Diabetes, SGLT-2 Inhibitors, and Urinary Tract Infection: a Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review is to focus on epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, management, and complications of UTI in people with diabetes as well as reviewing the association of SGLT-2 inhibitors with genitourinary infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Individuals diagnosed with T2DM are more prone to experiencing UTIs and recurrent UTIs compared to individuals without T2DM. T2DM is associated with an increased risk of any genitourinary infections (GUI), urinary tract infections (UTIs), and genital infections (GIs) across all age categories. SGLT2 inhibitors are a relatively new class of anti-hyperglycemic agents, and studies suggest that they are associated with an increased risk of genitourinary infections. The management of diabetes and lifestyle modifications with a patient-centric approach are the most recognized methods for preventing critical long-term complications including genitourinary manifestations of diabetes. The available data regarding the association of SGLT-2 inhibitors with genitourinary infections is more comprehensive compared to that with UTIs. Further research is needed to better understand the mechanisms underlining the association between SGLT-2 inhibitors and genital infections and UTIs.

Comparison of diagnostic spectrum between inflammation of unknown origin and fever of unknown origin: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Patients with inflammation of unknown origin (IUO) and fever of unknown origin (FUO) are commonly considered a single population. Differences in underlying causes between both groups may steer the diagnostic work-up.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched from July 2009 through December 2023. Studies including both FUO and IUO patients with a sample size of ≥20 were considered. The primary outcome was the difference in the rate of patients affected by predefined diagnostic categories according to meeting FUO or IUO criteria. Data were pooled using random-effects models.

RESULTS

A total of 8 studies met criteria for inclusion, with a total of 1452 patients (466 with IUO and 986 with FUO). The median rate of IUO patients among the included studies was 32 % (range 25-39 %). Patients with IUO had a lower likelihood of infection (OR 0.59 [95 % CI; 0.36-0.95]; I2 0 %). There were no significant differences in the rate of noninfectious inflammatory disorders, malignancies, miscellaneous disorders, or remaining undiagnosed. Comparison of diagnostic subgroups revealed that IUO patients were less likely to have systemic autoinflammatory disorders (OR 0.17 [95 % CI, 0.05-0.58]; I2 42 %) and more likely to have vasculitis (OR 2.04 [95 % CI, 1.23-3.38]; I2 21 %) and rheumatoid arthritis or spondylarthritis (OR 3.52 [95 % CI, 1.16-10.69]; I2 0 %).

CONCLUSION

Based on our findings, there is little reason to assume that FUO and IUO patients would benefit from a different initial diagnostic approach.

Development of a Consensus-Based List of Potential Quality Indicators for Fever and Inflammation of Unknown Origin

With a growing emphasis on value-based reimbursement, developing quality indicators for infectious diseases has gained attention. Quality indicators for fever of unknown origin and inflammation of unknown origin are lacking. An assembled group of international experts developed 12 quality measures for these conditions, which could be validated with additional study.

Circulating antibody-secreting cells are a biomarker for early diagnosis in patients with Lyme disease

BACKGROUND

Diagnostic immunoassays for Lyme disease have several limitations including: 1) not all patients seroconvert; 2) seroconversion occurs later than symptom onset; and 3) serum antibody levels remain elevated long after resolution of the infection.

INTRODUCTION

MENSA (Medium Enriched for Newly Synthesized Antibodies) is a novel diagnostic fluid that contains antibodies produced in vitro by circulating antibody-secreting cells (ASC). It enables measurement of the active humoral immune response.

METHODS

In this observational, case-control study, we developed the MicroB-plex Anti-C6/Anti-pepC10 Immunoassay to measure antibodies specific for the Borrelia burgdorferi peptide antigens C6 and pepC10 and validated it using a CDC serum sample collection. Then we examined serum and MENSA samples from 36 uninfected Control subjects and 12 Newly Diagnosed Lyme Disease Patients.

RESULTS

Among the CDC samples, antibodies against C6 and/or pepC10 were detected in all seropositive Lyme patients (8/8), but not in sera from seronegative patients or healthy controls (0/24). Serum antibodies against C6 and pepC10 were detected in one of 36 uninfected control subjects (1/36); none were detected in the corresponding MENSA samples (0/36). In samples from newly diagnosed patients, serum antibodies identified 8/12 patients; MENSA antibodies also detected 8/12 patients. The two measures agreed on six positive individuals and differed on four others. In combination, the serum and MENSA tests identified 10/12 early Lyme patients. Typically, serum antibodies persisted 80 days or longer while MENSA antibodies declined to baseline within 40 days of successful treatment.

DISCUSSION

MENSA-based immunoassays present a promising complement to serum immunoassays for diagnosis and tracking therapeutic success in Lyme infections.

Molecular Imaging of Infections: Emerging Techniques for Pathogen-Specific Diagnosis and Guided Therapy

Evaluation of patients that may be infected is challenging. Imaging to identify or localize a site of infection is often limited because of the nonspecific nature of the findings on conventional imaging modalities. Available imaging methods lack the ability to determine if antibiotics are reaching the site of infection and are not optimized to follow response to therapy. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a method by which radiolabeled molecules can be used to detect metabolic perturbations or levels of expression of specific targets. The most common PET agent is the glucose analog 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose (18F-FDG). 18F-FDG has some applicability to localizing a site of infection, but its lack of specificity limits its usefulness. There is a need for the development of pathogen-specific PET radiotracers to address the imaging shortcomings noted above. Preclinical and clinical progress has been made, but significant challenges remain.

Feasibility of and Experience with Free State Funded Telehealth Based Patient Self-referral for COVID-19 Monoclonal Antibody Therapy

BACKGROUND

Monoclonal antibody (mAb) treatment for COVID-19 has been underutilized due to logistical challenges, lack of access and variable treatment awareness among patients and healthcare professionals. The use of telehealth during the pandemic provides an opportunity to increase access to COVID-19 care.

METHODS

This is a single-center descriptive study of telehealth-based patient self-referral for mAb therapy between March 1, 2021, to October 31, 2021 at Baltimore Convention Center Field Hospital (BCCFH).

RESULTS

Among the 1001 self-referral patients, the mean age was 47, and most were female (57%) white (66%), and had a primary care provider (62%). During the study period, self-referrals increased from 14 per month in March to 427 in October resulting in a 30-fold increase. About 57% of self-referred patients received a telehealth visit, and of those 82% of patients received mAb infusion therapy. The median time from self-referral to onsite infusion was 2 days (1-3 IQR).

