Measuring Allyship: Development and Validation of Two Measures to Assess Collegiate Athlete Department Staff Engagement in LGBTQ Allyship and Ally Behaviors

This pilot quantitative study sought to explore lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) ally engagement by collegiate coaches and athletic department staff. In particular, this study sought to investigate the psychometric properties for two adapted measures: the Ally Identity Scale-Athletic Staff Version and the Engagement in LGBTQ Ally Actions in Sports Scale-Athletic Staff Version. These measures could provide a means to assess the degree to which coaches and athletic department staff identify as allies and engage in actions that support a welcoming and inclusive climate for LGBTQ student-athletes and athletic department staff. The sample for this study was 87 coaches and athletic department staff who completed an online survey. The results of this study provide preliminary psychometric support for two adapted measures and provide insights into the next steps scholars can take in exploring the intersection of LGBTQ identities and collegiate athletics.

Judo for older adults: the coaches' knowledge and needs of education

This study aimed to explore the views of judo coaches on their perceived knowledge (PK) and needs for education (NE) for training older practitioners. In total, 470 international (Europe = 48%, Americas = 22%, Africa = 23%, Asia = 5% and Oceania = 2%) judo coaches (IJF: level 1 = 55,3%, level 2 = 33%; judo black belt: 3,4 ± 1,7 dan; F = 15%; university education: 68% >BA) responded an online survey encompassing demographic information and 35 items relevant to training older adults (Aging process; Safety and First Aid; Organization & Environment; Physiology and Fitness; Psychology & Mental Health; Teaching & Training) to be rated on a 7-point Likert scale for PK and NE. Non parametric statistics (p > 0.05) was applied to ascertain differences and relationships between PK and NE, respectively. A bivariate go-zone plot was used to highlight items with the lowest PK and the highest NE mean values. The coaches reported high PK (4.5 ± 0.3 pt) and NE (4.7 ± 0.1 pt) values, with significant higher PK values emerging for high education levels and judo experience. In considering their unique needs and special role, the judo coaches presented valuable insights to develop a sustainable educational curriculum tailored to train older judo practitioners.

Determining the Right Levels of Health Coaching and Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback in a Workplace Behavior Change Intervention: Multiphase Optimization Strategy Preparation Study

BACKGROUND

Work-related stress is associated with poor job performance and negative health outcomes. Changing health behaviors through corporate wellness programs can improve physical and mental health and help employees manage stress. This project sought to pilot the potential addition of brief coaching and biofeedback to an 8-week web-based self-help program to improve employee stress using the multiphase optimization strategy.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to determine which candidate components will be tested in a later optimization phase and at what dose they will be tested, examine the feasibility and acceptability of delivering the different components, investigate whether the outcomes can be feasibly measured, and review evidence to build a conceptual model before the optimization phase.

METHODS

The study was positioned within the preparation phase of the multiphase optimization strategy. It is a 2×2×2×2 design with 4 components: 2 types of health coaching and 2 types of biofeedback. All components were tested by turning them on or off. A total of 16 adult office workers (mean age 40, SD 14.3 years; n=15 women) completed an 8-week self-paced web-based stress management and health behavior change program and were randomly assigned to 1 of the 16 conditions, created from a combination of the 4 candidate components. Assessments included web analytics, surveys, and interviews regarding program recommendations, likes, and dislikes.

RESULTS

Findings from the interviews provided suggestions to improve the intervention (eg, separating wellness from stress content) and trial conduct (eg, streamlining the onboarding process). On average, participants logged into the wellness program 83 times (range 36-291), with 75% (12/16) participant retention and 67% (8/12) survey completion. There were no reported problems with coaching or obtaining data from interviews or apps. The interview findings suggested potential mediators to include and assess in a future conceptual model.

CONCLUSIONS

The results provided areas to improve the intervention content and trial methods. Instead of progressing to the next scheduled large-scale optimization phase, our plan to iterate through a second preparation phase after making changes to the protocol, apps, and corporate coaching partner.

Training, supervision, and experience of coaches offering digital guided self-help for mental health concerns

Accessible, low-cost intervention options are necessary to address the rise in mental health problems among college students. Digital guided self-help, or coached, programs have been developed to provide such services, with many commercially available. As such, there are a large and growing number of individuals coaching these programs. However, an unmet need is to evaluate and assess best practices for training and supervising individuals in these positions. To this end, we describe how we recruited, trained, and supervised coaches as part of a large randomized controlled trial using a widely available digital commercial platform. Coaches were trained to provide digital guided self-help for depression, anxiety, and/or eating disorders for college students. Coaches initially attended three live training sessions over 2-3 weeks, viewed multiple training videos, and read a detailed coaching manual developed by our team. Thereafter, they attended weekly supervision. Following their term, coaches completed an exit survey to assess their supervision and training experiences. A total of 37 of 70 (53%) graduate-level student coaches completed the survey. The experience was reported as very positive (95%). In particular, the majority reported feeling well prepared, more confident, and felt they had developed useful skills for their own practice.

Coaches' Mind Games: Harnessing Technical Fouls for Psychological Momentum in Basketball

This study explored the emotional and cognitive dimensions associated with technical fouls (TFs) in basketball coaching. Using in-depth interviews with Israeli first-division basketball coaches, we aimed to uncover the emotional and cognitive intricacies involved in TFs. Through rigorous thematic content analysis, we delved into coaches' ability to perceive and manipulate psychological momentum on the court. We revealed that coaches intentionally use TFs as strategic tools. TFs were employed to elicit specific emotional responses and cognitive shifts in players, affecting their emotional states, arousal levels, motivation, and overall team performance. However, coaches approached TFs with caution due to the associated emotional and cognitive risks. They carefully weighed potential benefits against unforeseen consequences in their decision-making. Furthermore, our research highlighted coaches' belief in the immediate positive impact of TFs on referee decisions, underscoring the interplay between emotional influence and strategic advantage. Nevertheless, this advantage was perceived as short-lived, emphasizing that TFs are a two-edged sword with unpredictable outcomes.

Irrational Performance Beliefs and Mental Well-Being Upon Returning to Sport During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Test of Mediation by Intolerance of Uncertainty

Purpose: This study examined the extent to which irrational performance beliefs and intolerance of uncertainty co-occur in relation to mental well-being among a sample of athletes and coaches (N = 94, M age = 31.99, SD = 12.81) upon their return to sport following COVID-19 disruptions. Methods and Results: Despite the parity in views, independent samples t-test results identified three significant differences in the tested variables between athletes and coaches, which suggested that athletes are more likely to entertain depreciative thoughts about performances and react more aversively to uncertainty, whereas coaches reported a better mental well-being state. Pearson correlation coefficient analysis confirmed a significant positive relationship between composite irrational performance beliefs and intolerance of uncertainty scores, with both these variables being inversely related to mental well-being. Results from a simple atemporal mediation analysis using the PROCESS macro verified that intolerance of uncertainty fully mediated the adverse effect irrational beliefs exert on mental well-being. Conclusion: Sports psychology practitioners within the framework of REBT are advised to explore their orientation of modifying irrational beliefs aligned to clients' perceptions and tolerance of uncertainty in sport through the inclusion of IU-specific awareness and behavioral experiments.

