and novice drivers, and the results of the present study have important implications for initiatives to promote driving safety in this population.

Driver see, driver crash: Associations between televised stock car races' audience size and the incidence of speed-related motor vehicle collisions in the United States

Several studies have examined road rage, but few studies have examined other psychosocial factors that may contribute to the number of motor vehicle collisions (MVCs). One study found increases in MVCs in West Virginia following televised NASCAR races but did not account for audience size. This study examined associations between NASCAR's television viewership ratings and the incidence of speed-related MVCs in the USA using generalized estimating equations that controlled for seasonal effects, intoxication, road surface conditions, and lighting conditions. A 1% increase in the number of US households watching NASCAR races per month was associated with a 6.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.0% to 9.7%; P < 0.001) increase in the incidence of speed-related MVCs-approximately 4911 (95% CI, 2353 to 7470) speed-related MVCs per month or one speed-related MVC per 595 (95% CI, 382 to 1354) viewers. As expected, similar results were not found for the total number of MVCs. These data suggest that televised NASCAR races may be associated with substantial increases in the incidence of speed-related MVCs. Making drivers aware of psychological factors that may increase risky driving behaviors could prove beneficial because self-monitoring can result in safer driving.

Examination of associations between risky driving behaviors and hazardous drinking among a sample of college students

OBJECTIVE

Hazardous drinking is associated with other risky behaviors and negative health-related outcomes. This study examined covariation between hazardous drinking scores and the following risky driving behaviors: Falling asleep while driving, texting (receiving and sending) while driving, and driving after consuming alcohol.

METHODS

The participants in this study were a sample of undergraduate students (N = 1,298) who were enrolled in an introductory health course at a large Southeastern university in spring 2016 and completed an online health survey that assessed hazardous drinking, falling asleep while driving, texting while driving, and driving after consuming alcohol. We conducted a series of 2-step regression analyses to examine covariation between hazardous drinking scores (using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption [AUDIT-C]) and the risky driving behaviors of interest.

RESULTS

We found that the majority of participants did not drink and drive (91.8%), nor did they fall asleep while driving (80.4%); however, the majority did read a text while driving (81.7%) and sent a text while driving (75.3%). In the full multivariable model, hazardous drinking score was positively associated with drinking and driving (step 2 odds ratio [OR] = 1.28, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18, 1.38) and sending a text message while driving (step 2 b = 0.19, P = .01). Hazardous drinking score was also positively associated with reading a text while driving (step 1 b = 0.14, P < .001) and falling asleep while driving (step 1 b = 0.02, P = .02) in the model only controlling for demographic characteristics. The analyses also indicated covariability between the following risky driving behaviors: (1) drinking and driving/reading a text message while driving, (2) drinking and driving/falling asleep and driving, (3) reading a text while driving/sending a text while driving, and (4) sending a text while driving/sleeping and driving.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study indicate a need for interventions discouraging both hazardous drinking and risky driving behaviors in college student populations; recommendations to reduce risky driving and hazardous drinking are discussed.

Blunted cortisol reactivity and risky driving in young offenders - a pilot study

Adolescent risky driving is a significant burden on public health. Young offenders (i.e. under custody and supervision of the criminal justice system) may be particularly vulnerable, but research is scant. Previous work indicated that blunted cortisol reactivity to stress is a marker of risk-taking predisposition, including risky driving. In this study, we hypothesized that young offenders display higher levels of risky driving than a non-offender comparison group, and that cortisol reactivity contributes to the variance in risky driving independent of other associated characteristics (i.e. impulsivity, risk taking, alcohol and drug use). We found that young offenders (n = 20) showed riskier driving in simulation than comparison group (n = 9), and blunted cortisol reactivity was significantly associated with risky driving. The results suggest young offenders are prone to risky driving, and that individual differences in the cortisol stress response may be an explanatory factor.

Predictors of Long-Term Risky Driving Behavior in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

OBJECTIVE

This study examines predictors of later risky driving behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

METHODS

Stepwise logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis were used to explore baseline predictors of risky driving behavior for adolescents who completed the 8-year follow-up assessment in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (MTA).