DISCUSSION

Our study shows the integration of telehealth with a self-referral process improved access to mAb infusion. A high proportion of self-referrals were appropriate and led to timely treatment. This approach helped those without traditional avenues for care and avoided potential delay for patients seeking referral from their PCPs.

Investigator-Determined Categories for Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO) Compared With International Classification of Diseases-10 Classification of Illness: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis With a Proposal for Revised FUO Classification

Background

Classifying fever of unknown origin (FUO) into categorical etiologies (ie, infections, noninfectious inflammatory, oncologic, miscellaneous, and undiagnosed disorders) remains unstandardized and subject to discrepancies. As some disease classifications change, a systematic review of studies would help physicians anticipate the frequency of illness types they may encounter that could influence care.

Methods

We systematically reviewed prospective FUO studies published across the Medline (PubMed), Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases from January 1, 1997, to July 31, 2022. We performed a meta-analysis to estimate associated pooled proportions between the investigator-determined choice of disease category and those determined by the International Classification of Diseases, 10th edition (ICD-10), methodology.

Results

The proportion of patients with a difference between the investigator and ICD-10-adjusted noninfectious inflammatory disorder category was 1.2% (95% CI, 0.005-0.021; P < .001), and the proportion was similar for the miscellaneous category at 1.5% (95% CI, 0.007-0.025; P < .001). The miscellaneous and noninfectious inflammatory disorders categories demonstrated significant across-study heterogeneity in the proportions of patients changing categories, with 52.7% (P = .007) and 51.0% (P = .010) I² , respectively.

Conclusions

Adjusting FUO-associated diagnoses by ICD-10 methodology was associated with a statistically significant risk of over- or underestimation of disease category frequency approximation when using a 5 FUO category system. An FUO diagnostic classification system that better reflects mechanistic understanding would assist future research and enhance comparability across heterogenous populations and different geographic regions. We propose an updated FUO classification scheme that streamlines categorizations, aligns with the current understanding of disease mechanisms, and should facilitate empirical decisions, if necessary.

Climate change and the prevention of cardiovascular disease

Climate change is a worsening global crisis that will continue negatively impacting population health and well-being unless adaptation and mitigation interventions are rapidly implemented. Climate change-related cardiovascular disease is mediated by air pollution, increased ambient temperatures, vector-borne disease and mental health disorders. Climate change-related cardiovascular disease can be modulated by climate change adaptation; however, this process could result in significant health inequity because persons and populations of lower socioeconomic status have fewer adaptation options. Clear scientific evidence for climate change and its impact on human health have not yet resulted in the national and international impetus and policies necessary to slow climate change. As respected members of society who regularly communicate scientific evidence to patients, clinicians are well-positioned to advocate on the importance of addressing climate change. This narrative review summarizes the links between climate change and cardiovascular health, proposes actionable items clinicians and other healthcare providers can execute both in their personal life and as an advocate of climate policies, and encourages communication of the health impacts of climate change when counseling patients. Our aim is to inspire the reader to invest more time in communicating the most crucial public health issue of the 21st century to their patients.

Comparing the Epidemiology and Health Burden of Lyme Disease and Babesiosis Hospitalizations in the United States

Background

Lyme disease (LD) and babesiosis are increasing in the United States. We sought to characterize and compare their epidemiology and health burden using a nationally representative sample of hospitalizations.

Methods

Data were extracted from the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) pertaining to LD and babesiosis for 2018 and 2019. The NIS is a comprehensive database of all-payer inpatient hospitalizations, representing a stratified systematic random sample of discharges from US hospitals. Patient demographics, clinical outcomes, and admission costs were evaluated, in addition to hospital-level variables (eg, location/teaching status and census division). Annual incidence of hospitalizations was calculated using US Census Bureau data.

Results

The annual incidence of hospitalizations of LD-related and babesiosis-related hospitalizations were 6.98 and 2.03 per 1 000 000 persons/year. Of the 4585 LD hospitalizations in 2018-2019, 60.9% were among male patients, 85.3% were White, and 39.0% were ≥60 years. Of the 1330 babesiosis hospitalizations in 2018-2019, 72.2% were among male patients, 78.9% were White, and 74.1% were ≥60 years; 70.0% of LD and 91.7% of babesiosis hospitalizations occurred in Middle Atlantic or New England. Lower disease severity was noted in 81.8% of LD hospitalizations compared with 49.3% of babesiosis hospitalizations, whereas those suffering from high severity were 2.3% and 6.0%, respectively. The mean hospital charges for LD and babesiosis hospitalizations were $33 440.8 and $40 689.8, respectively.

Conclusions

Despite overlap between the 2 diseases, LD has a broader geographic range and a greater number of hospital admissions, whereas babesiosis is more severe, incurring longer hospital stays, higher inpatient costs, and deaths.

Diagnostic Testing for Lyme Disease

Standard 2-tier testing (STTT), incorporating a screening enzyme immunoassay (EIA) or an immunofluorescence assay (IFA) that reflexes to IgM and IgG immunoblots, has been the primary diagnostic test for Lyme disease since 1995. In 2019, the Food and Drug Administration approved a modified 2-tier test strategy using 2 EIAs: offering a faster, less expensive, and more sensitive assay compared with STTT. New technologies examine early immune responses to Borrelia burgdorferi have the potential to diagnose Lyme disease in the first weeks of infection when existing serologic testing is not recommended due to low sensitivity.

Geographic Upon Noninfectious Diseases Accounting for Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO): A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background

Diagnostic outcomes for fever of unknown origin (FUO) remain with notable numbers of undiagnosed cases. A recent systemic review and meta-analysis of studies reported geographic variation in FUO-related infectious diseases. Whether geography influences types of FUO noninfectious diagnoses deserves examination.

Methods

Medline (PubMed), Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched systematically using medical subject headings published from January 1, 1997, to March 31, 2021. Prospective clinical studies investigating participants meeting adult FUO defining criteria were selected if they assessed final diagnoses. Meta-analyses were based on the random-effects model according to World Health Organization (WHO) geographical regions.