Educational Needs for Coaching Judo in Older Adults: The EdJCO Focus Groups

Judo coaches are urged to develop specific competencies and skills for addressing the special needs of older practitioners. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the experts' opinions on judo training in late adulthood to develop sound educational programs for coaches of older judo practitioners. Overall, eighty-eight experts from an international consortium of judo and educational partners participated in national focus groups. During the focus groups, experts discussed five themes and generated statements pertinent to educate coaches to support older judo practitioners (e.g., benefits; necessary knowledge; risks; training groups definition; tools; and tests for monitoring training plans). The initial list of 262 statements was synthesized, validated, analyzed, and organized into a final list of 55 statements and six macro-areas: aging process (n = 10); safety and first aid (n = 6); physiology and fitness (n = 12); psychology and mental health (n = 11); organization and environment (n = 5); adapted judo teaching and training (n = 11). The present international eminence-based study, harmonizing diverse intercultural perspectives, highlighted the specific needs of older judo practitioners. The results of this study will contribute to the structure of a sound educational program for coaches of older judo practitioners to enhance the quality of older adults' sports experiences by linking safety, enjoyment, social interactions, and learning principles.

Characteristics of Stress and Burnout among Lithuanian University Coaches: A Pre-Pandemic Coronavirus and Post-Pandemic Period Comparison

(1) Background: The majority of studies analyzing associations between burnout, gender, and perceived stress have utilized a cross-sectional design. This present longitudinal study investigated associations between burnout, perceived stress, and gender compared during the pre-pandemic Coronavirus and post-pandemic period among Lithuanian university coaches. (2) Methods: 214 university coaches were randomly selected for the study. Study participants completed two measurements: one pre-pandemic and the second post-pandemic. (3) Results: Gender differences were identified on all burnout elements but not on perceived stress. Repeated measures (RM) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results did not show a significant effect for the interaction between gender and time. Results of hierarchical (stepwise) regression analyses revealed that perceived stress after the pandemic predicted burnout levels for all three burnout components (exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced accomplishment) after the pandemic. (4) Conclusions: The current study contributes to the understanding of burnout components in relation to perceived stress through a longitudinal approach using a representative sample of Lithuanian university coaches.

A Global Women's Rugby Union Web-Based Survey

Rugby Union (rugby) is a full-contact team sport characterised by frequent collision events. Over one third (2.7 million) of global rugby participants are women and girls. Yet, most rugby research, laws, and regulations are derived from the men's game with limited transferability to the women's game. This includes research focused on injury and concussion management. Greater insights are urgently required to enable appropriate adaptations and support for all rugby participants. Therefore, this paper presents the protocol for a project that sought to gather insights into the understanding, experiences, and attitudes of players and coaches in women's rugby regarding key issues of concussion, injury, and training for injury prevention, as well as the implications of the menstrual cycle for training and performance. From August 2020 to November 2020, online, open, cross-sectional surveys for players and coaches were distributed globally through rugby governing bodies and women's rugby social media platforms using snowball sampling. Survey responses were recorded anonymously via a GDPR-compliant online survey platform, JISC (jisc.ac.uk, Bristol, England). Participant eligibility included being ≥18 years and either actively playing or coaching women's rugby 15s and/or sevens, or having done so in the past decade, at any level, in any country. To enhance the number and accuracy of responses, the survey was professionally translated into eight additional languages. A total of 1596 participants from 62 countries (27 ± 6 years; 7.5 ± 5.1 years of playing experience) and 296 participants from 37 countries (mean age = 36.64, SD = 9.09, mean experience = 6.53 years, SD = 3.31) completed the players' and coaches' surveys, respectively. Understanding women's participation in and experiences of rugby is important to enable lifelong engagement and enjoyment of the sport and health during and following participation.

Task-Involving Motivational Climate and Enjoyment in Youth Male Football Athletes: The Mediation Role of Self-Determined Motivation

BACKGROUND

This study aimed at examining the mediation role of self-determined motivation (identified and integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation) in the association between task-involving climate and enjoyment in youth male football athletes.

METHODS

A total of 109 youth males (M = 14.38; SD = 1.55) were recruited to participate in this study. The survey included sociodemographic data and validated instruments such as the Motivational Climate Sport Youth Scale, the Behavioral Regulation Sport Questionnaire, and the Sports Enjoyment Scale.

RESULTS

The results showed that the task-involving climate was a positive and significant predictor of integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation. In addition, integrated regulation and intrinsic motivation were positive and significant predictors of enjoyment. The results of the mediation analysis revealed a partial mediation role of self-determined motivation in the relationship between task-involving climate and enjoyment. Significant indirect effects only occurred through intrinsic motivation.

CONCLUSIONS

Providing higher levels of enjoyment in the sport context could be an excellent option for leisure activities for children and youth, as long as self-determined motivation and task-involving climates provided by the coaches are present.

Athlete-specific risk factors for the development of disordered eating behaviors in first-year college athletes

OBJECTIVE

The current study tested whether proposed sport-related risk factors for disordered eating behaviors were associated with increases in disordered eating over first-year college athletes' first four months of collegiate sport participation.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants included a sample of first-year college athletes (N = 59, 45% female) from a Division I National Collegiate Athletics Association (DI) university.

METHOD

This follow-up study tested whether 1) wearing a uniform that emphasizes body concerns, 2) participating in a lean sport, and 3) perceived pressure for thinness from coaches and teammates would lead to increases in weight/shape concerns and disordered eating behaviors over the first four months of collegiate sport participation.

RESULTS

Wearing a uniform that emphasizes body concerns and perceived coach pressure for thinness predicted increases in weight/shape concern. Both teammate and coach pressure for thinness predicted increases in restrained eating behaviors.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that there are identifiable, athlete-specific risk factors for the development of disordered eating behaviors among first-year college athletes.

Development and Psychometric Validation of the Athletes' Perceived Body Pressures from Coaches Questionnaire (APBPCQ)

This study aimed to develop a questionnaire to assess male and female athletes' perceived weight and shape pressure from coaches and establish its psychometric properties. Exploratory factor analysis (N = 412 in each female sample 1 and 2) provided evidence for 4 scales for female athletes and 3 scales for male athletes which were confirmed in confirmatory factor analysis (N = 260 in each male sample 1 and 2). For both females and males, KMO testing and Bartlett's test of sphericity indicated that the sampling was adequate and survey items were appropriate for factor analysis. Additionally, all scales for both sexes had strong factor loadings (≥0.65), good Cronbach alpha coefficients (>0.70), and made contextual sense. The magnitude of difference results were indicative of a stable factor structure. Goodness-of-fit indicators were all in the expected direction. Good convergent validity was demonstrated. The questionnaire's excellent psychometric properties and novelty make it a valuable tool for researchers and practitioners. This questionnaire has the potential to identify training needs in coaching staff, as well as to identify athletes who may benefit from support and guidance for effectively coping with pressure from coaches.

