p53 suppresses lipid droplet-fueled tumorigenesis through phosphatidylcholine

Choline deficiency causes disorders including hepatic abnormalities and is associated with an increased risk of multiple types of cancer. Here, by choline-free diet-associated RNA-Seq analyses, we found that the tumor suppressor p53 drives the Kennedy pathway via PCYT1B to control the growth of lipid droplets (LDs) and their fueling role in tumorigenesis. Mechanistically, through upregulation of PCYT1B, p53 channeled depleted choline stores to phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis during choline starvation, thus preventing LD coalescence. Cells lacking p53 failed to complete this response to choline depletion, leading to hepatic steatosis and tumorigenesis, and these effects could be reversed by enforcement of PCYT1B expression or restoration of PC abundance. Furthermore, loss of p53 or defects in the Kennedy pathway increased surface localization of hormone-sensitive lipase on LDs to release specific fatty acids that fueled tumor cells in vivo and in vitro. Thus, p53 loss leads to dysregulation of choline metabolism and LD growth and couples perturbed LD homeostasis to tumorigenesis.

Sp1 mediated the inhibitory effect of glutamate on pulmonary surfactant synthesis

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown that the release of endogenous glutamate (Glu) participates in lung injury by activating N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), but the mechanism is still unclear. This study was to investigate the effects and related mechanisms of Glu on the lipid synthesis of pulmonary surfactant (PS) in isolated rat lung tissues.

METHODS

The cultured lung tissues of adult SD rats were treated with Glu. The amount of [3H]-choline incorporation into phosphatidylcholine (PC) was detected. RT-PCR and Western blot were used to detect the changes of mRNA and protein expression of cytidine triphosphate: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha (CCTα), a key regulatory enzyme in PC biosynthesis. Western blot was used to detect the expression of NMDAR1, which is a functional subunit of NMDAR. Specific protein 1 (Sp1) expression plasmids were used. After transfected with Sp1 expression plasmids, the mRNA and protein levels of CCTα were detected by RT-PCR and Western blot in A549 cells. After treated with NMDA and MK-801, the mRNA and protein levels of Sp1 were detected by RT-PCR and Western blot in A549 cells.

RESULTS

Glu decreased the incorporation of [3H]-choline into PC in a concentration- and time- dependent manner. Glu treatment significantly reduced the mRNA and protein levels of CCTα in lungs. Glu treatment up-regulated NMDAR1 protein expression, and the NMDAR blocker MK-801 could partially reverse the reduction of [3H]-choline incorporation induced by Glu (10-4 mol/L) in lungs. After transfected with Sp1 plasmid for 30 h, the mRNA and protein expression levels of CCTα were increased and the protein expression of Sp1 was also up-regulated. After A549 cells were treated with NMDA, the level of Sp1 mRNA did not change significantly, but the expression of nucleus protein in Sp1 was significantly decreased, while the expression of cytoplasmic protein was significantly increased. However, MK-801could reverse these changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Glu reduced the biosynthesis of the main lipid PC in PS and inhibited CCTα expression by activating NMDAR, which were mediated by the inhibition of the nuclear translocation of Sp1 and the promoter activity of CCTα. In conclusion, NMDAR-mediated Glu toxicity leading to impaired PS synthesis may be a potential pathogenesis of lung injury.

Identification and characterization of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase CpCCT1 in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum

Phosphatidylcholine is a major phospholipid which is shown to be involved in stress adaptation. Phosphatidylcholine increased during dehydration in Craterostigma plantagineum, and therefore we characterized CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CpCCT1), a key regulatory enzyme for phosphatidylcholine synthesis in plants. The CpCCT1 gene from the resurrection plant C. plantagineum was cloned and the amino acid sequence was compared with homologs from other species including yeast and rat. CCT proteins have conserved catalytic and membrane-binding domains while the N-terminal and C-terminal domains have diverged. The tissue specific expression analysis indicated that CpCCT1 is expressed in all tested tissues and it is induced by dehydration and in response to 0.5 M NaCl solutions. In plants exposed to low temperature in the dark, the CpCCT1 transcript increased after 4 h at 4 °C. CpCCT1 expression also increased during mannitol and sorbitol treatments in a concentration dependent manner. Phytohormones such as abscisic acid and indole-3-acetic acid also trigged transcript accumulation. Comparisons of transcript and protein accumulations for different treatments (except for dehydration) suggest transcriptional and translational control mechanisms. Analysis of promoter activity and polysome occupancy suggest that CpCCT1 gene expression is mainly under translational regulation during dehydration.

Innate immune signaling in Drosophila shifts anabolic lipid metabolism from triglyceride storage to phospholipid synthesis to support immune function

During infection, cellular resources are allocated toward the metabolically-demanding processes of synthesizing and secreting effector proteins that neutralize and kill invading pathogens. In Drosophila, these effectors are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that are produced in the fat body, an organ that also serves as a major lipid storage depot. Here we asked how activation of Toll signaling in the larval fat body perturbs lipid homeostasis to understand how cells meet the metabolic demands of the immune response. We find that genetic or physiological activation of fat body Toll signaling leads to a tissue-autonomous reduction in triglyceride storage that is paralleled by decreased transcript levels of the DGAT homolog midway, which carries out the final step of triglyceride synthesis. In contrast, Kennedy pathway enzymes that synthesize membrane phospholipids are induced. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed elevated levels of major phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine species in fat bodies with active Toll signaling. The ER stress mediator Xbp1 contributed to the Toll-dependent induction of Kennedy pathway enzymes, which was blunted by deleting AMP genes, thereby reducing secretory demand elicited by Toll activation. Consistent with ER stress induction, ER volume is expanded in fat body cells with active Toll signaling, as determined by transmission electron microscopy. A major functional consequence of reduced Kennedy pathway induction is an impaired immune response to bacterial infection. Our results establish that Toll signaling induces a shift in anabolic lipid metabolism to favor phospholipid synthesis and ER expansion that may serve the immediate demand for AMP synthesis and secretion but with the long-term consequence of insufficient nutrient storage.

Identification of a nuclear localization signal in the Plasmodium falciparum CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase enzyme

The phospholipid biosynthesis of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum is a key process for its survival and its inhibition is a validated antimalarial therapeutic approach. The second and rate-limiting step of the de novo phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis is catalysed by CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (PfCCT), which has a key regulatory function within the pathway. Here, we investigate the functional impact of the key structural differences and their respective role in the structurally unique pseudo-heterodimer PfCCT protein in a heterologous cellular context using the thermosensitive CCT-mutant CHO-MT58 cell line. We found that a Plasmodium-specific lysine-rich insertion within the catalytic domain of PfCCT acts as a nuclear localization signal and its deletion decreases the nuclear propensity of the protein in the model cell line. We further showed that the putative membrane-binding domain also affected the nuclear localization of the protein. Moreover, activation of phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis by phospholipase C treatment induces the partial nuclear-to-cytoplasmic translocation of PfCCT. We additionally investigated the cellular function of several PfCCT truncated constructs in a CHO-MT58 based rescue assay. In absence of the endogenous CCT activity we observed that truncated constructs lacking the lysine-rich insertion, or the membrane-binding domain provided similar cell survival ratio as the full length PfCCT protein.

Long-term autophagy is sustained by activation of CCTβ3 on lipid droplets

Macroautophagy initiates by formation of isolation membranes, but the source of phospholipids for the membrane biogenesis remains elusive. Here, we show that autophagic membranes incorporate newly synthesized phosphatidylcholine, and that CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase β3 (CCTβ3), an isoform of the rate-limiting enzyme in the Kennedy pathway, plays an essential role. In starved mouse embryo fibroblasts, CCTβ3 is initially recruited to autophagic membranes, but upon prolonged starvation, it concentrates on lipid droplets that are generated from autophagic degradation products. Omegasomes and isolation membranes emanate from around those lipid droplets. Autophagy in prolonged starvation is suppressed by knockdown of CCTβ3 and is enhanced by its overexpression. This CCTβ3-dependent mechanism is also present in U2OS, an osteosarcoma cell line, and autophagy and cell survival in starvation are decreased by CCTβ3 depletion. The results demonstrate that phosphatidylcholine synthesis through CCTβ3 activation on lipid droplets is crucial for sustaining autophagy and long-term cell survival.