Results

Nineteen studies with significant heterogeneity were analyzed, totaling 2,667 participants. Noninfectious inflammatory disorders had a pooled estimate at 20.0% (95%CI: 17.0-23.0%). Undiagnosed illness had a pooled estimate of 20.0% (95%CI: 14.0-26.0%). The pooled estimate for cancer was 15.0% (95%CI: 12.0-18.0%). Miscellaneous conditions had a pooled estimate of 6.0% (95%CI: 4.0-8.0%). Noninfectious inflammatory disorders and miscellaneous conditions were most prevalent in the Western Pacific region with a 27.0% pooled estimate (95%CI: 20.0-34.0%) and 9.0% (95%CI: 7.0-11.0%), respectively. The highest pooled estimated for cancer was in the Eastern Mediterranean region at 25.0% (95%CI: 18.0-32.0%). Adult-onset Still’s disease (114 [58.5%]), systemic lupus (52 [26.7%]), and giant-cell arteritis (40 [68.9%]) predominated among the noninfectious inflammatory group. Lymphoma (164 [70.1%]) was the most common diagnosis in the cancer group.

Conclusions

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, noninfectious disease diagnostic outcomes varied among WHO-defined geographies. Evaluation of FUO should consider local variations in disease prevalence.

Prospective Studies Comparing Structured vs Nonstructured Diagnostic Protocol Evaluations Among Patients With Fever of Unknown Origin: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Importance

Patients meeting the criteria for fever of unknown origin (FUO) can be evaluated with structured or nonstructured approaches, but the optimal diagnostic method is unresolved.

Objective

To analyze differences in diagnostic outcomes among patients undergoing structured or nonstructured diagnostic methods applied to prospective clinical studies.

Data Sources

PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science databases with librarian-generated query strings for FUO, PUO, fever or pyrexia of unknown origin, clinical trial, and prospective studies identified from January 1, 1997, to March 31, 2021.

Study Selection

Prospective studies meeting any adult FUO definition were included. Articles were excluded if patients did not precisely fit any existing adult FUO definition or studies were not classified as prospective.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Abstracted data included years of publication and study period, country, setting (eg, university vs community hospital), defining criteria and category outcome, structured or nonstructured diagnostic protocol evaluation, sex, temperature threshold and measurement, duration of fever and hospitalization before final diagnoses, and contribution of potential diagnostic clues, biochemical and immunological serologic studies, microbiology cultures, histologic analysis, and imaging studies. Structured protocols compared with nonstructured diagnostic methods were analyzed using regression models.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Overall diagnostic yield was the primary outcome.

Results

Among the 19 prospective trials with 2627 unique patients included in the analysis (range of patient ages, 10-94 years; 21.0%-55.3% female), diagnoses among FUO series varied across and within World Health Organization (WHO) geographic regions. Use of a structured diagnostic protocol was not significantly associated with higher odds of yielding a diagnosis compared with nonstructured protocols in aggregate (odds ratio [OR], 0.98; 95% CI, 0.65-1.49) or between Western Europe (Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Spain) (OR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.49-1.86) and Eastern Europe (Turkey and Romania) (OR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.41-1.69). Despite the limited number of studies in some regions, analyses based on the 6 WHO geographic areas found differences in the diagnostic yield. Western European studies had the lowest percentage of achieving a diagnosis. Southeast Asia led with infections at 49.0%. Noninfectious inflammatory conditions were most prevalent in the Western Pacific region (34.0%), whereas the Eastern Mediterranean region had the highest proportion of oncologic explanations (24.0%).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, diagnostic yield varied among WHO regions. Available evidence from prospective studies did not support that structured diagnostic protocols had a significantly better rate of achieving a diagnosis than nonstructured protocols. Clinicians worldwide should incorporate geographical disease prevalence in their evaluation of patients with FUO.

Geographic Variation of Infectious Disease Diagnoses Among Patients with Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO) – A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) investigations yield a substantial number of patients with infectious diseases. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to quantify more common FUO infectious diseases etiologies and to underscore geographic variation.

Methods

Four databases (PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched for prospective studies reporting FUO rates among adult patients from 1 January 1997 to 31 March 2021. The pooled proportion for infectious diseases etiology was estimated using the random-effects meta-analysis model.

Results

Nineteen prospective studies were included with 2667 total cases. No studies were available for Africa or the Americas. Overall, 37.0% (95.0% confidence interval [CI], 30.0%–44.0%) of FUO patients had an infectious disease etiology. Infections were more likely from Southeastern Asia (pooled proportion, 0.49 [95% CI, .43–.55]) than from Europe (pooled proportion, 0.31 [95% CI, .22–.41]). Among specifically reported infectious diseases (n = 832), Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex predominated across all geographic regions (n = 285 [34.3%]), followed by brucellosis (n = 81 [9.7%]), endocarditis (n = 62 [7.5%]), abscesses (n = 61 [7.3%]), herpesvirus (eg, cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus) infections (n = 60 [7.2%]), pneumonia (n = 54 [6.5%]), urinary tract infections (n = 54 [6.5%]), and enteric fever (n = 40 [4.8%]).

Conclusions

FUO patients from Southeastern Asia were more likely to have an infectious diseases etiology when compared to other regions. The predominant factor for this finding appears to be differences in disease prevalence among various geographical locations or other factors such as access to timely care and diagnosis. Noting epidemiological disease factors in FUO investigations could improve diagnostic yields and clinical outcomes.

Mistaken Identity: Many Diagnoses are Frequently Misattributed to Lyme Disease

BACKGROUND

Prior studies have demonstrated that Lyme disease is frequently over-diagnosed. However, few studies describe which conditions are misdiagnosed as Lyme disease.

METHODS

This retrospective observational cohort study evaluated patients who lacked evidence for Borrelia burgdorferi infection referred for Lyme disease to a Mid-Atlantic academic center from 2000-2013. The primary outcome is clinically described diagnoses contributing to symptoms. Secondary outcomes included symptom duration and determination whether diagnoses were new or attributed to existing medical conditions.