The Role of the Social Environment in Pacing and Sports Performance: A Narrative Review from a Self-Regulatory Perspective

As proposed by Triplett in 1898 and evidenced by a recent series of lab and field studies, racing against other competitors consistently results in increased performance compared to when racing alone. To explain this phenomenon, we will explore the process of self-regulation, a process relevant to pacing, which is linked to athletes' emotions and facilitates their sports performance optimization. We will apply the cyclical model of Self-regulation of Learning to pacing and sports performance settings and explore the role of the social environment (in particular, opponents but also coaches) in each phase of the self-regulatory model. It seems that the social environment could be considered as a significant self-regulatory and sports performance facilitator. More specifically, athletes can focus on their social environment (opponents) when they have to set goals and select appropriate strategies to achieve them (forethought phase), monitor and manage their actions and their emotions (performance phase), and make self-judgements and choose self-reactions (self-reflection). Moreover, the social environment (coaches) can observe, step in, and facilitate these intricate processes. These findings could guide athletes and their coaches towards more effective pacing acquisition and development, and better sports performance, which could be of particular relevance for youth athletes or athletes with disabilities impacting on their self-regulatory skills.

Knowledge about the emergency management of dental injuries among field hockey coaches

BACKGROUND/AIM

Field hockey is frequently associated with oro-dental injuries. In such acute situations, appropriate management of the injury by coaches can contribute to a better clinical outcome and prognosis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the knowledge of hockey coaches in the Netherlands about the emergency management of dental injuries.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A 25-item questionnaire about the prevalence and management of oro-dental injuries was distributed amongst hockey coaches in the Netherlands. A sub-analysis was done regarding the knowledge on the management of dental injuries by using a 5-point scoring system.

RESULTS

Two hundred and six hockey coaches participated in this survey. A small majority (53%) of the coaches knew the treatment of choice in the event of a permanent tooth injury. The median score of coaches' knowledge regarding management of oro-dental injuries was 3.0 (2.0-4.0) points. Coaches with a (para)medical training/occupation, and coaches with >10 years of experience had significantly higher scores compared with the other groups (p < .01 and p = .03, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The knowledge level of hockey coaches in the Netherlands about oro-dental injuries needs to be improved, as many coaches are not aware of the appropriate first aid measures.

Psychometric Properties of the Spanish Version of the Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile Short Version (WEIP-S) in a Sample of Spanish Federated Coaches

Emotional intelligence has been a topic of great interest to researchers in many different areas as it is associated with mental, psychosomatic, and physical health. In the sports context, it is a significant variable that can play an important role in improving the team's performance. Although there are numerous tools to assess emotional intelligence, few of them have been validated explicitly in a sports sample, and even fewer have had coaches as a target population. Therefore, this study aimed to validate the Spanish version of the work group emotional intelligence profile short version (WEIP-S) in a sample of Spanish federated coaches. The results confirm that this instrument presents good psychometric properties to measure the emotional intelligence of sports coaches. The original four-factor model (awareness of one's own emotions, management of one's own emotions, awareness of others' emotions, and management of others' emotions) shows good reliability and convergent validity for all four factors except for the management of one's own emotions. These findings suggest that it is possible to measure the emotional intelligence of coaches and offer the opportunity to continue investigating the relevance of constructing specific scales to measure this construct in the sports context.

Protect the Player, Protect the Game: Reflections from Ex-Professional Rugby Union Players on Law Changes, Protective Equipment, and Duty of Care in the Professional Game

The emphasis of this study was to interview ex-professional male rugby union players (n = 23, mean age 35.5 ± 4.7 years) and discuss concussion management during their careers. In this study, two major themes were identified: (1) the duty of care to professional rugby union players by medical personnel, coaching staff, and owners of professional clubs and (2) the use of protective equipment and law changes to enhance player safety. In total, twenty-three ex-professional rugby union players were interviewed, and the majority (61%) had represented their countries at international test-level rugby. These interviews highlighted the belief that medical teams should be objective, independent entities within a professional rugby club. Furthermore, medical teams should not be in a position of being pressurised by head coaches, members of the coaching team, or club owners regarding return-to-play (RTP) protocols specific to concussion. The interviewees believed that they were pressured by coaches or members of the coaching team to play with concussion or concussive symptoms and other physical injuries. The results indicated that they had manipulated concussion testing themselves or with assistance to pass standard concussion testing protocols. The interviewees indicated that club owners have a duty of care to players even in retirement due to the high incidence of physical and mental injuries endured as a professional rugby player. Most participants indicated that a reduction in match playing time and reducing the amount of time engaged in contact training (workload volume) may assist in reducing concussion incidence. The participants suggested that changes to the current laws of the game or the use of protective equipment did not mitigate against concussion risk in the game of rugby union. The main limitation to the study is that participants had retired in the past ten years, and conditions for players may have changed. This study has highlighted that additional efforts are required by professional clubs to ensure the highest duty of care is delivered to current players and recently retired players.

A Coach-Delivered Dating Violence Prevention Program: Coach Perspectives on Implementation

Coaching Boys into Men (CBIM), an evidence-based violence prevention program, utilizes the coach-athlete relationship to deliver information about healthy, respectful relationships to adolescent boys involved in athletics. Although CBIM has demonstrated effectiveness in clinical research trials, its implementation outside of an effectiveness study has not been explored. The purpose of this current study was to explore facilitators and barriers of effective implementation in community settings using experiences from one regional implementation in Southwestern Pennsylvania. Head coaches who implemented CBIM from 2017-2018 seasons (n = 35) were contacted and 22 (63%) agreed to participate. Coaches were asked how they delivered CBIM to their team, what aided the process, barriers to facilitation, and their overall thoughts on CBIM implementation. Interviews were structured to uncover specific information regarding implementation while also providing time and space for coaches to voice their suggestions and opinions. Interviews were coded using descriptive content analysis. Key facilitators to implementation were involvement of violence prevention advocates, athletic directors, assistant coaches, and players and having flexibility to integrate current events to emphasize topics covered in CBIM. Observed improvements in bystander intervention behaviors and better attitudes towards women and girls among athletes were key motivators for coaches to continue the program. Main barriers were inconsistencies in time available to discuss topics with players and need to refresh curriculum content over multiple seasons. Coaches identified components necessary for broader and sustained implementation of this evidence-based violence prevention intervention in community settings. Coaches' confidence in delivering program content can be bolstered with appropriate strategies in place to address barriers. As coaches witness positive impacts among their athletes, these successes contribute to coaches recognizing their role in transforming sports into a platform for community-wide violence prevention.