Membrane Lipids Assist Catalysis by CTP: Phosphocholine Cytidylyltransferase

While most of the articles in this issue review the workings of integral membrane enzymes, in this review, we describe the catalytic mechanism of an enzyme that contains a soluble catalytic domain but appears to catalyze its reaction on the membrane surface, anchored and assisted by a separate regulatory amphipathic helical domain and inter-domain linker. Membrane partitioning of CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT), a key regulatory enzyme of phosphatidylcholine metabolism, is regulated chiefly by changes in membrane phospholipid composition, and boosts the enzyme's catalytic efficiency >200-fold. Catalytic enhancement by membrane binding involves the displacement of an auto-inhibitory helix from the active site entrance-way and promotion of a new conformational ensemble for the inter-domain, allosteric linker that has an active role in the catalytic cycle. We describe the evidence for close contact between membrane lipid, a compact allosteric linker, and the CCT active site, and discuss potential ways that this interaction enhances catalysis.

De novo phosphatidylcholine synthesis is required for autophagosome membrane formation and maintenance during autophagy

Macroautophagy/autophagy can enable cancer cells to withstand cellular stress and maintain bioenergetic homeostasis by sequestering cellular components into newly formed double-membrane vesicles destined for lysosomal degradation, potentially affecting the efficacy of anti-cancer treatments. Using 13C-labeled choline and 13C-magnetic resonance spectroscopy and western blotting, we show increased de novo choline phospholipid (ChoPL) production and activation of PCYT1A (phosphate cytidylyltransferase 1, choline, alpha), the rate-limiting enzyme of phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) synthesis, during autophagy. We also discovered that the loss of PCYT1A activity results in compromised autophagosome formation and maintenance in autophagic cells. Direct tracing of ChoPLs with fluorescence and immunogold labeling imaging revealed the incorporation of newly synthesized ChoPLs into autophagosomal membranes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria during anticancer drug-induced autophagy. Significant increase in the colocalization of fluorescence signals from the newly synthesized ChoPLs and mCherry-MAP1LC3/LC3 (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3) was also found on autophagosomes accumulating in cells treated with autophagy-modulating compounds. Interestingly, cells undergoing active autophagy had an altered ChoPL profile, with longer and more unsaturated fatty acid/alcohol chains detected. Our data suggest that de novo synthesis may be required to increase autophagosomal ChoPL content and alter its composition, together with replacing phospholipids consumed from other organelles during autophagosome formation and turnover. This addiction to de novo ChoPL synthesis and the critical role of PCYT1A may lead to development of agents targeting autophagy-induced drug resistance. In addition, fluorescence imaging of choline phospholipids could provide a useful way to visualize autophagosomes in cells and tissues.

ABBREVIATIONS

AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase; BAX: BCL2 associated X, apoptosis regulator; BECN1: beclin 1; ChoPL: choline phospholipid; CHKA: choline kinase alpha; CHPT1: choline phosphotransferase 1; CTCF: corrected total cell fluorescence; CTP: cytidine-5'-triphosphate; DCA: dichloroacetate; DMEM: dulbeccos modified Eagles medium; DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide; EDTA: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; GDPD5: glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase domain containing 5; GFP: green fluorescent protein; GPC: glycerophosphorylcholine; HBSS: hanks balances salt solution; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; LPCAT1: lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1; LysoPtdCho: lysophosphatidylcholine; MRS: magnetic resonance spectroscopy; MTORC1: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase complex 1; PCho: phosphocholine; PCYT: choline phosphate cytidylyltransferase; PLA2: phospholipase A2; PLB: phospholipase B; PLC: phospholipase C; PLD: phospholipase D; PCYT1A: phosphate cytidylyltransferase 1, choline, alpha; PI3K: phosphoinositide-3-kinase; pMAFs: pancreatic mouse adult fibroblasts; PNPLA6: patatin like phospholipase domain containing 6; Pro-Cho: propargylcholine; Pro-ChoPLs: propargylcholine phospholipids; PtdCho: phosphatidylcholine; PtdEth: phosphatidylethanolamine; PtdIns3P: phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate; RPS6: ribosomal protein S6; SCD: stearoyl-CoA desaturase; SEM: standard error of the mean; SM: sphingomyelin; SMPD1/SMase: sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1, acid lysosomal; SGMS: sphingomyelin synthase; WT: wild-type.

Arabidopsis CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase 1 is phosphorylated and inhibited by sucrose nonfermenting 1-related protein kinase 1 (SnRK1)

De novo phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis via the Kennedy pathway involves highly endergonic biochemical reactions that must be fine-tuned with energy homeostasis. Previous studies have shown that CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is an important regulatory enzyme in this pathway and that its activity can be controlled at both transcriptional and posttranslational levels. Here we identified an important additional mechanism regulating plant CCT1 activity. Comparative analysis revealed that Arabidopsis CCT1 (AtCCT1) contains catalytic and membrane-binding domains that are homologous to those of rat CCT1. In contrast, the C-terminal phosphorylation domain important for stringent regulation of rat CCT1 was apparently missing in AtCCT1. Instead, we found that AtCCT1 contains a putative consensus site (Ser-187) for modification by sucrose nonfermenting 1-related protein kinase 1 (SnRK1 or KIN10/SnRK1.1), involved in energy homeostasis. Phos-tag SDS-PAGE coupled with MS analysis disclosed that SnRK1 indeed phosphorylates AtCCT1 at Ser-187, and we found that AtCCT1 phosphorylation substantially reduces its activity by as much as 70%. An S187A variant exhibited decreased activity, indicating the importance of Ser-187 in catalysis, and this variant was less susceptible to SnRK1-mediated inhibition. Protein truncation and liposome binding studies indicated that SnRK1-mediated AtCCT1 phosphorylation directly affects the catalytic domain rather than interfering with phosphatidate-mediated AtCCT1 activation. Overexpression of the AtCCT1 catalytic domain in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves increased PC content, and SnRK1 co-expression reduced this effect. Taken together, our results suggest that SnRK1 mediates the phosphorylation and concomitant inhibition of AtCCT1, revealing an additional mode of regulation for this key enzyme in plant PC biosynthesis.

Accelerated phosphatidylcholine turnover in macrophages promotes adipose tissue inflammation in obesity

White adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation contributes to the development of insulin resistance in obesity. While the role of adipose tissue macrophage (ATM) pro-inflammatory signalling in the development of insulin resistance has been established, it is less clear how WAT inflammation is initiated. Here, we show that ATMs isolated from obese mice and humans exhibit markers of increased rate of de novo phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis. Macrophage-specific knockout of phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase A (CCTα), the rate-limiting enzyme of de novo PC biosynthesis pathway, alleviated obesity-induced WAT inflammation and insulin resistance. Mechanistically, CCTα-deficient macrophages showed reduced ER stress and inflammation in response to palmitate. Surprisingly, this was not due to lower exogenous palmitate incorporation into cellular PCs. Instead, CCTα-null macrophages had lower membrane PC turnover, leading to elevated membrane polyunsaturated fatty acid levels that negated the pro-inflammatory effects of palmitate. Our results reveal a causal link between obesity-associated increase in de novo PC synthesis, accelerated PC turnover and pro-inflammatory activation of ATMs.

PCYT1A Regulates Phosphatidylcholine Homeostasis from the Inner Nuclear Membrane in Response to Membrane Stored Curvature Elastic Stress

Cell and organelle membranes consist of a complex mixture of phospholipids (PLs) that determine their size, shape, and function. Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic membranes, yet how cells sense and regulate its levels in vivo remains unclear. Here we show that PCYT1A, the rate-limiting enzyme of PC synthesis, is intranuclear and re-locates to the nuclear membrane in response to the need for membrane PL synthesis in yeast, fly, and mammalian cells. By aligning imaging with lipidomic analysis and data-driven modeling, we demonstrate that yeast PCYT1A membrane association correlates with membrane stored curvature elastic stress estimates. Furthermore, this process occurs inside the nucleus, although nuclear localization signal mutants can compensate for the loss of endogenous PCYT1A in yeast and in fly photoreceptors. These data suggest an ancient mechanism by which nucleoplasmic PCYT1A senses surface PL packing defects on the inner nuclear membrane to control PC homeostasis.

Protein Crowding Is a Determinant of Lipid Droplet Protein Composition

Lipid droplets (LDs) are lipid storage organelles that grow or shrink, depending on the availability of metabolic energy. Proteins recruited to LDs mediate many metabolic functions, including phosphatidylcholine and triglyceride synthesis. How the LD protein composition is tuned to the supply and demand for lipids remains unclear. We show that LDs, in contrast to other organelles, have limited capacity for protein binding. Consequently, macromolecular crowding plays a major role in determining LD protein composition. During lipolysis, when LDs and their surfaces shrink, some, but not all, proteins become displaced. In vitro studies show that macromolecular crowding, rather than changes in monolayer lipid composition, causes proteins to fall off the LD surface. As predicted by a crowding model, proteins compete for binding to the surfaces of LDs. Moreover, the LD binding affinity determines protein localization during lipolysis. Our findings identify protein crowding as an important principle in determining LD protein composition.