RESULTS

Of 1261 referred patients, 1061 (84%) had no findings of active Lyme disease, with 690 (65%) receiving other diagnoses; resulting in 405 (59%) having newly diagnosed medical conditions, 134 (19%) attributed to pre-existing medical issues, and 151 (22%) with both new and pre-existing conditions. Among the 690 patients, the median symptom duration was 796 days, and a total of 139 discrete diagnoses were made. Infectious disease diagnoses comprised only 3.2%. Leading diagnoses were anxiety/depression 222 (21%), fibromyalgia 120 (11%), chronic fatigue syndrome 77 (7%), migraine disorder 74 (7%), osteoarthritis 62 (6%), and sleep disorder/apnea 48 (5%). Examples of less frequent but non-syndromic diseases newly diagnosed included multiple sclerosis (n = 11), malignancy (n = 8), Parkinson's disease (n = 8), sarcoidosis (n = 4), or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (n = 4).

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients with long-term symptoms have either new or pre-existing disorders accounting for their symptoms other than Lyme disease, suggesting overdiagnosis in this population. Patients referred for consideration of Lyme disease for chronic symptoms deserve careful assessment for diagnoses other than Borrelia burgdorferi infection.

Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO) - A Call for New Research Standards and Updated Clinical Management

Prolonged fever of 38.3°C or higher for at least 3 weeks' duration has been termed fever of unknown origin if unexplained after preliminary investigations. Initially codified in 1961, classification with subgroups was revised in 1991. Additional changes to the definition were proposed in 1997, recommending a set of standardized initial investigations. Advances in diagnosis and management and diagnostic testing over the last 3 decades have prompted a needed update to the definition and approaches. While a 3-week fever duration remains part of the criteria, a lower temperature threshold of 38°C and revised minimum testing criteria will assist clinicians and their patients, setting a solid foundation for future research.

Long-term use of immunosuppressive medicines and in-hospital COVID-19 outcomes: a retrospective cohort study using data from the National COVID Cohort Collaborative

BACKGROUND

Many individuals take long-term immunosuppressive medications. We evaluated whether these individuals have worse outcomes when hospitalised with COVID-19 compared with non-immunosuppressed individuals.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study using data from the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C), the largest longitudinal electronic health record repository of patients in hospital with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 in the USA, between Jan 1, 2020, and June 11, 2021, within 42 health systems. We compared adults with immunosuppressive medications used before admission to adults without long-term immunosuppression. We considered immunosuppression overall, as well as by 15 classes of medication and three broad indications for immunosuppressive medicines. We used Fine and Gray's proportional subdistribution hazards models to estimate the hazard ratio (HR) for the risk of invasive mechanical ventilation, with the competing risk of death. We used Cox proportional hazards models to estimate HRs for in-hospital death. Models were adjusted using doubly robust propensity score methodology.

FINDINGS

Among 231 830 potentially eligible adults in the N3C repository who were admitted to hospital with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 during the study period, 222 575 met the inclusion criteria (mean age 59 years [SD 19]; 111 269 [50%] male). The most common comorbidities were diabetes (23%), pulmonary disease (17%), and renal disease (13%). 16 494 (7%) patients had long-term immunosuppression with medications for diverse conditions, including rheumatological disease (33%), solid organ transplant (26%), or cancer (22%). In the propensity score matched cohort (including 12 841 immunosuppressed patients and 29 386 non-immunosuppressed patients), immunosuppression was associated with a reduced risk of invasive ventilation (HR 0·89, 95% CI 0·83-0·96) and there was no overall association between long-term immunosuppression and the risk of in-hospital death. None of the 15 medication classes examined were associated with an increased risk of invasive mechanical ventilation. Although there was no statistically significant association between most drugs and in-hospital death, increases were found with rituximab for rheumatological disease (1·72, 1·10-2·69) and for cancer (2·57, 1·86-3·56). Results were generally consistent across subgroup analyses that considered race and ethnicity or sex, as well as across sensitivity analyses that varied exposure, covariate, and outcome definitions.

INTERPRETATION

Among this cohort, with the exception of rituximab, there was no increased risk of mechanical ventilation or in-hospital death for the rheumatological, antineoplastic, or antimetabolite therapies examined.

FUNDING

None.

Association Between Chronic Use of Immunosuppresive Drugs and Clinical Outcomes From Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Hospitalization: A Retrospective Cohort Study in a Large US Health System

BACKGROUND

It is unclear whether chronic use of immunosuppressive drugs worsens or improves the severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), with plausible mechanisms for both.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study in 2121 consecutive adults with acute inpatient hospital admission between 4 March and 29 August 2020 with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 in a large academic health system, with adjustment for confounding with propensity score-derived stabilized inverse probability of treatment weights. Chronic immunosuppression was defined as prescriptions for immunosuppressive drugs current at the time of admission. Outcomes included mechanical ventilation, in-hospital mortality, and length of stay.

RESULTS

There were 2121 patients admitted with laboratory-confirmed (1967, 93%) or suspected (154, 7%) COVID-19 during the study period, with a median age of 55 years (interquartile range, 40-67). Of these, 108 (5%) were classified as immunosuppressed before COVID-19, primarily with prednisone (>7.5 mg/day), tacrolimus, or mycophenolate mofetil. Among the entire cohort, 311 (15%) received mechanical ventilation; the median (interquartile range) length of stay was 5.2 (2.5-10.6) days, and 1927 (91%) survived to discharge. After adjustment, there were no significant differences in the risk of mechanical ventilation (hazard ratio [HR], .79; 95% confidence interval [CI], .46-1.35), in-hospital mortality (HR, .66; 95% CI, .28-1.55), or length of stay (HR, 1.16; 95% CI, .92-1.47) among individuals with immunosuppression and counterparts.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic use of immunosuppressive drugs was neither associated with worse nor better clinical outcomes among adults hospitalized with COVID-19 in one US health system.

The Race to Understand Post-COVID-19 Conditions

A substantial proportion of patients who have recovered from acute SARS-CoV-2 infection report persisting symptoms. The author discusses why understanding the basis of postinfectious syndromes is critical to establishing their legitimacy and the prospect of successful treatments.

Environmental Correlates of Lyme Disease Emergence in Southwest Virginia, 2005-2014

Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne disease in North America. Though human infection is mostly transmitted in a limited geography, the range has expanded in recent years. One notable area of recent expansion is in the mountainous region of southwestern Virginia. The ecological factors that facilitate or constrain the range of human Lyme disease in this region remain uncertain. To evaluate this further, we obtained ecological data, including remotely sensed data on forest structure and vegetation, weather data, and elevation. These data were aggregated within the census block groups of a 9,153 km2 area around the cities of Blacksburg and Roanoke, VA, an area with heterogeneous Lyme disease transmission. In this geographic area, 755 individuals were reported to have Lyme disease in the 10 yr from 2006 to 2015, and these cases were aggregated by block group. A zero-inflated negative binomial model was used to evaluate which environmental variables influenced the abundance of Lyme disease cases. Higher elevation and higher vegetation density had the greatest effect size on the abundance of Lyme disease. Measures of forest edge, forest integrity, temperature, and humidity were not associated with Lyme disease cases. Future southward expansion of Lyme disease into the southeastern states may be most likely in ecologically similar mountainous areas.