How to Form a Successful Team for the Novel Olympic Triathlon Discipline: The Mixed-Team-Relay

The triathlon Mixed-Team-Relay (MTR) is a new race format present for the first time at the Tokyo Olympic Games in 2021. The results of the ITU Triathlon Mixed Relay World Championship from 2014 to 2019 were collected to provide practical suggestions for forming a successful MTR, such as the importance of each leg and discipline on MTR and Super-Sprint performance. The total relay time (Trelay), the time of each team member (leg-from 1 to 4) (Tleg), and the time of each single discipline (swim, T1, cycle, T2, run) were collected from the official website. Inferential analysis was performed to assess prediction and differences between variables. Leg 3 was shown to be the most important to predict Trelay (0.41), which is also the slower. For both Trelay and Tleg, cycling resulted as the most important (>0.60) and longer (~52%) portion, followed by running and swimming. However, higher importance in swimming was found in successful teams compared to running. For a successful MTR, we suggest: (a) use short-distance specialized triathletes; (b) strengthen cycling and swimming; (c) position in legs 1 and 2 athletes capable of racing in a group; in legs 3 and 4 athletes capable of racing in a non-drafting situation.

Exploring the Modus Operandi of Coaches Who Perpetrated Sex Offenses in Canada

This study investigated the modus operandi strategies employed by 120 coaches who committed sexual abuse toward 331 athletes under their authority. More than 2,000 Canadian court judgements and media reports were identified using online search databases. Using descriptive analysis, 51 strategies used in six modus operandi stages were identified. Results highlighted the most frequent strategies used by coaches for each stage of the crime commission process. Additionally, findings revealed the influence of the victims' gender, coaches' sport level and year of coaches' first offenses on modus operandi strategies used. Implications for crime prevention measures are discussed.

Extreme weight control behaviors among adolescent athletes: Links with weight-related maltreatment from parents and coaches and sport ethic norms

The use of extreme weight-control behaviors is prevalent among adolescent athletes and may result from individual and sport-specific factors. Weight-related maltreatment from coaches and parents, and conformity to sport ethic norms have recently been linked to the use of extreme weight-control behaviors. This study aims to investigate the role of sport ethic norms and weight-related maltreatment from coaches and parents in the use of extreme weight-control behaviors among adolescent athletes. A sample of 999 French-Canadian athletes aged 14-17 years competing in a variety of sports completed an online survey assessing extreme weight-control behaviors, weight-related maltreatment from coaches and parents, and conformity to sport ethic norms. A total of 16.9% of the adolescent athletes reported having adopted extreme weight-control behaviors during their athletic careers. Extreme weight-control behaviors were significantly more prevalent among girls (19.75% vs 9.7% in boys) and weight-class-sport athletes (44%). In addition, 7.4% of the sample experienced at least one type of weight-related maltreatment by coaches or parents. Sex, weight-related neglect by coaches and parents, and weight-related psychological violence by coaches explained 24.4% of extreme weight-control behaviors variance. Indeed, participants who engaged in extreme weight-control behaviors experienced significantly more violence than the other participants did. In contrast, no differences were observed between people who engaged in extreme weight-control behaviors and those who did not due to conformity to sport ethic norms.

The Pick-and-Roll in Basketball From Deep Interviews of Elite Coaches: A Mixed Method Approach From Polar Coordinate Analysis

Pick-and-roll is the most widespread cooperative action among high-level basketball teams and the most applied strategy by coaches to gain an advantage over the rival team. During pick-and-roll, opposing teams perform antagonistic actions based on goals that are expressed in offensive and defensive tactics. The aim of this study is to examine the approaches of high-level coaches on the offensive and defensive dynamics emerging in matches of a basketball elite team during an entire season of the Spanish Asociación de Clubes de Baloncesto (ACB) league. To this end, we used a mixed-methods approach based on systematic observation of verbatim transcripts of interviews conducted with six high-level coaches about the pick-and-roll dynamics that emerged in matches of the Unicaja Málaga team during an entire season of the ACB league. The observational design was nomothetic, punctual, and multidimensional. The choice of this methodology is justified since we developed an ad hoc indirect observation tool to evaluate the coaches’ perspective on this dynamic. Once the intra-observer reliability of the instrument was confirmed, we performed a polar coordinate analysis to identify the significant relationships between the coaches’ evaluations and the offensive and defensive pick-and-roll elements that supported such verbal behaviors. The results highlight the presence of various offensive and defensive aspects of pick-and-roll (n = 2224) emerging in the Unicaja team that were significantly associated with positive and negative evaluations of the coaches. The interview confirms that coach 1 and his staff were less confident in options that pick-and-roll offer, which is also reflected in the record of screens made and simulated, than coach 3. This study shows that the application of mixed methods, by analysis of the polar coordinate of the coding carried out on responses of a systematized interview, has proven to be an effective strategy in obtaining relevant information on the expert knowledge of the elite coaches on the influence of pick-and-roll on tactical actions in basketball.

Gender Stereotypes among Teachers and Trainers Working with Adolescents

Previous scientific literature has not determined the influence exerted by trainers and teachers of adolescents on the development of gender stereotypes in sport. For this reason, the aims of the present research were to establish differences in gender stereotypes in sport among teachers and trainers as a function of profession and sex and to analyze the influence of age and years of experience of male and female trainers and teachers on the gender stereotypes in sport. For this purpose, 127 teachers and trainers completed the questionnaire "gender beliefs and stereotypes towards physical activity and sport". The results showed a significantly higher score of the teachers in "beliefs about physical activity and gender" (p = 0.048) and of the trainers in "physical education classes and gender" (p = 0.006). Concerning sex, women showed higher scores in "sport and gender" (p = 0.005), and men in "beliefs about physical activity and gender" (p = 0.045). Regarding covariates, age showed significant differences in "sport and gender" (p = 0.029), with female teachers showing higher values with respect to female trainers and male teachers, while years of experience showed differences in "beliefs about sport and gender" (p = 0.044), with male teachers showing higher values than male trainers and female teachers.

Gender Stereotypes among Teachers and Trainers Working with Adolescents

Previous scientific literature has not determined the influence exerted by trainers and teachers of adolescents on the development of gender stereotypes in sport. For this reason, the aims of the present research were to establish differences in gender stereotypes in sport among teachers and trainers as a function of profession and sex and to analyze the influence of age and years of experience of male and female trainers and teachers on the gender stereotypes in sport. For this purpose, 127 teachers and trainers completed the questionnaire "gender beliefs and stereotypes towards physical activity and sport". The results showed a significantly higher score of the teachers in "beliefs about physical activity and gender" (p = 0.048) and of the trainers in "physical education classes and gender" (p = 0.006). Concerning sex, women showed higher scores in "sport and gender" (p = 0.005), and men in "beliefs about physical activity and gender" (p = 0.045). Regarding covariates, age showed significant differences in "sport and gender" (p = 0.029), with female teachers showing higher values with respect to female trainers and male teachers, while years of experience showed differences in "beliefs about sport and gender" (p = 0.044), with male teachers showing higher values than male trainers and female teachers.