RESULTS

Stepwise logistic regression analysis explained 19% of the total variance in risky driving behavior. Increased likelihood of risky driving behavior was associated with parental history of conduct disorder, low parental monitoring and supervision, and increased age. ROC analysis identified discriminative predictors for adolescents older and younger than 16 years of age at follow-up. The most discriminative predictors of later risky driving behavior were parental stress at baseline (for children 16 years or older) and increased child-rated parental protectiveness (for children less than 16 years old).

CONCLUSION

Risky driving behavior was significantly predicted by baseline characteristics for the MTA cohort. Aspects of parenting behavior (or the child's perception of them), including parental stress levels, parental protectiveness, and parental levels of monitoring and supervision, were most informative in predicting these outcomes. Our results suggest that interventions to reduce high-risk behaviors in these high-risk children with ADHD might involve targeted parenting interventions.

Development of a Theoretically Grounded, Web-Based Intervention to Reduce Adolescent Driver Inattention

Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of adolescent death. Inattention to the roadway contributes to crash risk and often results from distractions, such as cell phone calls, texting, and peer passengers. We report on the development of a web-based intervention based on the Theory of Planned Behavior that aims to reduce adolescent driver inattention ( Let's Choose Ourselves). In Phase I, we collected qualitative and quantitative data on adolescents' attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms about driver inattention through focus groups with newly licensed adolescent drivers. In Phase II, we developed the content in an e-learning delivery system, performed beta- and pilot testing, and made refinements. In Phase III, we conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate feasibility. The development of Let's Choose Ourselves provides information for school nurses regarding intervention development strategies as well as promotion of safe adolescent driving by reducing driver inattention.

Do Young Drivers Become Safer After Being Involved in a Collision?

As drivers age, their risk of being involved in a car collision decreases. The present study investigated if this trend is due, in part, to some risky drivers having a collision early in their driving lives and subsequently reducing their risky driving after that negative experience. Accelerometers and video cameras were installed in the vehicles of 16- to 17-year-old drivers ( N = 254), allowing coders to measure the number of g-force events (i.e., events in which a threshold acceleration level was exceeded) per 1,000 miles and the number of collisions. Among the 41 participants who experienced a severe collision, the rate of g-force events dropped significantly in the 1st month after the collision, remained unchanged for the 2nd month, and increased significantly in the 3rd month. There were no changes in the rate of g-force events at comparable time points for the drivers not involved in a collision. Being involved in a collision led to a decrease in risky driving, but this may have been a temporary effect.

Secondary task and risky driving behavior: a test of the mediating effect of situation awareness

A theoretical model is developed by using a contingency perspective to hypothesize the relationship between a secondary task and risky driving behavior. It is conjectured that the relationship between the two variables is mediated by situation awareness (SA). An experiment is designed and administered to provide empirical evidence. Thirty Indonesian students as subjects were required to carry out a driving assignment in a simulated environment. Empirical evidence suggests that SA provides a partial mediation effect towards the relationship between a secondary task and risky driving behavior. It is also found that a secondary task has a significant effect on risky driving behavior. The secondary task also becomes a significant explanation of SA. In addition, working memory capacity, experience and gender are found to have no significant impact towards SA.

The on-road experiences and awareness of sleepiness in a sample of Australian highway drivers: A roadside driver sleepiness study

OBJECTIVE

Driver sleepiness contributes substantially to road crash incidents. Simulator and on-road studies clearly reveal an impairing effect from sleepiness on driving ability. However, the degree to which drivers appreciate the dangerousness of driving while sleepy is somewhat unclear. This study sought to determine drivers' on-road experiences of sleepiness, their prior sleep habits, and personal awareness of the signs of sleepiness.

METHODS

Participants were a random selection of 92 drivers traveling on a major highway in the state of Queensland, Australia, who were stopped by police as part of routine drink driving operations. Participants completed a brief questionnaire that included demographic information, sleepy driving experiences (signs of sleepiness and on-road experiences of sleepiness), and prior sleep habits. A modified version of the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) was used to assess subjective sleepiness in the 15 min prior to being stopped by police.

RESULTS

Participants' ratings of subjective sleepiness were quite low, with 90% reporting being alert to extremely alert on the KSS. Participants were reasonably aware of the signs of sleepiness, with many signs of sleepiness associated with on-road experiences of sleepiness. Additionally, the number of hours spent driving was positively correlated with the drivers' level of sleep debt.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that participants had moderate experiences of driving while sleepy and many were aware of the signs of sleepiness. The relationship between driving long distances and increased sleep debt is a concern for road safety. Increased education regarding the dangers of sleepy driving seems warranted.