Imaging a Fever-Redefining the Role of 2-deoxy-2-[18F]Fluoro-D-Glucose-Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography in Fever of Unknown Origin Investigations

Growing evidence suggests that 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose (18FDG)-positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) is a useful imaging technique for the evaluation of fever of unknown origin (FUO). This imaging technique allows for accurate localization of foci of hypermetabolism based on 18FDG uptake in glycolytically active cells that may represent inflammation, infection, or neoplasia. The presence of abnormal uptake can help direct further investigation that may yield a final diagnosis. A lack of abnormal uptake can be reasonably reassuring that these conditions are not present, thereby avoiding unnecessary additional testing. Insurers have not routinely covered outpatient 18FDG-PET/CT for the indication of FUO in the United States. However, data published since 2007 suggest early use in FUO diagnostic evaluations improves diagnostic efficiency and reduces costs. Clinicians and insurers should consider 18FDG-PET/CT as a useful tool when preliminary studies are unrevealing.

Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): 2020 Guideline on Diagnosis and Management of Babesiosis

The purpose of this guideline is to provide evidence-based guidance for the most effective strategies for the diagnosis and management of babesiosis. The diagnosis and treatment of co-infection with babesiosis and Lyme disease will be addressed in a separate Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR) guideline [1]. Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of human granulocytic anaplasmosis can be found in the recent rickettsial disease guideline developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2]. The target audience for the babesiosis guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition, such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, intensivists, internists, pediatricians, hematologists, and transfusion medicine specialists.

Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR): 2020 Guidelines for the Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Lyme Disease

This evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of Lyme disease was developed by a multidisciplinary panel representing the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and the American College of Rheumatology (ACR). The scope of this guideline includes prevention of Lyme disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease presenting as erythema migrans, Lyme disease complicated by neurologic, cardiac, and rheumatologic manifestations, Eurasian manifestations of Lyme disease, and Lyme disease complicated by coinfection with other tick-borne pathogens. This guideline does not include comprehensive recommendations for babesiosis and tick-borne rickettsial infections, which are published in separate guidelines. The target audience for this guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, internists, pediatricians, family physicians, neurologists, rheumatologists, cardiologists and dermatologists in North America.

Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA): 2020 Guideline on Diagnosis and Management of Babesiosis

The purpose of this guideline is to provide evidence-based guidance for the most effective strategies for the diagnosis and management of babesiosis. The diagnosis and treatment of co-infection with babesiosis and Lyme disease will be addressed in a separate Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR) guideline [1]. Recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of human granulocytic anaplasmosis can be found in the recent rickettsial disease guideline developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [2]. The target audience for the babesiosis guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition, such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, intensivists, internists, pediatricians, hematologists, and transfusion medicine specialists.

Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and American College of Rheumatology (ACR): 2020 Guidelines for the Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Lyme Disease

This evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of Lyme disease was developed by a multidisciplinary panel representing the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and the American College of Rheumatology (ACR). The scope of this guideline includes prevention of Lyme disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease presenting as erythema migrans, Lyme disease complicated by neurologic, cardiac, and rheumatologic manifestations, Eurasian manifestations of Lyme disease, and Lyme disease complicated by coinfection with other tick-borne pathogens. This guideline does not include comprehensive recommendations for babesiosis and tick-borne rickettsial infections, which are published in separate guidelines. The target audience for this guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, internists, pediatricians, family physicians, neurologists, rheumatologists, cardiologists and dermatologists in North America.

Palliative care consultation in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia

BACKGROUND

Palliative care consultation has shown benefits across a wide spectrum of diseases, but the utility in patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia remains unclear despite its high mortality.

AIM

To examine the frequency of palliative care consultation and factors associated with palliative care consult in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia patients in the United States.

DESIGN

A population-based retrospective analysis using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample database in 2014, compiled by the Healthcare Costs and Utilization Project of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.

SETTING/SUBJECTS

All inpatients with a discharge diagnosis of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (ICD-9-CM codes; 038.11 and 038.12).

MEASUREMENTS

Palliative care consultation was identified using ICD-9-CM code V66.7. Patients' baseline characteristics and outcomes were compared between those with and without palliative care consult.

RESULTS

A total of 111,320 Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia admissions were identified in 2014. Palliative care consult was observed in 8140 admissions (7.3%). Palliative care consultation was associated with advanced age, white race, comorbidities, higher income, teaching/urban hospitals, Midwest region, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and the lack of echocardiogram. Palliative care consult was also associated with shorter but more expensive hospitalizations. Crude mortality was 53% (4314/8140) among admissions with palliative care consult and 8% (8357/10,3180) among those without palliative care consult (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Palliative care consultation was infrequent during the management of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, and a substantial number of patients died during their hospitalizations without palliative care consult. Given the reported benefit in other medical conditions, palliative care consultation may have a role in Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Selecting patients who may benefit the most should be explored.

Pathways to Leadership: Reflections of Recent Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) Leaders During Conception and Launch of the Inclusion, Diversity, Access, and Equity Movement Within the IDSA

Opportunities for leadership in the specialty of infectious diseases (ID) have markedly increased over the last decade, including in newly recognized areas. Commensurate with the expansion of opportunities in ID, pathways to leadership positions within the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) are expanding as the Society seeks to advance the field for IDSA members. Acknowledging both the importance of diverse leaders to organizational success and shortfalls in diverse representation within IDSA leadership led to concentrated efforts to enhance transparency and opportunities for members to participate broadly in the work of IDSA. Herein, IDSA leaders reflect on their paths to IDSA leadership, hoping to help guide members seeking to partner with the Society. Features identified as important to individual success include mentorship, networking, participation in ID and IDSA volunteer experiences, passion for ID, and working with IDSA staff to advance the programs and initiatives of IDSA on behalf of members.