Regulation of endomembrane biogenesis in arabidopsis by phospatidic acid hydrolase

Coordination of membrane lipid biosynthesis is important for cell function during plant growth and development. Here we summarize our recent work on PHOSPHATIDIC ACID PHOSPHOHYDROLASE (PAH) which suggests that this enzyme is a key regulator of phosphaticylcholine (PC) biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana. Disruption of PAH activity elevates phosphatidic acid (PA) levels and stimulates PC biosynthesis and biogenesis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Furthermore, the activity of PHOSPHOCHOLINE CYTIDYLYLTRANSFERASE (CCT), which is the key enzyme controlling the rate of PC biosynthesis, is directly stimulated by PA and expression of a constitutively active version of CCT replicates the effects of PAH disruption. Hence PAH activity can control the abundance of PA, which in turn can modulate CCT activity to govern the rate of PC biosynthesis. Crucially it is not yet clear how PAH activity is regulated in Arabidopsis but there is evidence that PAH1 and PAH2 are both phosphorylated and further work will be required to investigate whether this is functionally significant.

Molecular Mechanism for the Thermo-Sensitive Phenotype of CHO-MT58 Cell Line Harbouring a Mutant CTP:Phosphocholine Cytidylyltransferase

Control and elimination of malaria still represents a major public health challenge. Emerging parasite resistance to current therapies urges development of antimalarials with novel mechanism of action. Phospholipid biosynthesis of the Plasmodium parasite has been validated as promising candidate antimalarial target. The most prevalent de novo pathway for synthesis of phosphatidylcholine is the Kennedy pathway. Its regulatory and often also rate limiting step is catalyzed by CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT). The CHO-MT58 cell line expresses a mutant variant of CCT, and displays a thermo-sensitive phenotype. At non-permissive temperature (40°C), the endogenous CCT activity decreases dramatically, blocking membrane synthesis and ultimately leading to apoptosis. In the present study we investigated the impact of the analogous mutation in a catalytic domain construct of Plasmodium falciparum CCT in order to explore the underlying molecular mechanism that explains this phenotype. We used temperature dependent enzyme activity measurements and modeling to investigate the functionality of the mutant enzyme. Furthermore, MS measurements were performed to determine the oligomerization state of the protein, and MD simulations to assess the inter-subunit interactions in the dimer. Our results demonstrate that the R681H mutation does not directly influence enzyme catalytic activity. Instead, it provokes increased heat-sensitivity by destabilizing the CCT dimer. This can possibly explain the significance of the PfCCT pseudoheterodimer organization in ensuring proper enzymatic function. This also provide an explanation for the observed thermo-sensitive phenotype of CHO-MT58 cell line.

PHOSPHATIDIC ACID PHOSPHOHYDROLASE Regulates Phosphatidylcholine Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis by Phosphatidic Acid-Mediated Activation of CTP:PHOSPHOCHOLINE CYTIDYLYLTRANSFERASE Activity

Regulation of membrane lipid biosynthesis is critical for cell function. We previously reported that disruption of PHOSPHATIDIC ACID PHOSPHOHYDROLASE1 (PAH1) and PAH2 stimulates net phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis and proliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we show that this response is caused specifically by a reduction in the catalytic activity of the protein and positively correlates with an accumulation of its substrate, phosphatidic acid (PA). The accumulation of PC in pah1 pah2 is suppressed by disruption of CTP:PHOSPHOCHOLINE CYTIDYLYLTRANSFERASE1 (CCT1), which encodes a key enzyme in the nucleotide pathway for PC biosynthesis. The activity of recombinant CCT1 is stimulated by lipid vesicles containing PA. Truncation of CCT1, to remove the predicted C-terminal amphipathic lipid binding domain, produced a constitutively active enzyme. Overexpression of native CCT1 in Arabidopsis has no significant effect on PC biosynthesis or ER morphology, but overexpression of the truncated constitutively active version largely replicates the pah1 pah2 phenotype. Our data establish that membrane homeostasis is regulated by lipid composition in Arabidopsis and reveal a mechanism through which the abundance of PA, mediated by PAH activity, modulates CCT activity to govern PC content.

Metabolic consequences of treatment with AKT inhibitor perifosine in breast cancer cells

Activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway is associated with the development of numerous human cancers. As a result, many emerging therapies target this pathway. Previous studies have shown that targeting the PI3K/Akt pathway at the level of PI3K is associated with a drop in phosphocholine (PCho) and a reduction in hyperpolarized lactate production. However, the consequences of targeting downstream of PI3K at the level of Akt have not been investigated. Perifosine is an anticancer alkylphospholipid used in clinical trials. It acts by inhibiting phosphorylation of Akt and has been shown to inhibit CTP-phosphocholine cytidyltransferase (CT). The goal of this study was to identify the MRS-detectable metabolic consequences of treatment with perifosine in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. We found that perifosine treatment led to a 51 ± 5% drop in PCho from 30 ± 5 to 15 ± 1 fmol/cell and a comparable drop in de novo synthesized PCho. This was associated with a drop in choline kinase (ChoK) activity and ChoKα expression. CT inhibition could not be ruled out but likely did not contribute to the change in PCho. We also found that intracellular lactate levels decreased from 2.7 ± 0.5 to 1.5 ± 0.3 fmol/cell and extracellular lactate levels dropped by a similar extent. These findings were consistent with a drop in lactate dehydrogenase expression and associated with a drop in activity of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α. The drops in PCho and lactate production following perifosine treatment are therefore mediated downstream of Akt by the drop in HIF-1α, which serves as the transcription factor for both ChoK and lactate dehydrogenase. The metabolic changes were confirmed in a second breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231. Taken together, these findings indicate that PCho and lactate can serve as noninvasive metabolic biomarkers for monitoring the effects of inhibitors that target the PI3K/Akt pathway, independent of the step that leads to inhibition of HIF-1α.

Preclinical study of treatment response in HCT-116 cells and xenografts with (1) H-decoupled (31) P MRS

The topoisomerase I inhibitor, irinotecan, and its active metabolite SN-38 have been shown to induce G(2) /M cell cycle arrest without significant cell death in human colon carcinoma cells (HCT-116). Subsequent treatment of these G(2) /M-arrested cells with the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, flavopiridol, induced these cells to undergo apoptosis. The goal of this study was to develop a noninvasive metabolic biomarker for early tumor response and target inhibition of irinotecan followed by flavopiridol treatment in a longitudinal study. A total of eleven mice bearing HCT-116 xenografts were separated into two cohorts where one cohort was administered saline and the other treated with a sequential course of irinotecan followed by flavopiridol. Each mouse xenograft was longitudinally monitored with proton ((1) H)-decoupled phosphorus ((31) P) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) before and after treatment. A statistically significant decrease in phosphocholine (p = 0.0004) and inorganic phosphate (p = 0.0103) levels were observed in HCT-116 xenografts following treatment, which were evidenced within twenty-four hours of treatment completion. Also, a significant growth delay was found in treated xenografts. To discern the underlying mechanism for the treatment response of the xenografts, in vitro HCT-116 cell cultures were investigated with enzymatic assays, cell cycle analysis, and apoptotic assays. Flavopiridol had a direct effect on choline kinase as measured by a 67% reduction in the phosphorylation of choline to phosphocholine. Cells treated with SN-38 alone underwent 83 ± 5% G(2) /M cell cycle arrest compared to untreated cells. In cells, flavopiridol alone induced 5 ± 1% apoptosis while the sequential treatment (SN-38 then flavopiridol) resulted in 39 ± 10% apoptosis. In vivo (1) H-decoupled (31) P MRS indirectly measures choline kinase activity. The decrease in phosphocholine may be a potential indicator of early tumor response to the sequential treatment of irinotecan followed by flavopiridol in noninvasive and/or longitudinal studies.

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase α (CCTα) and lamins alter nuclear membrane structure without affecting phosphatidylcholine synthesis

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase α (CCTα) is a nuclear enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the CDP-choline pathway for phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis. Lipid activation of CCTα results in its translocation to the nuclear envelope and expansion of an intranuclear membrane network termed the nucleoplasmic reticulum (NR) by a mechanism involving membrane deformation. Nuclear lamins are also required for stability and proliferation of the NR, but whether this unique structure, or the nuclear lamina in general, is required for PC synthesis is not known. To examine this relationship, the nuclear lamina was depleted by RNAi or disrupted by expression of the Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) mutant lamin A (progerin), and the effect on CCTα and choline metabolism was analyzed. siRNA-mediated silencing of lamin A/C or lamin B1 in CHO cells to diminish the NR had no effect on PC synthesis, while double knockdown non-specifically inhibited the pathway. Confirming this minor role in PC synthesis, only 10% of transiently overexpressed choline/ethanolamine phosphotransferase was detected in the NR. In CHO cells, CCTα was nucleoplasmic and co-localized with GFP-progerin in nuclear folds and invaginations; however, HGPS fibroblasts displayed an abnormal distribution of CCTα in the cytoplasm and nuclear envelope that was accompanied by a 2-fold reduction in PC synthesis. In spite of its altered localization, choline-labeling experiments showed that CCT activity was unaffected, and inhibition of PC synthesis was traced to reduced activity of a hemicholinium-sensitive choline transporter. We conclude that CCTα and lamins specifically cooperate to form the NR, but the overall structure of the nuclear envelope has a minimal impact on CCT activity and PC synthesis.