COVID-19 Prevention Measures Implemented by Tennis Coaches: The Role of Continent, Experience, and Type of Facility

The prevention strategies used by tennis coaches when delivering tennis lessons during the COVID-19 pandemic were analyzed in this study. An ad hoc questionnaire collected data from 655 Spanish and Portuguese speaking tennis coaches working in Latin America and Europe. Differences in the prevention measures were analyzed according to the continent, the coaches’ experience, and the type of facility they worked in. Results showed that coaches used information provided from local and national organizations more than from international ones. Hand hygiene, communication of preventive strategies, and changes in the coaching methodology were the most used prevention measures. Latin American coaches and those working in public facilities implemented the measures more often than their European colleagues or those working in private venues. Finally, more experienced coaches showed a greater awareness of the adoption of the measures than their less experienced counterparts. The data provided by this research may assist in developing new specific guidelines, protocols, and interventions to help better understand the daily delivery of tennis coaching in this challenging context.

Para Sport Development Experiences: Perspectives of Para Swimmers and Parents

This study examined para swimmers' athlete development experiences from the perspectives and reflections of athletes, and parents of athletes, with a focus on the constraints and challenges experienced. Guided by interpretive phenomenological analysis, 12 participants engaged in the interview process (seven parents and five athletes). Five themes were identified: fundamental skill development, personal connection, coaching, classification, and connecting with others "like me." Through a discussion of the differences in development experiences between the participants in this study and the current literature on athlete development, the authors highlight areas of concern in applying a non-para-specific athlete development model to para swimmers. This study identifies several areas of consideration in the future design of a para athlete development framework or model.

Development and Validation of a Scale for Interaction between Parents and Coaches of Middle and High School Golf Players

The purpose of this study was to develop a measurement tool for the interaction between parents and coaches of middle and high school golfers, and to verify its validity. A total of 563 parents participated in the study. Based on the results of preliminary item production, item analysis, reliability analysis, exploratory factor analysis, identification factor analysis, job uniformity analysis, and potential mean comparison analysis, the initial 70 items were constructed according to the conceptualization of parent–coach interactions. The first and second item reduction processes and preliminary surveys were conducted through expert meetings to produce the final 40 items of parent–coach interactions. After eliminating 20 items through question analysis, reliability analysis, and exploratory factor analysis, the final three factors of parent–coach interaction were extracted, and the conformity index for the middle and high school golfers’ parent-to-coach interaction tool was checked. Then, to ensure the external validity of the developed parent–coach interaction measurement tool, a construct equivalence analysis was conducted to demonstrate that the tool can be applied equally to parents and coaches. In summary, the tools for measuring the interaction between the middle and high school golfers’ parents and coaches were developed in 20 questions, three factors for communication, qualification, and support, and it was confirmed that the developed measuring tools could all be applied equally through a latent mean analysis. Parents and coaches are key variables that can affect a player’s performance; thus parents and coaches’ interaction measuring tools can be provide positive information not only for golfers but also for players of various other sports.

Perceptions of Football Analysts Goal-Scoring Opportunity Predictions: A Qualitative Case Study

This study aimed to understand the way tactical football analysts perceive the general match analysis issues and to analyze their tactical interpretation of the predictive models of conceded goal-scoring opportunities. Nine tactical analysts responded to the semi-structured interviews that included a general section on the match analysis and a specific one on the results of a study on goal-scoring opportunities conceded by a Spanish La Liga team. Following their transcription, the interviews were codified into categories by the two researchers using Atlas Ti® software. Subsequently, frequency count and co-occurrence analysis were performed based on the encodings. The content analysis reflected that analysts play a crucial role in the analysis of their own team and that of the opponent, the essential skills to exercise as a tactical analyst being "understanding of the game" and "clear observation methodology." Based on the case study of the conceded goal-scoring opportunities, the major causes and/or solutions attributed by analysts in some of the predictive models were the adaptability of the "style of play" itself according to the "opponent" and "pressure after losing."

Psychological Distress and Psychosocial Factors in the Non-Formal Context of Basketball Coaches in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic

Psychological distress and psychosocial factors are studied in the sports context in players of various specialties, but are only little studied with coaches who carry out their work with these athletes; that is where we put the emphasis, trying to determine the perception of coaches on psychological distress and psychosocial risk factors that may influence their sports work in times of a pandemic. It is an ex post facto study with a single-group retrospective design, with a representative sample of 94 coaches out of a possible 109. The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale and the short version of the ISTAS21 Psychosocial Risk Assessment at Work Questionnaire were adapted to the sports context. The results show that the youngest, those with the least experience and level 1 and level 2 coaches show the highest levels of stress. According to the psychosocial risk assessment, level 1 and 2 coaches, with experience between 6 to 10 years, are in the risk zone. Therefore, it is important to work with a group of coaches who are in the psychosocial risk zone and with high levels of psychological discomfort in order to avoid mental, emotional and physical stress, for the good performance of their work in the best possible conditions.

Thriving Through Relationships in Sport: The Role of the Parent-Athlete and Coach-Athlete Attachment Relationship

The aim of this research was to examine whether attachment relationships to significant others, such as to parents and/or sports coaches, enable thriving and competition performance within sport. Two studies employing cross-sectional and prospective designs were carried out across different samples of athletes of varied skill levels and sports. In Study 1, we found athletes' attachment to their sports coach was significantly associated with athlete thriving and mediated by psychological needs satisfaction. Results of Study 2 found that athletes' secure attachment to their mother and/or father positively predicted the experience of thriving at the competition while athletes' insecure attachment did not predict thriving. Furthermore, athletes' attachment to both mother and father did not predict competition performance. Together, these two studies acknowledge the significant role that athletes' secure attachment relationships with parents and coaches play in facilitating thriving in athletes. These findings have significant implications for research and practice.

Effects of Fatigue and Grit on Club Sports Coaches

The objective of this research is to identify the level of general fatigue (FG), physical fatigue (FF) and concentration/motivation (C/M) in sports coaches. Two components of grit, consistency of interest (CI) and perseverance in effort (PE), are also assessed. The possible effects of sex, age, marital status, employment contract, work dedication and grit on FG, FF and C/M in sports coaches are examined. This cross-sectional study analyses 335 sports club coaches (21.2% women, 78.8% male) with a mean age of 29.88 (SD = 9.97) years, at a significance level of p < 0.05 for all analyses. Different aspects of fatigue were determined using the Spanish translation of the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory-20 (IMF-20). The Grit-S scale was used to measure the ability to persevere, have passion and commit. The results indicated that men scored higher in FF, C/M and PE, while women obtained higher values in FG and CI. Non-contract coaches had higher FG, CI and PE, while coaches with contracts scored higher on C/M and FF. In conclusion, coaches with higher CI had higher FG, and high levels of PE were associated with low FG levels.