ADHD symptomatology and risky health, driving, and financial behaviors in college: the mediating role of sensation seeking and effortful control

OBJECTIVE

To examine the extent to which effortful control (EC) and sensation seeking (SS) tendencies explain the association between the severity of ADHD symptoms and risky behaviors.

METHOD

Participants included 555 college students (66% females) who completed self-report measures assessing their ADHD symptoms, EC abilities, SS tendencies, and risky health (e.g., substance use) and driving/financial behaviors (e.g., misuse of credit cards).

RESULTS

Severity of college students' ADHD symptoms, EC abilities, and SS tendencies were related to all risky behaviors. Multiple mediational analyses further indicated that students' SS tendencies significantly mediated the association between ADHD symptoms and the risky health factor but not the risky driving/financial factor. EC, however, significantly mediated the association between ADHD symptoms and both the risky health and driving/financial factors.

CONCLUSION

The current study provides initial data showing potentially different mechanisms that explain the link between college students' severity of ADHD symptoms and risky behaviors.

Risky driving, mental health, and health-compromising behaviours: risk clustering in late adolescents and adults

BACKGROUND

Health-compromising behaviours in adolescents and adults co-occur. Because motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death and disability for these age groups, understanding the association between risky driving and other health-compromising behaviours is critical.

METHODS

We performed a secondary analysis of data from a randomised controlled trial of an intervention for participants who screened positive for risky driving and problem drinking. Using baseline data, we examined relationships among conduct behaviour problems before and after age 15 years, depressive symptoms, sleep, problem drinking, and risky driving (hostile, reckless and drinking and driving) in late adolescents ages 18-24 (n=110) years, and adults ages 25-44 (n=202) years. We developed a measurement model for the entire sample using confirmatory factor analysis, which was then specified as a multigroup structural equation model.

RESULTS

Late adolescents and adults had some similar associations for pathways through problem drinking to drinking and driving; depression to reckless driving; and conduct behaviour problems after 15 years of age to hostile driving. Late adolescents, however, had more complex relationships: depressive symptoms and conduct behaviour problems before 15 years of age were associated with more risky driving behaviours through multiple pathways, and males reported more risky driving.

CONCLUSIONS

Risky driving is associated with other health-compromising behaviours and mental health factors. It is a multidimensional phenomenon more pronounced in late adolescence than adulthood. In order to promote safe driving, the findings support the need to consider behaviours that are a health threat in the late adolescent population during driving training and licensure.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT00164294.

Emergency Department-Based Brief Intervention to Reduce Risky Driving: A Life Course Perspective

Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT) has promise as a clinical intervention for health-compromising behaviors. We used a randomized controlled design in an Emergency Department (ED) setting to determine the efficacy of a nurse-delivered SBIRT to address risky driving in people 18 to 44 years of age. Risky drivers (n = 476) were randomized to brief intervention (BIG), contact-control (CCG), or no-contact-control (NCG) groups and were followed at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Outcomes included safety belt use, speeding, and driving through traffic lights. Safety belt use, times speeding between 10 and 19 mph over speed limit, and times driving through a yellow light declined significantly in the BIG as compared with the CCG at 3, 6, and 9 months. SBIRT reduced risky driving in our sample, but its effects did not persist after 9 months. We suggest that SBIRT has the potential to reduce vehicular-related injury in the 9 months after a brief intervention.

The prevalence and correlates of risky driving behavior among National Guard soldiers

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have reported that risky driving is associated with deployment and combat exposure in military populations, but there is limited research on risky driving among soldiers in the National Guard and Reserves, a group increasingly deployed to active international conflicts. The goal of this analysis was to assess the prevalence of risky driving and its demographic, mental health, and deployment-related correlates among members of the Ohio Army National Guard (OHARNG).