[Identification of LicC activity in pneumococcal infection]

AIM

To clone and express licC and its truncated form genes (25 amino acids from 3'-terminus were deleted and named deltaLicC) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, analyze the enzymatic activities of the proteins.

METHODS

The recombinant plasmid pQE80-licC, pQE80-deltalicC were constructed, and the target proteins were expressed in E. coli BL21 under isopropy-beta-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) induction. The proteins' activities were determined using bioluminescence test based on firefly luciferase assay system.

RESULTS

The prokaryotic expression vector pQE80-licC, pQE80-deltalicC were successfully constructed and identified.The soluble proteins were obtained through inducing expression in E. coli BL21. It was showed that the activity of deltaLicC was markedly lower than that of LicC (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The homemade bioluminescence assay method can miner the activity of LicC reliably and accurately. The important role of 25 amino acids from 3'-terminus for the activity of LicC was confirmed, and it was suggested that suppressing of LicC maybe was a useful method for treatment S.pneumococcal infection, especially drug resistant strain.

Crystal structure of a mammalian CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase catalytic domain reveals novel active site residues within a highly conserved nucleotidyltransferase fold

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is the key regulatory enzyme in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic cell membranes. The CCT-catalyzed transfer of a cytidylyl group from CTP to phosphocholine to form CDP-choline is regulated by a membrane lipid-dependent mechanism imparted by its C-terminal membrane binding domain. We present the first analysis of a crystal structure of a eukaryotic CCT. A deletion construct of rat CCTalpha spanning residues 1-236 (CCT236) lacks the regulatory domain and as a result displays constitutive activity. The 2.2-A structure reveals a CCT236 homodimer in complex with the reaction product, CDP-choline. Each chain is composed of a complete catalytic domain with an intimately associated N-terminal extension, which together with the catalytic domain contributes to the dimer interface. Although the CCT236 structure reveals elements involved in binding cytidine that are conserved with other members of the cytidylyltransferase superfamily, it also features nonconserved active site residues, His-168 and Tyr-173, that make key interactions with the beta-phosphate of CDP-choline. Mutagenesis and kinetic analyses confirmed their role in phosphocholine binding and catalysis. These results demonstrate structural and mechanistic differences in a broadly conserved protein fold across the cytidylyltransferase family. Comparison of the CCT236 structure with those of other nucleotidyltransferases provides evidence for substrate-induced active site loop movements and a disorder-to-order transition of a loop element in the catalytic mechanism.

Identification of hydrophobic amino acids required for lipid activation of C. elegans CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT), critical for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, is activated by translocation to the membrane surface. The lipid activation region of Caenorhabditis elegans CCT is between residues 246 and 266 of the 347 amino acid polypeptide, a region proposed to form an amphipathic alpha helix. When leucine 246, tryptophan 249, isoleucine 256, isoleucine 257, or phenylalanine 260, on the hydrophobic face of the helix, were changed individually to serine low activity was observed in the absence of lipid vesicles, similar to wild-type CCT, while lipid stimulated activity was reduced compared to wild-type CCT. Mutational analysis of phenylalanine 260 implicated this residue as a contributor to auto-inhibition of CCT while mutation of L246, W249, I256, and I257 simultaneously to serine resulted in significantly higher activity in the absence of lipid vesicles and an enzyme that was not lipid activated. These results support a concerted mechanism of lipid activation that requires multiple residues on the hydrophobic face of the putative amphipathic alpha helix.

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha is required for B-cell proliferation and class switch recombination

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is a key rate-controlling enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway leading to the principle membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine. CCTalpha is the predominant isoform expressed in mammalian cells. To investigate the role of CCTalpha in the development and function of B-lymphocytes, mice with B-lymphocytes that selectively lacked CCTalpha were derived using the CD19-driven Cre/loxP system. When challenged with a T-cell-dependent antigen, the animals harboring CCTalpha-deficient B-cells exhibited a hyper-IgM secretion phenotype coupled with a lack of IgG production. The inability of CCTalpha-/- B-cells to undergo class switch recombination correlated with a proliferation defect in vivo and in vitro in response to antigenic and mitogenic stimuli. Lipopolysaccharide stimulation of CCTalpha-/- B-cells resulted in an early trigger of the unfolded protein response-mediated splicing of Xbp-1 mRNA, and this was accompanied by accelerated kinetics of IgM secretion and higher incidence of IgM-secreting cells. Thus, the inability of stimulated B-cells to produce enough phosphatidylcholine prevents proliferation and class switch recombination but leads to unfolded protein response activation and a hyper-IgM secretion phenotype.

Role of phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis in the regulation of lipoprotein homeostasis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the role of phosphatidylcholine metabolism in plasma lipoprotein homeostasis.

RECENT FINDINGS

While it was previously known that phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis was required for normal hepatic VLDL secretion, recent studies have shown that both phosphatidylcholine biosynthetic pathways (the cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine and the phosphatidylethanolamine methylation pathways) are required. In addition, a requirement of acyl-coenzyme A synthetase 3, but not acyl-coenzyme A synthetase 1 or 4, for phosphatidylcholine synthesis and VLDL secretion is now documented. ABCA1 has been implicated in the transfer of phosphatidylcholine to apolipoproteinA-1 both during and after secretion of apolipoproteinA-1. Other studies have introduced the concept of reverse phosphatidylcholine transport in which both HDL and LDL supply phosphatidylcholine to the liver. An unexpected finding is that half of the phosphatidylcholine delivered to liver from lipoproteins is converted into triacylglycerol.

SUMMARY

The liver is both a donor of phosphatidylcholine during the assembly and secretion of lipoproteins as well as a recipient of phosphatidylcholine from plasma lipoproteins.

The phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase pathway is quantitatively not essential for biliary phosphatidylcholine secretion

The phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT) pathway of phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis is not essential for the highly specific acyl chain composition of biliary PC. We evaluated whether the PEMT pathway is quantitatively important for biliary PC secretion in mice under various experimental conditions. Biliary bile salt and PC secretion were determined in mice in which the gene encoding PEMT was inactivated (Pemt(-/-)) and in wild-type mice under basal conditions, during acute metabolic stress (intravenous infusion of the bile salt tauroursodeoxycholate), and during chronic metabolic stress (feeding a taurocholate-containing diet for 1 week). The activity of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase, the rate-limiting enzyme of PC biosynthesis via the CDP-choline pathway, and the abundance of multi-drug-resistant protein 2 (Mdr2; encoded by the Abcb4 gene), the canalicular membrane flippase essential for biliary PC secretion, were determined. Under basal conditions, Pemt(-/-) and wild-type mice exhibited similar biliary secretion rates of bile salt and PC ( approximately 145 and approximately 28 nmol/min/100 g body weight, respectively). During acute or chronic bile salt administration, the biliary PC secretion rates increased similarly in Pemt(-/-) and control mice. Mdr2 mRNA and protein abundance did not differ between Pemt(-/-) and wild-type mice. The cytidylyltransferase activity in hepatic lysates was increased by 20% in Pemt(-/-) mice fed the basal (bile salt-free) diet (P < 0.05). We conclude that the biosynthesis of PC via the PEMT pathway is not quantitatively essential for biliary PC secretion under acute or chronic bile salt administration.

Phospholipid Biosynthesis Program Underlying Membrane Expansion during B-lymphocyte Differentiation

Stimulated B-lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells committed to antibody production. Expansion of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments is a prerequisite for high rate synthesis, assembly, and secretion of immunoglobulins. The bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulates murine B-cells to proliferate and differentiate into antibody-secreting cells that morphologically resemble plasma cells. LPS activation of CH12 B-cells augmented phospholipid production and initiated a genetic program, including elevated expression of the genes for the synthesis, elongation, and desaturation of fatty acids that supply the phospholipid acyl moieties. Likewise, many of the genes in phospholipid biosynthesis were up-regulated, most notably those encoding Lipin1 and choline phosphotransferase. In contrast, CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha (CCTalpha) protein, a key control point in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, increased because of stabilization of protein turnover rather than transcriptional activation. Furthermore, an elevation in cellular diacylglycerol and fatty acid correlated with enhanced allosteric activation of CCTalpha by the membrane lipids. This work defines a genetic and biochemical program for membrane phospholipid biogenesis that correlates with an increase in the phospholipid components of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi compartments in LPS-stimulated B-cells.