Training and Profile of Special Olympics Portugal Coaches: Influence of Formal and Non-Formal Learning

Since coaches play an important role in the development of athletes, the process and mechanisms used by Special Olympics Portugal to develop coaches’ skills are worthy of research. In this context, the study aims to identify the training paths and profiles of the Special Olympics Portugal coach. It also aims to analyze the relationship between formal and non-formal learning in the profile and training of this type of coach. The research is descriptive and transversal regarding Special Olympics Portugal coaches, with the participation of 50 subjects. Two questionnaires were used, the Coaches’ Training Profile Questionnaire to determine the training routes, and the Coaches’ Orientation Questionnaire. The results show that the Special Olympics Portugal coaches have an academic background and a somewhat critical profile. It is imperative to build formal and non-formal learning contexts that focus on the theme of adapted sports, in order to allow the training of more qualified coaches, who are consequently more effective in their interventions with this type of athlete.

Toward Improved Triadic Functioning: Exploring the Interactions and Adaptations of Coaches, Parents and Athletes in Professional Academy Soccer Through the Adversity of COVID-19

On March 23rd, 2020, elite soccer academies in the UK closed in compliance with the government enforced lockdown intended to contain the COVID-19 pandemic. This forced parents, players, and coaches to reconsider how they interacted with, and supported, one another. The aims of the present study were (a) to explore the perceptions of players, parents, and coaches (i.e., the athletic triangle) regarding how they interacted and collaborated with one another during the COVID-19 pandemic to support wellbeing and performance, and; (b) to identify opportunities to enhance workings of those within the athletic triangle resulting from adaptions made following enforced lockdown. Using an interpretive description methodology, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five coaches, six players, and six parents from an English elite academy soccer club. Interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. Findings highlighted (a) the importance of support and the different means of communication used between members of the athletic triangle to facilitate such support; (b) the increased understanding of each member of the athletic triangle, leading to enhanced relationships, and; (c) how members of the athletic triangle adapted practice to facilitate relationship development during the pandemic and beyond. The identification of these considerations has implications for coach and parent education initiatives to allow for optimal functioning of the athletic triangle as elite academy soccer clubs return from lockdown. These include (a) the importance of continued communication between coach, athlete and parent; (b) increasing understanding of each individual within the athletic triangle; and (c) utilizing key interpersonal and technological skills learnt during the lockdown to further facilitate engagement within the athletic triangle.

Implementation of an injury prevention programme in community netball: An observational study

The Netball KNEE programme is a freely available, netball-specific injury prevention programme promoted to netball coaches. However, little is known about its implementation. This cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate the implementation of the Netball KNEE programme in community netball, and determine if implementation differed by player age. Four netball clubs participated. Training sessions (n = 67) were observed to determine if coaches used Netball KNEE programme activities as intended, modified or not at all during training, and whether feedback on technique was provided. No team performed the recommended number of activities without modification. On average, only 12%, 18% and 14% of the recommended number of activities were performed as intended in the 7-10, 11-13 and ≥14 years age groups, respectively. Warm-up/footwork activities (30%; 0-80%) were more frequently performed than strength (0%; 0-50%), balance/landing (0%; 0-50%), and agility (0%; 0-25%) activities (p < 0.001). Feedback was required in 65% of activities, but frequently not provided (56%). Netball KNEE programme implementation is low in community netball, particularly strength, balance/landing and agility activities. This finding, and lack of provision of feedback on technique, is concerning as improving movement patterns is a key aim of injury prevention programmes.

Coach Training Within the Covid-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Potential Pathways

In this article we aim to provide insights about the challenges stakeholders in Portugal and across the globe may face throughout the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic to reorganize coach training programs and suggest strategies to help coaches learn. Such reflection may help stakeholders across socio-cultural contexts consider the consequences of the changes made to coach training programs, the rationale for these decisions and the need to acknowledge existent challenges such as lower course completion rates, pressures to deliver the curriculum and dilemmatic decisions about course format. Furthermore, we also suggest pathways for stakeholders to develop strategies that consider contextual variables and contribute to meaningful learning. Based on the Portuguese context, several issues are discussed.

Training in Rhythmic Gymnastics During the Pandemic

The pandemic caused by the COVID 19 Virus creates an unprecedented situation of global confinement altering the development of competition and sports training at all levels of participation and in all sports, including rhythmic gymnastics (RG). To avoid possible effects of physical, technical and psychological detraining, coaches looked for home training alternatives. The objectives of the study were to know how rhythmic gymnastics training developed during the lockdown period (the conditions, type of training, performance monitoring means, and determinants of gymnasts’ participation) and to provide recommendations for a possible future lockdown. Three hundred and two RG coaches from twenty-six different countries throughout the five continents and four professional levels took part in the study: national team (28), international (26), national (172) and regional (75). The data collection tool was a questionnaire consisting of 39 closed questions structured in three dimensions: identification data of the coaches, training data during confinement and gymnast participation data. The independent variable was the gymnasts’ performance levels and the dependent variables organized in four categories: the technical media used to conduct and monitor the training sessions, the type of training done, the mechanisms for monitoring training performance and the aspects that determined participation. Most coaches kept their gymnasts training during confinement, although 76.5% confirm abandonment of any of their gymnasts. The main means used were real-time video conferencing, although at the lower practice levels the media stand out in deferred time. The contents of the training were mainly body technique, physical preparation and body difficulties. For performance monitoring, challenges, physical, and technical tests were predominant. The determinants for the development of training in the confinement vary depending on the level of the gymnasts, connectivity and electronic resources at the highest level, and the availability of spaces and social distancing at lower levels. For future lockdowns, it is necessary to review the content of the trainings, as well as the performance evaluation and the means necessary for it.

Does coaches' satisfaction with the team determine their interpersonal style? The mediating role of basic psychological needs

The purpose of the present study was to examine how coaches' satisfaction with the team could be related to their reported interpersonal style towards young athletes, and to analyze the mediating role of basic psychological needs (i.e. need satisfaction and need frustration) in this relationship. Participants were 352 coaches (16-67 years old; M_age = 32.88, SD = 11.14) from 48 clubs, who had between 1 and 52 years of training experience (M = 23.23, SD = 15.02). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was employed to test the relationships between variables. Results showed that satisfaction with the team is positively related to coaches' need satisfaction, and negatively to their need frustration. Need satisfaction positively predicted coaches' need-supportive style, and need frustration predicted their need-thwarting style. Regarding indirect effects, need satisfaction positively mediated the relationship between coaches' satisfaction with the team and their need-supportive style, and need frustration negatively mediated the relationship between coaches' satisfaction with the team and their need-thwarting style. These findings are a first step to highlight satisfaction with the team as an antecedent of coaches' self-reported need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviours towards athletes, and the mediating role of coaches' psychological needs (need satisfaction and need frustration) in this relationship.Highlights We examined the satisfaction of the team as antecedent of coaches' interpersonal style.We tested the mediating role of coaches' psychological needs in this relationship.Satisfaction with the team was positively related to need-supportive style.Satisfaction with the team was negatively associated with need-thwarting behaviors.Coaches' psychological needs mediated the relationship between team satisfaction and their interpersonal style.