Progress Report: Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and Broad-Range Molecular Assays as Diagnostic Tools for Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO) Investigations in Adults

Even well into the 21st century, infectious diseases still account for most causes of fever of unknown origin (FUO). Advances in molecular technologies, including broad-range PCR of the 16S rRNA gene followed by Sanger sequencing, multiplex PCR assays, and more recently, next-generation sequencing (NGS) applications, have transitioned from research methods to more commonplace in some clinical microbiology laboratories. They have the potential to supplant traditional microbial identification methods and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Despite the remaining challenges with these technologies, publications in the past decade justify excitement about the potential to transform FUO investigations. We discuss available evidence using these molecular methods for FUO evaluations, including potential cost-benefits and future directions.

Tocilizumab for the Treatment of COVID-19 Among Hospitalized Patients: A Matched Retrospective Cohort Analysis

Background

There is currently no single treatment that mitigates all harms caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Tocilizumab, an interleukin-6 antagonist, may have a role as an adjunctive immune-modulating therapy.

Methods

This was an observational retrospective study of hospitalized adult patients with confirmed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The intervention group comprised patients who received tocilizumab; the comparator arm was drawn from patients who did not receive tocilizumab. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality censored at 28 days; secondary outcomes were all-cause mortality at discharge, time to clinical improvement, and rates of secondary infections. Marginal structural Cox models via inverse probability treatment weights were applied to estimate the effect of tocilizumab. A time-dependent propensity score-matching method was used to generate a 1:1 match for tocilizumab recipients; infectious diseases experts then manually reviewed these matched charts to identify secondary infections.

Results

This analysis included 90 tocilizumab recipients and 1669 controls. Under the marginal structural Cox model, tocilizumab was associated with a 62% reduced hazard of death (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 0.38; 95% CI, 0.21 to 0.70) and no change in time to clinical improvement (aHR, 1.13; 95% CI, 0.68 to 1.87). The 1:1 matched data set also showed a lower mortality rate (27.8% vs 34.4%) and reduced hazards of death (aHR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.25 to 0.88). Elevated inflammatory markers were associated with reduced hazards of death among tocilizumab recipients compared with controls. Secondary infection rates were similar between the 2 groups.

Conclusions

Tocilizumab may provide benefit in a subgroup of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 who have elevated biomarkers of hyperinflammation, without increasing the risk of secondary infection.

Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, American Academy of Neurology, and American College of Rheumatology: 2020 Guidelines for the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Lyme Disease

This evidence-based clinical practice guideline for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of Lyme disease was developed by a multidisciplinary panel representing the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), and the American College of Rheumatology (ACR). The scope of this guideline includes prevention of Lyme disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of Lyme disease presenting as erythema migrans, Lyme disease complicated by neurologic, cardiac, and rheumatologic manifestations, Eurasian manifestations of Lyme disease, and Lyme disease complicated by coinfection with other tick-borne pathogens. This guideline does not include comprehensive recommendations for babesiosis and tick-borne rickettsial infections, which are published in separate guidelines. The target audience for this guideline includes primary care physicians and specialists caring for this condition such as infectious diseases specialists, emergency physicians, internists, pediatricians, family physicians, neurologists, rheumatologists, cardiologists and dermatologists in North America.

Impact of Infectious Disease Consultation in Patients With Candidemia: A Retrospective Study, Systematic Literature Review, and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Morbidity and mortality from candidemia remain unacceptably high. While infectious disease consultation (IDC) is known to lower the mortality from Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, little is known about the impact of IDC in candidemia.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective observational cohort study of candidemia patients at a large tertiary care hospital between 2015 and 2019. The crude mortality rate was compared between those with IDC and without IDC. Then, we systematically searched 5 databases through February 2020 and performed a meta-analysis of the impact of IDC on the mortality of patients with candidemia.

RESULTS

A total of 151 patients met the inclusion criteria, 129 (85%) of whom received IDC. Thirty-day and 90-day mortality rates were significantly lower in the IDC group (18% vs 50%; P = .002; 23% vs 50%; P = .0022, respectively). A systematic literature review returned 216 reports, of which 13 studies including the present report fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Among the 13 studies with a total of 3582 patients, IDC was performed in 50% of patients. Overall mortality was 38.2% with a significant difference in favor of the IDC group (28.4% vs 47.6%), with a pooled relative risk of 0.41 (95% CI, 0.35-0.49). Ophthalmology referral, echocardiogram, and central line removal were performed more frequently among patients receiving IDC.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first systematic literature review and meta-analysis to evaluate the association between IDC and candidemia mortality. IDC was associated with significantly lower mortality and should be considered in all patients with candidemia.

Deployment of convalescent plasma for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the cause of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has spurred a global health crisis. To date, there are no proven options for prophylaxis for those who have been exposed to SARS-CoV-2, nor therapy for those who develop COVID-19. Immune (i.e., "convalescent") plasma refers to plasma that is collected from individuals following resolution of infection and development of antibodies. Passive antibody administration through transfusion of convalescent plasma may offer the only short-term strategy for conferring immediate immunity to susceptible individuals. There are numerous examples in which convalescent plasma has been used successfully as postexposure prophylaxis and/or treatment of infectious diseases, including other outbreaks of coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-1, Middle East respiratory syndrome [MERS]). Convalescent plasma has also been used in the COVID-19 pandemic; limited data from China suggest clinical benefit, including radiological resolution, reduction in viral loads, and improved survival. Globally, blood centers have robust infrastructure for undertaking collections and constructing inventories of convalescent plasma to meet the growing demand. Nonetheless, there are nuanced challenges, both regulatory and logistical, spanning donor eligibility, donor recruitment, collections, and transfusion itself. Data from rigorously controlled clinical trials of convalescent plasma are also few, underscoring the need to evaluate its use objectively for a range of indications (e.g., prevention vs. treatment) and patient populations (e.g., age, comorbid disease). We provide an overview of convalescent plasma, including evidence of benefit, regulatory considerations, logistical work flow, and proposed clinical trials, as scale-up is brought underway to mobilize this critical resource.