METHODS

The study group comprised 2,616 eligible OHARNG soldiers enlisted as of June 2008, or who enlisted between June 2008 and February 2009. The main outcome of interest was the prevalence of risky driving behavior assessed using six questions: "How often do you use seat belts when you drive or ride in a car?"; "In the past 30 days, how many times have you driven when you've had perhaps too much to drink?"; "In the past year, have you ever become impatient with a slow driver in the fast lane and passed them on the right?"; "In the past year have you crossed an intersection knowing that the traffic lights have already changed from yellow to red?"; "In the past year have you disregarded speed limits late at night or early in the morning?"; and "In the past year have you underestimated the speed of an oncoming vehicle when attempting to pass a vehicle in your own lane?" We fit multiple logistic regression models and derived the adjusted prevalence of risky driving behavior for soldiers with mental health conditions, deployment experience, exposure to combat or trauma, and psychosocial stressors or supports.

RESULTS

The prevalence of risky driving was higher in soldiers with a history of mental health conditions, deployment to a conflict area, deployment-related traumatic events, and combat or post-combat stressors. In contrast, the prevalence of risky driving was lower for soldiers who reported high levels of psychosocial support.

CONCLUSIONS

Efforts to mitigate risky driving in military populations may be more effective if they incorporate both targeted messages to remediate dangerous learned driving behaviors and psychosocial interventions to build resilience and address underlying stressors and mental health symptoms.

The relation between cognitive control and risky driving in young novice drivers

This study investigated if decreased cognitive control, reflected in response inhibition and working-memory performance, is an underlying mechanism of risky driving in young novice drivers. Thirty-eight participants aged 17 to 25 years old, with less than 1 year of driving experience, completed a simulated drive that included several risky driving measures. Measures of response inhibition and verbal working memory were negatively associated with the standard deviation of the lateral lane position. Response inhibition, but not working memory, was also negatively related with the detection of, reaction to, and crashes with road hazards. Unexpectedly, increased cognitive control did not always relate to decreased risky driving. Visuospatial working-memory performance related positively with yellow-light running and negatively with the minimal following distance inside the city center. The findings evidence the role of cognitive control in explaining risky driving in young novice drivers. This relationship, however, differed per cognitive function and per driving parameter. Implications for future research and traffic safety interventions are discussed.

Impulsivity-like traits and risky driving behaviors among college students

The present study examined the predictive effects of five impulsivity-like traits (Premeditation, Perseverance, Sensation Seeking, Negative Urgency, and Positive Urgency) on driving outcomes (driving errors, driving lapses, driving violations, cell phone driving, traffic citations, and traffic collisions). With a convenience sample of 266 college student drivers, we found that each of the impulsivity-like traits was related to multiple risky driving outcomes. Positive Urgency (tendency to act impulsively when experiencing negative affect) was the most robust predictor of risky driving outcomes. Positive Urgency is a relatively newly conceptualized impulsivity-like trait that was not examined in the driving literature previously, suggesting a strong need to further examine its role as a personality trait related to risky driving. These findings generally support the multidimensional assessment of impulsivity-like traits, and they specifically support the addition of Positive Urgency to a list of risk factors for risky driving behaviors.

Female involvement in fatal crashes: increasingly riskier or increasingly exposed?

Men have long held the lead in motor-vehicle crashes. However, recent research from a variety of countries indicates that women are closing the gap. The relative increase in females involved in crashes has been associated with an increase in crash exposure. But is it simply that there are more women driving that is causing this increase? Or are there other mediating factors? The main goal of this research effort was to shed some light on this controversy. We found evidence that most of the observed increase in female drivers' fatalities was due to a parallel increase in female driving exposure but that some groups of female drivers (mainly underage female drivers) have become more vulnerable to some risk-taking driving behaviors than others.

Individual difference factors in risky driving among older adults

INTRODUCTION

Motor-vehicle crashes kill roughly 4,500 American adults over the age of 75 annually. Among younger adults, one behavioral factor consistently linked to risky driving is personality, but this predictor has been overshadowed by research on cognitive, perceptual, and motor processes among older drivers.

METHOD

In this study, a sample of 101 licensed drivers, all age 75 and over, were recruited to complete self-report measures on personality, temperament, and driving history. Participants also completed a virtual environment (VE) course designed to assess risk-taking driving behavior. State records of motor-vehicle crashes were collected.

RESULTS

Results suggest both a sensation-seeking personality and an undercontrolled temperament are related to risky driving among older adults. Sensation-seeking was particularly related to history of violations and tickets, while temperamental control was more broadly related to a number of risky driving measures. Methodological and crash prevention issues are discussed.