Coordinate Regulation of Phospholipid Biosynthesis and Secretory Pathway Gene Expression in XBP-1(S)-induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Biogenesis

Development of the expansive endoplasmic reticulum (ER) present in specialized secretory cell types requires X-box-binding protein-1 (Xbp-1). Enforced expression of XBP-1(S), a transcriptional activator generated by unfolded protein response-mediated splicing of Xbp-1 mRNA, is sufficient to induce proliferation of rough ER. We previously showed that XBP-1(S)-induced ER biogenesis in fibroblasts correlates with increased production of phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), the primary phospholipid of the ER membrane, and enhanced activities of the choline cytidylyltransferase (CCT) and cholinephosphotransferase enzymes in the cytidine diphosphocholine (CDP-choline) pathway of PtdCho biosynthesis. Here, we report that the level and synthesis of CCT, the rate-limiting enzyme in the CDP-choline pathway, is elevated in fibroblasts overexpressing XBP-1(S). Furthermore, overexpression experiments demonstrated that raising the activity of CCT, but not cholinephosphotransferase, is sufficient to augment PtdCho biosynthesis in fibroblasts, indicating that XBP-1(S) increases the output of the CDP-choline pathway primarily via its effects on CCT. Finally, fibroblasts overexpressing CCT up-regulated PtdCho synthesis to a level similar to that in XBP-1(S)-transduced cells but exhibited only a small increase in rough ER and no induction of secretory pathway genes. The more robust XBP-1(S)-induced ER expansion was accompanied by induction of a wide array of genes encoding proteins that function either in the ER or at other steps in the secretory pathway. We propose that XBP-1(S) regulates ER abundance by coordinately increasing the supply of membrane phospholipids and ER proteins, the key ingredients for ER biogenesis.

Zn-limited diet modifies the expression of the rate-regulatory enzymes involved in phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol synthesis

Suboptimal intake of Zn is one of the most common nutritional worldwide problems. Previously, we showed that Zn deficiency produces alterations in lung lipid metabolism in rats. We studied the effect of a Zn-limited (ZL) diet on the expression of the enzymes involved in phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol synthesis. After 2 months of treatment with a ZL diet we found important variations in the lipid content of Wistar male rats: triacylglycerol (TG) decreased 60% (P<0.001) while esterified cholesterol (EC), free cholesterol and phospholipids (PL) increased 66%, 24 % and 25% respectively. We also observed a decrease of 40 % in the amount of (3)H incorporated into TG and an increase of 47% and 28% in the (3)H incorporated to PL and EC respectively. Fatty acid synthase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was increased (P<0.01 and P<0.05 respectively). Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, lipoprotein lipase, diacyl glycerol acyl transferase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase expression decreased (P<0.01 in all cases), while acetyl CoA carboxylase and cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase increased (P<0.01 and P<0.005 respectively). These results suggest that ZL alters the expression of enzymes involved in phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol synthesis, which could lead to increased PL and cholesterol and decreased TG. This study suggests that major changes in the lipid composition of lung are induced by a ZL condition. Therefore, Zn deficiency must be taken into account in order to design therapies and public health interventions, such as Zn supplementation for high-risk subjects or certain diseases, such as asthma.

Role of c-fos gene in vasoactive intestinal peptide promoted synthesis of pulmonary surfactant phospholipids

We previously reported that vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) promoted synthesis of phosphatidylcholine (PC) in alveolar type II (ATII) cells. But the intracellular mechanism for this effect was unknown. In this work, we investigated the intracellular signal transduction pathway for VIP promoted synthesis of PC, the major lipid component of pulmonary surfactant (PS), by using an antagonist of VIP receptors, inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC) and antisense oligonucleotides (AS-ODN) for c-fos oncogene. Our results showed that: 1 in circle [D-P-Cl-Phe(6)-Leu(17)]-VIP (10(-6) mol/l), an antagonist of VIP receptors, could decrease the quantity of [(3)H] choline incorporation, microsomal choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (CCT) mRNA expression and CCT activity induced by VIP (10(-8) mol/l) in cultured lung explants to the control levels; 2 in circle VIP (10(-8) mol/l) upregulated c-Fos protein expression in ATII cells. AS-ODN for c-fos oncogene (9x10(-6) mol/l) could block the elevation of [(3)H] choline incorporation, microsomal CCT mRNA expression and CCT activity induced by VIP in cultured lung explants and in ATII cells; 3 in circle H7 (10(-5) mol/l), a PKC inhibitor could also reduce VIP induced [(3)H] choline incorporation, microsomal CCT mRNA expression and CCT activity in cultured lung explants and in ATII cells. These results demonstrated that VIP receptors, PKC and c-Fos protein played important roles in the signaling pathway through which VIP promoted the synthesis of PC.

Inhibition of hepatic phosphatidylcholine synthesis by 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-4-ribofuranoside is independent of AMP-activated protein kinase activation

5-Aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-beta-d-ribofuranoside (AICAr), a commonly used indirect activator of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), inhibits phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis in freshly isolated hepatocytes. In all nucleated mammalian cells, PC is synthesized from choline via the Kennedy (CDP-choline) pathway. The purpose of our study was to provide direct evidence that AMPK regulates phospholipid biosynthesis and to elucidate the mechanism(s) by which AMPK inhibits hepatic PC synthesis. Incubations of hepatocytes with AICAr resulted in a dose-dependent activation of AMPK and inhibition of PC biosynthesis. Surprisingly, adenoviral delivery of constitutively active AMPK did not alter PC biosynthesis. In addition, expression of dominant negative mutants of AMPK was unable to block the AICAr-dependent inhibition of PC biosynthesis, indicating that AICAr was acting independently of AMPK activation. Determination of aqueous intermediates of the CDP-choline pathway indicated that choline kinase, the first enzyme in the pathway, was inhibited by AICAr administration. Flux through the CDP-choline pathway was directly correlated to the level of intracellular ATP concentrations. Therefore, it is possible that inhibition of PC biosynthesis is another process by which the cell can reduce ATP consumption in times of energetic stress. However, unlike cholesterol and triacylglycerol biosynthesis, PC production is not regulated by AMPK.

Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection reduces surfactant levels by inhibiting its biosynthesis

Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection, as occurs in cystic fibrosis, is associated with decreased surfactant phospholipid levels. To investigate mechanisms, we measured synthesis of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), the major surfactant phospholipid. Mice received an agarose bead slurry alone, or were infected with beads containing a clinical mucoid isolate of P. aeruginosa. Bacterial infection after 3 days resulted in a approximately 50% reduction in surfactant DPPC content versus control. These changes in surfactant were associated with co-ordinate reductions in mRNAs and immunoreactive levels for CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCTalpha), the rate-regulatory enzyme required for DPPC synthesis. P. aeruginosa infection of murine lung epithelia decreased CCTalpha gene transcription without altering mRNA stability and by a mechanism other than release of a soluble extracellular inhibitor. Promoter deletional analysis revealed that P. aeruginosa activates a negative response element from -1019 to -799 bp of the CCTalpha proximal 5'-flanking region. Exposure of cells to a P. aeruginosa mutant strain producing alginate reduced CCTalpha promoter activity, whereas these effects were not observed in strains defective in alginate synthesis. Murine type II cells isolated from P. aeruginosa-infected CCTalpha promoter-beta-galactosidase transgenic mice exhibited significantly reduced CCT and beta-galactosidase enzyme activities versus control. Thus, a mucoid P. aeruginosa strain reduces mRNA synthesis of a key biosynthetic enzyme thereby decreasing levels of surfactant.