Fever and Fever of Unknown Origin: Review, Recent Advances, and Lingering Dogma

Fever has preoccupied physicians since the earliest days of clinical medicine. It has been the subject of scrutiny in recent decades. Historical convention has mostly determined that 37.0°C (98.6°F) should be regarded as normal body temperature, and more modern evidence suggests that fever is a complex physiological response involving the innate immune system and should not be characterized merely as a temperature above this threshold. Fever of unknown origin (FUO) was first defined in 1961 by Petersdorf and Beeson and continues to be a clinical challenge for physicians. Although clinicians may have some understanding of the history of clinical thermometry, how average body temperatures were established, thermoregulation, and pathophysiology of fever, new concepts are emerging. While FUO subgroups and etiologic classifications have remained unchanged since 1991 revisions, the spectrum of diseases, clinical approach to diagnosis, and management are changing. This review considers how newer data should influence both definitions and lingering dogmatic principles. Despite recent advances and newer imaging techniques such as 18-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography, clinical judgment remains an essential component of care.

Misdiagnosis of Lyme Disease With Unnecessary Antimicrobial Treatment Characterizes Patients Referred to an Academic Infectious Diseases Clinic

Background

Although Lyme disease is the most common vector-borne infection in the United States, diagnostic accuracy within community settings is not well characterized.

Methods

A retrospective observational cohort study of patients referred to an academic center with a presumed diagnosis or concern for Lyme disease between 2000 and 2013 was performed to analyze diagnoses and treatments. Characteristics of those with Lyme disease and those misdiagnosed as having Lyme disease were compared.

Results

Of 1261 patients, 911 (72.2%) did not have Lyme disease, 184 (14.6%) had active or recent Lyme disease, 150 (11.9%) had a remote history of Lyme disease, and 16 (1.3%) were identified as having possible Lyme disease. Patients without current Lyme disease were more likely to be female (odds ratio [OR], 1.56; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08–2.45), to have had symptoms for >3 months (OR, 8.78; 95% CI, 5.87–13.1), to have higher symptom counts (OR per additional symptom, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.02–1.13), to have had more Lyme-related laboratory testing (OR per additional laboratory test, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.03–1.32), and to have been diagnosed with what were regarded as coinfections (OR, 3.13; 95% CI, 1.14–8.57). Of the 911 patients without Lyme disease, 764 (83.9%) had received antimicrobials to treat Lyme disease or their coinfections. The percentage of patients established to have Lyme disease was lower than in earlier studies of referred populations.

Conclusions

Among patients referred to an academic Infectious Diseases practice for Lyme disease, incorrect diagnoses and unnecessary antibiotic treatment were common, both for Lyme disease and for coinfections.

Infectious Diseases Physicians: Improving and Protecting the Public's Health: Why Equitable Compensation Is Critical

Infectious diseases (ID) physicians play a crucial role in public health in a variety of settings. Unfortunately, much of this work is undercompensated despite the proven efficacy of public health interventions such as hospital acquired infection prevention, antimicrobial stewardship, disease surveillance, and outbreak response. The lack of compensation makes it difficult to attract the best and the brightest to the field of ID, threatening the future of the ID workforce. Here, we examine compensation data for ID physicians compared to their value in population and public health settings and suggest policy recommendations to address the pay disparities that exist between cognitive and procedural specialties that prevent more medical students and residents from entering the field. All ID physicians should take an active role in promoting the value of the subspecialty to policymakers and influencers as well as trainees.

Geographic Expansion of Lyme Disease in Michigan, 2000-2014

Background

Most Lyme disease cases in the Midwestern United States are reported in Minnesota and Wisconsin. In recent years, however, a widening geographic extent of Lyme disease has been noted with evidence of expansion eastwards into Michigan and neighboring states with historically low incidence rates.

Methods

We collected confirmed and probable cases of Lyme disease from 2000 through 2014 from the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, entering them in a geographic information system. We performed spatial focal cluster analyses to characterize Lyme disease expansion. We compared the distribution of human cases with recent Ixodes scapularis tick distribution studies.

Results

Lyme disease cases in both the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan expanded more than 5-fold over the study period. Although increases were seen throughout the Upper Peninsula, the Lower Peninsula particularly expanded along the Indiana border north along the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Human cases corresponded to a simultaneous expansion in established I scapularis tick populations.

Conclusions

The geographic distribution of Lyme disease cases significantly expanded in Michigan between 2000 and 2014, particularly northward along the Lake Michigan shore. If such dynamic trends continue, Michigan—and possibly neighboring areas of Indiana, Ohio, and Ontario, Canada—can expect a continued increase in Lyme disease cases.

Antibiotics for the neurological complications of Lyme disease

BACKGROUND

Various central nervous system-penetrant antibiotics are bactericidal in vitro and in vivo against the causative agent of Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB), Borrelia burgdorferi. These antibiotics are routinely used clinically to treat LNB, but their relative efficacy is not clear.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of antibiotics for the treatment of LNB.

SEARCH METHODS

On 25 October 2016 we searched the Cochrane Neuromuscular Specialised Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, and Embase. We searched clinical trial registers on 26 October 2016. We reviewed the bibliographies of the randomized trials identified and contacted the authors and known experts in the field to identify additional published or unpublished data. There were no language restrictions when searching for studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized clinical trials of antibiotic treatment of LNB in adults and children that compared any antibiotic treatment, including combinations of treatments, versus any other treatment, placebo, or no treatment. We excluded studies of entities considered as post-Lyme syndrome.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified seven randomized studies involving 450 European participants with LNB for inclusion in this systematic review. We found no trials conducted in the United States. Marked heterogeneity among these studies prevented meta-analysis. None of the studies included a placebo control on the initial antibiotic treatment, and only one was blinded. None were delayed-start studies. All were active comparator studies, and most were not adequately powered for non-inferiority comparison. The trials investigated four antibiotics: penicillin G and ceftriaxone in four studies, doxycycline in three studies, and cefotaxime in two studies. One study tested a three-month course of oral amoxicillin versus placebo following initial treatment with intravenous ceftriaxone. One study was limited to children. The trials measured efficacy using heterogeneous physician- or patient-reported outcomes, or both. In some cases cerebrospinal fluid analysis was included as an indirect biomarker of disease and outcome. None of the studies reported on our proposed primary outcome, 'Improvement in a measure of overall disability in the long term (three or more months).' None of the trials revealed any between-group differences in symptom resolution in response to active treatment. In general, treatment was tolerated well. The quality of adverse event reporting, however, was low.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is mostly low- to very low-quality clinical evidence from a limited number of mostly small, heterogeneous trials with diverse outcome measures, comparing the relative efficacy of central nervous system-penetrant antibiotics for the treatment of LNB. The few existing randomized studies have limited power and lack consistent and well-defined entry criteria and efficacy endpoints. It is not possible to draw firm conclusions on the relative efficacy of accepted antibiotic drug regimens for the treatment of LNB. The majority of people are reported to have good outcomes, and symptoms resolve by 12 months regardless of the antibiotic used. A minority of participants did not improve sufficiently, and some were retreated. These randomized studies provide some evidence that doxycycline, penicillin G, ceftriaxone, and cefotaxime are efficacious in the treatment of European LNB. No evidence of additional efficacy was observed when, in one study, an initial antibiotic treatment with intravenous ceftriaxone was followed by additional longer treatment with oral amoxicillin. There is a lack of evidence identified through our high-quality search strategy on the efficacy of antibiotics for treatment of LNB in the United States.