Characteristics of Parents Who Feel a Lack of Communication with Coaches of Youth Sports

Communication between parents and their children's coaches is important for children's sports activities, but the relationship between parents and coaches is not well understood. It is possible that parents feel a lack of communication with coaches, which could be due to parents' experience with sports activities or the social environment of the team. This study aimed to elucidate the characteristics of parents who feel a lack of communication with their children's coaches of youth sports. A cross-sectional study was conducted on parents of young athletes (n = 6,641) and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to assess factors related to parents' feeling of a lack of communication with their children's coaches. Among the respondents, 29.4% of parents felt a lack of communication with their children's coaches. The factors related to the parents' feeling were a shorter duration of their children playing the present sport, an absence of experience playing the same sport as their children or playing in a team with high competition level, dissatisfaction with their children's attitude towards sports activities, and an awareness of verbal and/or physical abuse by the coaches and bullying by the teammates in their children's team. Parents' previous sports experience and awareness of interpersonal violence in their children's team were associated with their feeling of a lack of communication with coaches. Educating parents on the sport and their roles in youth sport is necessary to make appropriate mutual communication between parents and coaches, which could lead to better circumstances for young athletes.

A Qualitative Study

The current COVID-19 pandemic has affected the entire globe, including the world of high-performance sports. Accordingly, it has been widely assumed that the thereby caused postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games could have negative psychological impacts for aspirants, since they were halted abruptly in the pursuit of their Olympic endeavors and their daily lives drastically altered. Considering the sudden nature of the pandemic, few researchers, if any, have yet scrutinized the individual experience of Olympic aspirants. This qualitative study examines the subjective perceptions of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games postponement among Austrian Olympic athletes and coaches. To this end, 21 Austrian athletes (13 male, 8 female; mean age = 26.67 ± 4.93 years) and six male coaches were recruited through a criterion-based purposive sampling strategy. Five athletes had already qualified for the Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020 and 15 athletes were still in an ongoing qualification process. Data was collected by means of short written statements, elicited via open-format questions on an anonymous online survey platform. In order to infer meaning from the text, a qualitative content analysis with an interpretative focus was conducted inductively, which allowed for deriving alternative explanations of findings. The results support the notion that the Olympic postponement was experienced in myriad ways by affected participants. Three general themes comprised of several meaning units of different levels of abstraction were created from the text data. Many respondents experienced an immediate emotional reaction to the postponement characterized by confusion, disappointment and/or relief. Participants associated multiple consequences with the postponement, such as the prolongation of physical and psychological pressure, a lack of motivation, concerns about future performance, living and their occupational career, but also the opportunity for performance improvement and recovery. Respondents displayed various coping strategies, such as distancing themselves from sports, cognitive reframing, appealing for acceptance, and planning behavior. This study gleans first insights into the idiosyncratic experience of the Olympic Games 2020 postponement among Austrian aspirants. The findings could serve to assist sport psychologists in their applied practice by informing them about athletes' and coaches' needs in their Olympic preparation during the ongoing pandemic.

Global status of knowledge for prevention and emergency management of traumatic dental injuries in sports persons and coaches: A systematic review

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Sports-related dental injuries can cause pain, disfigurement, and broken teeth which may affect the athlete's well-being and psychological status. Such injuries may also lead to the fear of re-injury and other problems. Since a delay in adequate emergency treatment can have adverse effects, it is imperative that athletes and coaches have sufficient awareness of emergency treatment options. Hence, the aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the global status of knowledge among athletes and coaches regarding the prevention and emergency management of traumatic dental injuries.

METHODS

The protocol was designed using the PRISMA guidelines and registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020184956). A broad-based search using text words and MeSH terms was performed in established databases according to a predefined strategy without any distinction of language and year of publication. Studies without details of the questionnaire, knowledge score, validity, and reliability were excluded. Data extraction was performed and risk-of-bias assessment was done by means of the Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal tool.

RESULTS

Nine studies published between 2005 and 2020 were included for qualitative synthesis. They were primarily from Asia with none from North America and Australia. Most of them were cross-sectional, used convenience sampling, and were interview-based. Less than 10% of the participants in two studies had adequate knowledge of the immediate emergency management of tooth avulsion, while only 2.4% of basketball players and coaches knew that it was necessary to collect the avulsed tooth or broken tooth fragments. The overall level of knowledge was reported as poor or insufficient in all studies, with moderate or high risk-of-bias in six studies.

CONCLUSION

The knowledge regarding emergency management of TDI was found to be low globally. Along with the choice of the sport, there was a high level of variability in the study design and sampling characteristics.

Focused Issue on Workload and Injury to Share Practical Advice With Clinicians, Athletes, and Coaches

Anyone who works with athletes of any age and ability knows the best way for the athlete to avoid injury is to avoid playing sports. Anyone who works with athletes also knows that athletes want to play sports above almost all else. Understanding the relationship between how much sports activity an athlete participates in (ie, workload) and injury will help clinicians, athletes, and coaches know what to do to keep athletes healthy (injury free) and performing their best. In the October 2020 focused issue of JOSPT, we tackle workload and sports injury. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2020;50(10):536-537. doi:10.2519/jospt.2020.0108.

The 2020 Coronavirus Pandemic as a Change-Event in Sport Performers' Careers: Conceptual and Applied Practice Considerations

The Coronavirus experience (CE) presents a highly challenging period for sport performers (e.g., athletes, coaches, referees), with potential effects on their lives and career trajectories. In this article, we initially conceptualize the CE using the scheme of change for sport psychology practice (Samuel and Tenenbaum, 2011a). Within this framework, the CE is understood as a longitudinal, multifaceted, unpredicted, non-controlled change-event, with four distinct stages: (a) a pre-Coronavirus stage with unique career contextual conditions (i.e., stable engagement or a transitional period), (b) Coronavirus stage-A accompanied by instability and confusion, emotional response, and cognitive appraisal, (c) Coronavirus stage-B characterized by active coping or regression, and (d) Coronavirus stage-C; instability endures or decreases, depending on career trajectory. The CE presents sport performers with modifications in various dimensions, including physical and physiological, motor skills, psycho-social and self-identity, relationships, performance and achievement, motivation and aspirations, organizational-occupational, and micro– and macro–cultural issues. Sport performers can exhibit several emotional responses (i.e., positive, negative, neutral), and consequential coping endeavors. The development of the change process is underlined by key decisions, manifested in sport performers’ attempts to implement responsive change in these dimensions (e.g., adapt their diets, sleep routines, and exercise regimen). The second part of the article discusses applied practice considerations, presenting various techniques and methodologies which practitioners can apply while consulting from a change-based perspective. Ethical issues pertaining to the formation of effective therapeutic relationships during this period are also assessed. The conclusions offer future avenues for researchers and practitioners when attempting to evaluate and cope with this global phenomenon.

Promoting positive development: Coaches as trainers in sports-based resilience programs

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy of a train-the-trainer model for sporting coaches delivering a youth sports-based resilience program.

DESIGN

A quasi-experimental design was applied, with a pre-post comparison, utilising purposive sampling to take advantage of an existing naturally formed group.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

A total of 11 coaches and 86 athletes involved in a community rowing program.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Coaches responded to paper-based measures of resilience and knowledge/attitudes pre- and post-completion of a training workshop. Athletes responded to online measures of stress, efficacy and life satisfaction pre- and post-completion of a resilience program.