Role of phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha in lung development

Lung development depends upon the differentiation and expansion of a variety of specialized epithelial cell types, including distal type I and type II pneumocytes in the late term. Previous studies have shown a strict dependence on the choline cytidylyltransferase alpha isoform (CCTalpha) to mediate membrane phospholipid formation in cultured cells and during preimplantation embryogenesis. CCTalpha expression is highest in lung, and there has long been speculation about its precise role, due to the dual requirement for phospholipid in proliferating cell membranes and for lung surfactant production from alveolar type II cells. We investigated the function of CCTalpha in lung development, using an inducible, epithelial cell-specific CCTalpha knockout mouse line. Deletion of CCTalpha beginning at embryonic day 7.5 did not restrict lung development but resulted in severe respiratory failure at birth. Alveolar lavage and lung lipid analyses showed significant decreases in the major surfactant phospholipid, dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine. The fatty acids destined for the surfactant phospholipid were redirected to an expanded triglyceride pool. Transcripts encoding type II cell-specific markers were expressed in the knockout mice, indicating the expected progression of differentiation in lung epithelia. However, surfactant protein levels were reduced, with the exception of that for surfactant protein B, which was elevated. Ultrastructural analysis of the type II cells showed Golgi complex abnormalities and aberrant lamellar bodies, which deliver surfactant lipid and protein to the alveolar lumen. Thus, CCTalpha was not required for the proliferation or differentiation of lung epithelia but was essential for the secretory component of phospholipid synthesis and critical for the proper formation of lamellar bodies and surfactant protein homeostasis.

Phospholipids are synthesized in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle

Very little is known about the metabolism of phospholipids in the G2 and M phases of the cell cycle, but limited studies have led to the postulation that phospholipid synthesis ceases during this period. To investigate whether phospholipids are synthesized in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle, protocols were developed to produce synchronized MCF-7 cell populations with greater than 80% of the cells in G1/S or G2/M phases that moved in synchrony following removal of the blocking agent. Analysis of the activities of key phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine biosynthetic enzymes in subcellular fractions obtained from MCF-7 cells at different cell cycle phases revealed that there was robust activity of key enzymes in the fractions prepared from MCF-7 cells in G2/M phase. Radiolabeled choline and ethanolamine were rapidly incorporated into cells maintained at G2/M phase with nocodazole, and the rates of incorporation were similar to those obtained in cells allowed to progress into the G1 phase. Furthermore, radiolabeled glycerol was incorporated into phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidic acid in MCF-7 cells maintained at G2/M phase with nocodazole. Similar results were obtained in CHO cells. These results demonstrate that glycerophospholipid synthesis is very active in the G2/M phase of these cells. Therefore, the postulated cessation of phospholipid synthesis in G2/M phases is not applicable to all cell types.

Adverse hepatic and cardiac responses to rosiglitazone in a new mouse model of type 2 diabetes: Relation to dysregulated phosphatidylcholine metabolism

Given the heterogeneous nature of metabolic dysfunctions associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D), a single pharmaceutical cannot be expected to provide complication-free therapy in all patients. Thiazolidinediones (TZD) increase insulin sensitivity, reduce blood glucose and improve cardiovascular parameters. However, in addition to increasing fat mass, TZD have the potential in certain individuals to exacerbate underlying hepatosteatosis and diabetic cardiomyopathy. Pharmacogenetics should allow patient selection to maximize therapy and minimize risk. To this end, we have combined two genetically diverse inbred strains, NON/Lt and NZO/Lt, to produce a "negative heterosis" increasing the frequency of T2D in F1 males. As in humans with T2D, treatment of diabetic and hyperlipemic F1 males with rosiglitazone (Rosi), an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated gamma receptor (PPARgamma), reverses these disease phenotypes. However, the hybrid genome perturbed both major pathways for phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis in the liver, and effected remarkable alterations in the composition of cardiolipin in heart mitochondria. These metabolic defects severely exacerbated an underlying hepatosteatosis and increased levels of the adipokine, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), a risk factor for cardiovascular events. This model system demonstrates how the power of mouse genetics can be used to identify the metabolic signatures of individuals who may be prone to drug side effects.

Role of Histone Deacetylase in the Expression of CTP:Phosphocholine Cytidylyltransferase α

Histone acetylation plays an important role in chromatin remodeling and gene expression. The molecular mechanisms involved in cell-specific expression of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha (CTalpha) are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated whether or not histone deacetylation is involved in repression of CTalpha expression in quiescent C3H10T1/2 mouse embryo fibroblasts. We have examined the contributions of the Sp1 and E2F binding sites in the repression of CTalpha gene expression. Immunoprecipitation experiments showed that histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and HDAC activity are associated with Sp1 in serum-starved cells or during serum stimulation. However, HDAC1 association with E2F was only detected in serum-starved cells. By chromatin immunoprecipitation assays, we detected both direct and indirect association of HDAC1 with the CTalpha promoter. Treatment with the HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A induced CTalpha expression. Our data suggest that HDAC1 plays a critical role in CTalpha repression and that Sp1 and E2F may serve as key targets for HDAC1-mediated CTalpha repression in fibroblasts.

Effects of hypoxia, glucose deprivation and acidosis on phosphatidylcholine synthesis in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase activity correlates with sarcolemmal disruption

A decrease in [3H]Cho (choline) incorporation in to PtdCho (phos-phatidylcholine) preceded the onset of LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) release in HL-1 cardiomyocytes submitted to simulated ischaemia. This observation led us to examine the role of PtdCho synthesis in sarcolemmal disruption in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. To address this objective we analysed the individual effects of hypoxia, glucose deprivation and acidosis, three prominent components of ischaemia, on the different steps of the Kennedy pathway for the synthesis of PtdCho. Pulse and pulse-chase experiments with [3H]Cho, performed in whole HL-1 cells submitted to hypoxia or normoxia, in the presence or absence of glucose at different pHs indicated first, that CK (choline kinase) was inhibited by hypoxia and acidosis, whereas glucose deprivation exacerbated the inhibition caused by hypoxia. Second, the rate-limiting reaction in PtdCho synthesis, catalysed by CCT (CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase), was inhibited by hypoxia and glucose deprivation, but unexpectedly activated by acidosis. In cellfree system assays, acidosis inhibited both CK and CCT. In experiments performed in whole cells, the effect of acidosis was likely to be direct on CK, but indirect or intact-cell-dependent on CCT. Since hypoxia and glucose deprivation favoured membrane disruption, but acidosis prevented it, we hypothesized that the modulation of CCT could be an important determinant of cell survival. Supporting this hypothesis, we show that CCT activity in whole-cell experiments clearly correlated with LDH release, but not with ATP concentration. Altogether our results suggest a significant role for CCT activity in sarcolemmal disruption during ischaemia.

Induction of apoptosis by lipophilic activators of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha (CCTalpha)

Farnesol (FOH) inhibits the CDP-choline pathway for PtdCho (phosphatidylcholine) synthesis, an activity that is involved in subsequent induction of apoptosis. Interestingly, the rate-limiting enzyme in this pathway, CCTalpha (CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha), is rapidly activated, cleaved by caspases and exported from the nucleus during FOH-induced apoptosis. The purpose of the present study was to determine how CCTalpha activity and PtdCho synthesis contributed to induction of apoptosis by FOH and oleyl alcohol. Contrary to previous reports, we show that the initial effect of FOH and oleyl alcohol was a rapid (10-30 min) and transient activation of PtdCho synthesis. During this period, the mass of DAG (diacylglycerol) decreased by 40%, indicating that subsequent CDP-choline accumulation and inhibition of PtdCho synthesis could be due to substrate depletion. At later time points (>1 h), FOH and oleyl alcohol promoted caspase cleavage and nuclear export of CCTalpha, which was prevented by treatment with oleate or DiC8 (dioctanoylglycerol). Protection from FOH-induced apoptosis required CCTalpha activity and PtdCho synthesis since (i) DiC8 and oleate restored PtdCho synthesis, but not endogenous DAG levels, and (ii) partial resistance was conferred by stable overexpression of CCTalpha and increased PtdCho synthesis in CCTalpha-deficient MT58 cells. These results show that DAG depletion by FOH or oleyl alcohol could be involved in inhibition of PtdCho synthesis. However, decreased DAG was not sufficient to induce apoptosis provided nuclear CCTalpha and PtdCho syntheses were sustained.