A critical appraisal of the mild axonal peripheral neuropathy of late neurologic Lyme disease

In older studies, a chronic distal symmetric sensory neuropathy was reported as a relatively common manifestation of late Lyme disease in the United States. However, the original papers describing this entity had notable inconsistencies and certain inexplicable findings, such as reports that this condition developed in patients despite prior antibiotic treatment known to be highly effective for other manifestations of Lyme disease. More recent literature suggests that this entity is seen rarely, if at all. A chronic distal symmetric sensory neuropathy as a manifestation of late Lyme disease in North America should be regarded as controversial and in need of rigorous validation studies before acceptance as a documented clinical entity.

Role of Suppressive Oral Antibiotics in Orthopedic Hardware Infections for Those Not Undergoing Two-Stage Replacement Surgery

Suppressive oral antibiotics for at least three months, but not at least six months, are associated with treatment success at one year post-diagnosis of orthopedic hardware infection.

Background. The use of suppressive antibiotics in treatment of orthopedic hardware infections (OHIs), including spinal hardware infections, prosthetic joint infections, and infections of internal fixation devices, is controversial.

Methods. Over a 4-year period at 2 academic medical centers, patients with OHI who were treated with debridement and retention of hardware components, with single-stage exchange, or without surgery were studied to determine whether use of oral antibiotics for at least 6 months after diagnosis impacts successful treatment of the infection at 1 year after diagnosis.

Results. Of 89 patients in the study, 42 (47.2%) were free of clinical infection 1 year after initial diagnosis. Suppressive antibiotics used for at least 6 months after diagnosis was not associated with being free of clinical infection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.29; 95% confidence interval [CI], .74–37.80), but being on suppressive antibiotics at least 3 months after diagnosis was associated with being free of clinical infection (OR, 3.50; 95% CI, 1.30–9.43). Causative organisms impacted the likelihood of success; patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as well as with Gram-negative rods were both less likely to have achieved clinical success at 1 year after surgery (aOR = 0.018, 95% CI = .0017–.19 and aOR = 0.20, 95% CI = .039–.99, respectively).

Conclusions. Oral suppressive antibiotic therapy in treatment of OHI with retention of hardware for 3 months, but not 6 months, postdiagnosis increases the likelihood of treatment success. The organisms implicated in the infection directly impact the likelihood of treatment success.

Defining Clinical Excellence in Adult Infectious Disease Practice

Excellence in clinical care should be recognized and rewarded. A recent paradigm defined clinical excellence through seven key domains. This work examines ID clinical excellence in these domains, and in doing so highlights the important skill sets of ID physicians.

Clinical excellence should be recognized, particularly in the current climate that appropriately prioritizes relationship-centered care. In order to develop a recognition model, a definition of clinical excellence must be created and agreed upon. A paradigm recently suggested by C. Christmas describes clinical excellence through the following domains: diagnostic acumen, professionalism and humanism, communication and interpersonal skills, skillful negotiation of the healthcare system, knowledge, taking a scholarly approach to clinical practice, and having passion for clinical medicine. This work references examples of infectious disease (ID) clinical excellence across Christmas' domains and, in doing so, both examines how the definition of clinical excellence applies to ID practice and highlights the importance of ID physicians. Emphasizing such aspirational standards may not only inspire trainees and practicing physicians to pursue their own fulfilling clinical ID careers, it may also encourage health systems to fully value outstanding ID physicians who labor tirelessly to provide patients with exceptional care.

A Drug Combination Screen Identifies Drugs Active against Amoxicillin-Induced Round Bodies of In Vitro Borrelia burgdorferi Persisters from an FDA Drug Library

Although currently recommended antibiotics for Lyme disease such as doxycycline or amoxicillin cure the majority of the patients, about 10–20% of patients treated for Lyme disease may experience lingering symptoms including fatigue, pain, or joint and muscle aches. Under experimental stress conditions such as starvation or antibiotic exposure, Borrelia burgdorferi can develop round body forms, which are a type of persister bacteria that appear resistant in vitro to customary first-line antibiotics for Lyme disease. To identify more effective drugs with activity against the round body form of B. burgdorferi, we established a round body persister model induced by exposure to amoxicillin (50 μg/ml) and then screened the Food and Drug Administration drug library consisting of 1581 drug compounds and also 22 drug combinations using the SYBR Green I/propidium iodide viability assay. We identified 23 drug candidates that have higher activity against the round bodies of B. burgdorferi than either amoxicillin or doxycycline. Eleven individual drugs scored better than metronidazole and tinidazole which have been previously described to be active against round bodies. In this amoxicillin-induced round body model, some drug candidates such as daptomycin and clofazimine also displayed enhanced activity which was similar to a previous screen against stationary phase B. burgdorferi persisters not exposure to amoxicillin. Additional candidate drugs active against round bodies identified include artemisinin, ciprofloxacin, nifuroxime, fosfomycin, chlortetracycline, sulfacetamide, sulfamethoxypyridazine and sulfathiozole. Two triple drug combinations had the highest activity against amoxicillin-induced round bodies and stationary phase B. burgdorferi persisters: artemisinin/cefoperazone/doxycycline and sulfachlorpyridazine/daptomycin/doxycycline. These findings confirm and extend previous findings that certain drug combinations have superior activity against B. burgdorferi persisters in vitro, even when pre-treated with amoxicillin. These findings may have implications for improved treatment of Lyme disease.