RESULTS

Following the completion of the train-the-trainer workshop, coaches reported significant increases in general knowledge and confidence in teaching resilience skills. Following the delivery of the resilience program, athlete self-efficacy and satisfaction with life scores were significantly higher, with significant reductions in reported stress for athletes trained by the varsity-level coaches.

CONCLUSION

There is support for investing in a train-the-trainer model for the delivery of a resilience skills program within a sports context. Caution is given to investing in the training and support of the coaches, particularly coaches with less coaching experience. These results are consistent with previous research and demonstrate support for coach-led resilience programs being effective in community settings, with implications for rural and remote locations.

Assessment of the Understanding of Concussion and Care Protocols Amongst Student Athletes and Coaches: A Qualitative Study

Background: Pediatric sports-induced concussions have become a topic of interest and concern in the scientific community. Already, the literature is rich with studies that have identified numerous short-term and long-term consequences of childhood sports-induced concussions. However, there are very few studies that have identified how well the students who participate in concussion-prone sports and their coaches understand these consequences and how they can be avoided. This study aimed to explore student athletes' and their coaches' understanding of the concept of concussion and how it is managed both immediately after the injury occurs and during long-term recovery. Methods: This study utilized a qualitative design. The study was conducted in local and international schools in Singapore. Participants were recruited through purposive sampling. 42 student athletes aged 13-18 who participated in rugby, softball, football, cricket, volleyball, and/or water polo were recruited. Fourteen coaches who coached these same sports were also recruited. Four focus groups and three semi-structured interviews were conducted. Data collected were then analyzed with thematic analysis. Risk factors were assessed through four domains of focus: understanding of what concussion is; attitudes toward concussion; existing protocols for treating concussion; and return-to-school and return-to-play protocols. As this is a qualitative study, outcome measures were not identified. Results: Analysis of the data revealed four themes for each group. For student-athletes these included: limited understanding of concussion; non-reporting of injuries; variable supervision of athletes; and a lack of established return-to-school and return-to-play guidelines. For coaches these included: variable understanding of concussion; insufficient formal training in concussion management; limited medical support in managing injuries; and lack of understanding and adherence to return-to-school and return-to-play protocols. Conclusions: Of the themes identified, the most pressing was a lack of clearly defined return-to-play guidelines. This is an urgent issue that needs to be jointly addressed by healthcare professionals and schools with evidence-based guidelines.

Athletes' Perception of Leadership According to Their Perceptions of Goal Achievement and Sport Results

In this study, we investigated whether athletes’ perceptions of coaches’ leadership differ according to their perceptions of individual and team goal achievement and their sport performance. We collected data at the beginning and end of the sport season from 180 soccer players (aged 16–18 years). We evaluated three leadership areas (transformational, transactional, and decision-making) and the participants’ perceptions of individual and team performance during the sport season. Our results showed that (a) athletes with perceptions of higher individual goal achievement evaluated their coaches more positively, (b) athletes with perceptions of higher team goal achievement started the sport season with a less positive evaluation of their coaches but ended the season with a more positive coach evaluation, and (c) athletes with higher sport performance evaluated their coaches less positively in two domains of transformational leadership but ended the season by attributing less negative feedback and passive management to their coaches. In conclusion, these athletes’ evaluations of coaches’ leadership behaviors differed according to their perceptions of goal achievement and their own sport performance.

Randomized Evaluation of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Concussion Education Fact Sheet for Coaches

Background. Concussion education for coaches is being increasingly recommended by leading sports organizations, yet the effectiveness of available materials has not often been assessed. This study evaluated the impact of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's (2017) publication: "Concussion safety: What coaches need to know" (the "NCAA Fact Sheet for Coaches") on participants' concussion knowledge and safety supportive intentions. Method. NCAA head coaches (n = 779) were randomized to view the NCAA Fact Sheet for Coaches either before (intervention condition) or after (control condition) responding to questions assessing concussion knowledge and intentions to engage in three behaviors (talk to team about concussion safety; allow symptomatic athlete to continue play; encourage medical staff to return athlete as quickly as possible). Results. Knowledge scores were significantly higher among coaches in the intervention condition as compared to the control condition, largely driven by differences in knowledge about the consequences of continued play postconcussion (injury, reaction time, possible death). Fewer coaches in the intervention condition expected that they would allow an athlete with a suspected concussion continue to participate in a game or practice or that they would encourage medical staff to return athletes to play as quickly as possible. Discussion. The present study provides evidence that educational content, like that contained in the NCAA Fact Sheet for Coaches, may have a positive short-term impact on concussion knowledge and behavioral intentions of coaches. In light of these findings, sports organizations should consider providing similar educational materials to coaches, evaluating whether the information is impactful in their population.

Gaining or Losing Team Ball Possession: The Dynamics of Momentum Perception and Strategic Choice in Football Coaches

Grounded in the dynamical systems approach, the present research examined the influence of team ball possession (TBP) in soccer on coaches’ perceived psychological momentum (PM) and strategic choice (i.e., game-based “stick” vs. “switch” choices) during a simulated match. Experienced soccer coaches imagined being the coach of the team involved in a highly important match that was displayed on a wall in a lecture hall. The match scenario was manipulated so that the coach was exposed to either a positive momentum sequence (i.e., ascending scenario of TBP) or a negative momentum sequence (i.e., descending scenario of TBP). Results revealed that positive (or negative) momentum sequence increased (or decreased) perceived PM and increased stick (or switch) choices. Perceived PM globally evolved linearly, while strategic choice displayed a dynamical pattern of “critical boundary” (thus showing a nonlinear change). Nonetheless, both variables displayed asymmetrical effects, in the sense that: (1) the strength of positive PM appeared to be easier to decrease than to increase; and (2) the greater the positive PM (or the negative PM), the lesser (or the greater) the coaches’ tendency to make a change in the organization of their teams. This investigation evidences that TBP can powerfully influence coaches’ perceptions and strategic decisions, and that coaches are more likely to be sensitive to negative events than to equivalent positive events.

Development of Perfectionism in Junior Athletes: A Three-Sample Study of Coach and Parental Pressure

Perfectionism predicts cognitions, emotions, and behaviors in sport. Nonetheless, our understanding of the factors that influence its development is limited. The authors sought to address this issue by examining the role of coach and parental pressure in the development of perfectionism in sport. Using 3 samples of junior athletes (16-19 years; cross-sectional n = 212, 3-month longitudinal n = 101, and 6-month longitudinal n = 110), the authors examined relations between coach pressure to be perfect, parental pressure to be perfect, perfectionistic strivings, and perfectionistic concerns. Mini meta-analysis of the combined cross-sectional data (N = 423) showed that both coach pressure and parental pressure were positively correlated with perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. In contrast, longitudinal analyses showed that only coach pressure predicted increased perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns over time. Overall, our findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches may play a more important role in the development of junior athletes' perfectionism than parents.