CDP-choline significantly restores phosphatidylcholine levels by differentially affecting phospholipase A2 and CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase after stroke

Phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) is a major membrane phospholipid, and its loss is sufficient in itself to induce cell death. PtdCho homeostasis is regulated by the balance between hydrolysis and synthesis. PtdCho is hydrolyzed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2), PtdChospecific phospholipase C (PtdCho-PLC), and phospholipase D (PLD). PtdCho synthesis is rate-limited by CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT), which makes CDP-choline. The final step of PtdCho synthesis is catalyzed by CDP-choline:1,2-diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase. PtdCho synthesis in the brain is predominantly through the CDP-choline pathway. Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) significantly increased PLA2 activity, secretory PLA2 (sPLA2)-IIA mRNA and protein levels, PtdCho-PLC activity, and PLD2 protein expression following reperfusion. CDP-choline treatment significantly attenuated PLA2 activity, sPLA2-IIA mRNA and protein levels, and PtdCho-PLC activity, but did not affect PLD2 protein expression. tMCAO also resulted in loss of CCT activity and CCTalpha protein, which were partially restored by CDP-choline. No changes were observed in cytosolic PLA2 or calcium-independent PLA2 tMCAO. protein levels after Up-regulation of PLA2, PtdCho-PLC, and PLD and regulation of CCT collectively down-resulted in loss of PtdCho, which was significantly restored by CDP-choline treatment. CDP-choline treatment significantly attenuated the infarction volume by 55 +/- 5% after 1 h of tMCAO and 1 day of reperfusion. Taken together, these results suggest that CDP-choline significantly restores Ptd-Cho levels by differentially affecting sPLA2-IIA, PtdCho-PLC, and CCTalpha after transient focal cerebral ischemia. A hypothetical scheme is proposed integrating results from this study and from other reports in the literature.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase regulates CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCTalpha) is a rate-regulatory enzyme required for phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) synthesis. CCTalpha is also a phosphoenzyme, but the physiologic role of kinases on enzyme function remains unclear. We report high-level expression of two major isoforms of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase family (JNK1 and JNK2) in murine lung epithelia. Further, JNK1 and JNK2 phosphorylated purified CCTalpha in vitro, and this was associated with a dose-dependent decrease (approximately 40%) in CCT activity. To evaluate JNK in vivo, lung epithelial cells were infected with a replication defective adenoviral vector encoding murine JNK2 (Adv-JNK2) or an empty vector. Adv-JNK2 infection, unlike the empty vector, markedly increased JNK2 expression concomitant with increased incorporation of [32P]orthophosphate into endogenous CCTalpha. Although Adv-JNK2 infection only modestly reduced CCT activity, it reduced PtdCho synthesis by approximately 30% in cells. These observations suggest a role for JNK kinases as negative regulators of phospholipid synthesis in murine lung epithelia.

Contribution of lipid mediators to the regulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis by angiotensin

Angiotensin stimulates a cellular mitogenic response via the AT1 receptor. We have examined the effect of angiotensin on the rate of phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis and have begun to dissect the pathway linking the AT1 receptor to the rate-limiting enzyme in PC synthesis, CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT), using CHO cells engineered to express the AT1a receptor. Since CCT can be directly activated by lipid mediators, we probed for their involvement in the PC synthesis response to angiotensin. Angiotensin stimulated CCT activity and PC synthesis two- to threefold after a 30-min delay. The kinetics of this stimulation most closely paralleled an increase in diacylglycerol (DAG) derived from myristic acid-enriched phospholipids. The production of arachidonic acid, phosphatidic acid, or reactive oxygen species either peaked much earlier or not at all. Moreover, manipulation of the intracellular supply of oxygen free radicals, arachidonic acid, HETEs, or phosphatidic acid (using inhibitors and/or exogenous addition) did not generate parallel effects on the rate of PC synthesis. Restricting the production of DAG by inhibition of PLCbeta with U73122 reduced both basal and angiotensin-stimulated PC synthesis. The U73122 inhibition of PC synthesis was accompanied by a similar inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Addition of exogenous DAG stimulated basal and angiotensin-dependent PC synthesis, and partially reversed the effect of the PLC inhibitor on PC synthesis. These results do not provide support for lipid mediators as direct stimulators of CCT and PC synthesis downstream of angiotensin, but give rise to the idea that angiotensin effects might be mediated via ERK1/2.

Angiotensin stimulates phosphatidylcholine synthesis via a pathway involving diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, ERK1/2, and CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase

We are probing the regulation of phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis by angiotensin II. In the accompanying paper, we showed that manipulation of the lipid second messengers, arachidonic acid or hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, produced downstream of the angiotensin AT1a receptor did not affect the PC synthesis rates in a manner consistent with direct activation of the rate limiting enzyme in the pathway, CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT). However, suppression of diacylglycerol (DAG) production with an inhibitor of phospholipase C-beta reduced angiotensin-dependent PC synthesis as well as ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Here, we show that the stimulation of PC synthesis and activation of CCT by angiotensin requires a signaling pathway that involves protein kinase C and ERK1/2. The inhibitors bis-indolylmaleimide I and PD98059 blocked ERK1/2 phosphorylation and completely eliminated angiotensin stimulation of the CCT-catalyzed reaction and PC synthesis. Exogenous addition of DAG using a lipid vesicle delivery system exactly mimicked the kinetics of angiotensin-promoted PC synthesis, suggesting that this mode of DAG delivery can effectively substitute for the DAG generated downstream of the activated AT1a receptor. Moreover, exogenous DAG activated ERK1/2, and the activation of PC synthesis by DAG was blocked by inhibition of protein kinase C and MEK. These data suggest that angiotensin-dependent DAG and the exogenously supplied DAG stimulate PC synthesis, not solely by direct action on CCT, but via a signaling pathway involving protein kinase C and ERK1/2. Angiotensin did not alter the net phosphorylation state of CCT as probed by immunoprecipitation of 32P-labeled CCT. Angiotensin stimulation of ERK1/2 likely mediates effects on CCT via a process other than CCT dephosphorylation.

Early embryonic lethality in mice with targeted deletion of the CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha gene (Pcyt1a)

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) catalyzes a rate-controlling step in the biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho). Multiple CCT isoforms, CCTalpha, CCTbeta2, and CCTbeta3, are encoded by two genes, Pcyt1a and Pcyt1b. The importance of CCTalpha in mice was investigated by deleting exons 5 and 6 in the Pcyt1a gene using the Cre-lox system. Pcyt1a-/- zygotes failed to form blastocysts, did not develop past embryonic day 3.5 (E3.5), and failed to implant. In situ hybridization in E11.5 embryos showed that Pcyt1a is expressed ubiquitously, with the highest level in fetal liver, and CCTalpha transcripts are significantly more abundant than transcripts encoding CCTbeta or phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn) N-methyl transferase, two other enzymes capable of producing PtdCho. Reduction of the CCTalpha transcripts in heterozygous E11.5 embryos was accompanied by upregulation of CCTbeta and PtdEtn N-methyltransferase transcripts. In contrast, enzymatic and real-time PCR data revealed that CCTbeta (Pcyt1b) expression is not upregulated to compensate for the reduction in CCTalpha expression in adult liver and other tissues from Pcyt1a+/- heterozygous mice. PtdCho biosynthesis measured by choline incorporation into isolated hepatocytes was not compromised in the Pcyt1a+/- mice. Liver PtdCho mass was the same in Pcyt1a+/+ and Pcyt1a+/- adult animals, but lung PtdCho mass decreased in the heterozygous mice. These data show that CCTalpha expression is required for early embryonic development, but that a 50% reduction in enzyme activity has little detectable impact on the operation of the CDP-choline metabolic pathway in adult tissues.

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 deficiency increases CTP:choline cytidylyltransferase translocation into the membrane and enhances phosphatidylcholine synthesis in liver

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) is the rate-limiting enzyme in monounsaturated fatty acid synthesis. Previously, we showed that Scd1 deficiency reduces liver triglyceride accumulation and considerably decreases synthesis of very low density lipoprotein and its secretion in both lean and obese mice. In the present study, we found that Scd1 deficiency significantly modulates hepatic glycerophospholipid profile. The content of phosphatidylcholine (PC) was increased by 40% and the activities of CTP:choline cytidylyltransferase (CCT), the rate-limiting enzyme in de novo PC synthesis, and choline phosphotransferase were increased by 64 and 53%, respectively, in liver of Scd1-/- mice. In contrast, the protein level of phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase, an enzyme involved in PC synthesis via methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine, was decreased by 80% in the liver of Scd1-/- mice. Membrane translocation of CCT is required for its activation. Immunoblot analyses demonstrated that twice as much CCTalpha was associated with plasma membrane in livers of Scd1-/- compared with wild type mice, suggesting that Scd1 mutation leads to an increase in CCT membrane affinity. The incorporation of [(3)H]glycerol into PC was increased by 2.5-fold in Scd1-/- primary hepatocytes compared with those of wild type mice. Furthermore, mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase activity was reduced by 42% in liver of Scd1-/- mice; however, the activities of microsomal glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase, diacylglycerol acyltransferase, and ethanolamine phosphotransferase were not affected by Scd1 mutation. Our study revealed that SCD1 deficiency specifically increases CCT activity by promoting its translocation into membrane and enhances PC biosynthesis in liver.

Oxysterols inhibit phosphatidylcholine synthesis via ERK docking and phosphorylation of CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase

Surfactant deficiency contributes to acute lung injury and may result from the elaboration of bioactive lipids such as oxysterols. We observed that the oxysterol 22-hydroxycholesterol (22-HC) in combination with its obligate partner, 9-cis-retinoic acid (9-cis-RA), decreased surfactant phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) synthesis by increasing phosphorylation of the regulatory enzyme CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase-alpha (CCTalpha). Phosphorylation of CCTalpha decreased its activity. 22-HC/9-cis-RA inhibition of PtdCho synthesis was blocked by PD98059 or dominant-negative ERK (p42 kinase). Overexpression of constitutively active MEK1, the kinase upstream of p42 kinase, increased CCTalpha phosphorylation. Expression of truncated CCTalpha mutants lacking proline-directed sites within the C-terminal phosphorylation domain partially blocked oxysterol-mediated inhibition of PtdCho synthesis. Mutagenesis of Ser315 within CCTalpha was both required and sufficient to confer significant resistance to 22-HC/9-cis-RA inhibition of PtdCho synthesis. A novel putative ERK-docking domain N-terminal to this phosphoacceptor site was mapped within the CCTalpha membrane-binding domain (residues 287-300). The results are the first demonstration of a physiologically relevant phosphorylation site and docking domain within CCTalpha that serve as targets for ERKs, resulting in inhibition of surfactant synthesis.

Stachybotrys chartarum alters surfactant-related phospholipid synthesis and CTP:cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase activity in isolated fetal rat type II cells

Stachybotry chartarum, a fungal contaminant of water-damaged buildings commonly grows on damp cellulose-containing materials. It produces a complex array of mycotoxins. Their mechanisms of action on the pulmonary system are not entirely clear. Previous studies suggest spore products may depress formation of disaturated phosphatidylcholine (DSPC), the major surface-active component of pulmonary surfactant (PS). If S. chartarum can indeed affect formation of this phospholipid, then mold exposure may be a significant issue for pulmonary function in both mature lung and developing fetal lung. To address this possibility, fetal rat type II cells, the principal source of DSPC, were used to assess effects of S. chartarum extract on formation of DSPC. Isolated fetal rat lung type II cells prelabeled with 3H-choline and incubated with spore extract showed decreased incorporation of 3H-choline into DSPC. The activity of CTP:cholinephosphate cytidylyltransferase (CPCT), the rate-limiting enzyme in phosphatidylcholine synthesis was reduced by approximately 50% by a 1:10 dilution of spore extract. Two different S. chartarum extracts (isolates from S. chartarum (Cleveland) and S. chartarum (Hawaiian)) were used to compare activity of CPCT in the presence of phosphatidylglycerol (PG), a known activator. PG produced an approximate two-fold increase in CPCT activity. The spore isolate from Hawaii did not alter enzyme activity. S. chartarum (Cleveland) eliminated the PG-induced activation of CPCT. These results support previous observations that mold products alter PS metabolism and may pose a risk in developing lung, inhibiting surfactant synthesis. Different isolates of the same species of fungus are not equivalent in terms of potential exposure risks.

Contribution of lipid second messengers to the regulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis during cell cycle re-entry

During entry into the cell cycle a phosphatidylcholine (PC) metabolic cycle is activated. We have examined the hypothesis that PC synthesis during the G(0) to G(1) transition is controlled by one or more lipid products of PC turnover acting directly on the rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis pathway, CTP: phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT). The acceleration of PC synthesis was two- to threefold during the first hour after addition of serum to quiescent IIC9 fibroblasts. The rate increased to approximately 15-fold above the basal rate during the second hour. The production of arachidonic acid, diacylglycerol (DAG), and phosphatidic acid (PA) preceded the second, rapid phase of PC synthesis. However, an increase in the cellular content of these lipid mediators was detected only for DAG. CCT activation and translocation to membranes accompanied the second phase of the PC synthesis acceleration. Bromoenol lactone (BEL), an inhibitor of calcium-independent phospholipase A(2) and PA phosphatase, blocked production of fatty acids and DAG, inhibited both phases of the PC synthesis response to serum, and reduced CCT activity and membrane affinity. The effect of BEL on PC synthesis was partially reversed by in situ generation of DAG via exogenous PC-specific phospholipase C to generate approximately 2-fold elevation in PC-derived DAG. Exogenous arachidonic acid also partially reversed the inhibition by BEL, but only at a concentration that generated a supra-physiological cellular content of free fatty acid. 1-Butanol, which blocks PA production, had no effect on DAG generation, or on PC synthesis. We conclude that fatty acids and DAG could contribute to the initial slow phase of the PC synthesis response. DAG is the most likely lipid regulator of CCT activity and the rapid phase of PC synthesis. However, processes other than direct activation of CCT by lipid mediators likely contribute to the highly accelerated phase during entry into the cell cycle.

Upregulation of surfactant synthesis triggers ABCA1-mediated basolateral phospholipid efflux

Alveolar type II lung epithelia produce surfactant, an essential surface-active material highly enriched with disaturated phosphatidylcholine (DSPC), which requires a key regulatory enzyme, CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase alpha (CCTalpha), for its synthesis before its export apically into the alveolus. In this study, we examined whether surfactant phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis and export are physiologically linked. Stable overexpression of CCTalpha in lung epithelial cell lines increased rates of PC synthesis and cellular DSPC mass without altering total cellular PC content. Overexpression of CCTalpha was associated with i) increased basolateral, rather than apical, PC export catalyzed by ABCA1; ii) basolateral export of significant levels of unsaturated (nonsurfactant) PC; and iii) transcriptional activation of the ABCA1 gene via a liver X receptor/retinoic acid receptor-independent pathway. Cells exposed to PC vesicles exhibited a dose-dependent increase in ABCA1 transcriptional activity. These data provide the first evidence that surfactant PC synthesis is linked to its export via a basolateral lipid efflux pathway. This pathway is mediated, in part, by a phospholipid sensor, ABCA1, that appears to partake in the autoregulation of both cellular content and composition of PC, thereby providing a potentially novel exit route for a newly synthesized pool of PC distinct from surfactant.

Characterization of a lipid activated CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase from Drosophila melanogaster

CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase (CCT) is an enzyme critical for cellular phosphatidylcholine (PC) synthesis, converting phosphocholine and cytidine 5'-triphosphate (CTP) to CDP-choline. We have isolated a cDNA encoding an isoform of CCT from Drosophila melanogaster and expressed the recombinant native and 6 x -His-tagged forms using a baculovirus expression system in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. Immunoblot using anti-phospho amino acid antibodies reveals the enzyme is phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues, but not tyrosine. The purified native enzyme exhibits a V(max) value of 1352+/-159 nmol CDP-choline/min/mg, a K(m) value of 0.50+/-0.09 mM for phosphocholine, and a K' (Hill constant) value of 0.72+/-0.10 mM for CTP. The 6 x -His-tagged enzyme has similar properties with a V(max) value of 2254+/-253 nmol CDP-choline/min/mg, a K(m) value of 0.63+/-0.13 mM for phosphocholine and a K' for CTP equal to 0.81+/-0.20 mM. Each form of the enzyme was activated to a similar extent by synthetic PC vesicles containing 50 mol% oleate. The efficiency of lipid activation was greatest using PC vesicles containing diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG), significantly less efficient activation was seen when phosphatidylserine (PS) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) were incorporated into vesicles, and PC alone or PC vesicles containing phosphatidylethanolamine were the least efficient enzyme activators.

Phosphatidylcholine deficiency upregulates enzymes of triacylglycerol metabolism in CHO cells

We studied the regulation of triacylglycerol (TAG) metabolism by phosphatidylcholine (PC) in CHO MT58 cells, which are deficient in PC synthesis because of a temperature-sensitive CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase. At the permissive growth temperature (34 degrees C), these cells contained 49% less TAG and 30% less PC than wild-type CHO K1 cells. Treatment with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine normalized both the PC and TAG levels. Despite low TAG levels, the incorporation of [14C]oleate into TAG was increased in CHO MT58 cells. The in vitro de novo synthesis of TAG and the activity of diacylglycerol acyltransferase were 90% and 34% higher, respectively. Two other key enzyme activities in TAG synthesis, acyl-CoA synthetase and mitochondrial glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), increased by 48% and 2-fold, respectively, and mitochondrial GPAT mRNA increased by approximately 4-fold. Additionally, TAG hydrolysis was accelerated in CHO MT58 cells, and in vitro lipolytic activity increased by 68%. These studies suggest that a homeostatic mechanism increases TAG synthesis and recycling in response to PC deficiency. TAG recycling produces diacylglycerol and fatty acids that can be substrates for de novo PC synthesis and for lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC) acylation. In CHO MT58 cells, in which de novo PC synthesis is blocked, lysoPC acylation with fatty acid originating from TAG may represent the main pathway for generating PC.