Isolation and characterization of mammary epithelial cells derived from Göttingen Minipigs: A comparative study versus hybrid pig cells from the IMI-ConcePTION Project

The value of pig as "large animal model" is a well-known tool for translational medicine, but it can also be beneficial in studying animal health in a one-health vision. The ConcePTION Project aims to provide new information about the risks associated with medication use during breastfeeding, as this information is not available for most commonly used drugs. In the IMI-Conception context, Göttingen Minipigs have been preferred to hybrid pigs for their genetic stability and microbiological control. For the first time, in the present research, three primary cell cultures of mammary epithelial cells were isolated and characterized from Göttingen Minipigs (mpMECs), including their ability to create the epithelial barrier. In addition, a comparative analysis between Göttingen Minipigs and commercial hybrid pig mammary epithelial cells (pMECs) was conducted. Epithelial markers: CKs, CK18, E-CAD, ZO-1 and OCL, were expressed in both mpMECs and pMECs. RT2 Profiler PCR Array Pig Drug Transporters showed a similar profile in mRNA drug transporters. No difference in energy production under basal metabolic condition was evidenced, while under stressed state, a different metabolic behaviour was shown between mpMECs vs pMECs. TEER measurement and sodium fluorescein transport, indicated that mpMECs were able to create an epithelial barrier, although, this turned out to be less compact than pMECs. By comparing mpMECs with mammary epithelial cells isolated from Hybrid pigs (pMECs), although both cell lines have morphological and phenotypic characteristics that make them both useful in barrier studies, some specific differences exist and must be considered in a translational perspective.

H+-slip correlated to rotor free-wheeling as cause of F1FO-ATPase dysfunction in primary mitochondrial disorders

Inborn errors of metabolism are related to mitochondrial disorders caused by dysfunction of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system. Congenital hypermetabolism in the infant is a rare disease belonging to Luft syndrome, nonthyroidal hypermetabolism, arising from a singular example of a defect in OXPHOS. The mitochondria lose coupling of mitochondrial substrates oxidation from the ADP phosphorylation. Since Luft syndrome is due to uncoupled cell respiration responsible for deficient in ATP production that originates in the respiratory complexes, a de novo heterozygous variant in the catalytic subunit of mitochondrial F1FO-ATPase arises as the main cause of an autosomal dominant syndrome of hypermetabolism associated with dysfunction in ATP production, which does not involve the respiratory complexes. The F1FO-ATPase works as an embedded molecular machine with a rotary action using two different motor engines. The FO, which is an integral domain in the membrane, dissipates the chemical potential difference for H+, a proton motive force (Δp), across the inner membrane to generate a torsion. The F1 domain-the hydrophilic portion responsible for ATP turnover-is powered by the molecular rotary action to synthesize ATP. The structural and functional coupling of F1 and FO domains support the energy transduction for ATP synthesis. The dissipation of Δp by means of an H+ slip correlated to rotor free-wheeling of the F1FO-ATPase has been discovered to cause enzyme dysfunction in primary mitochondrial disorders. In this insight, we try to offer commentary and analysis of the molecular mechanism in these impaired mitochondria.

Seminal extracellular vesicles alter porcine in vitro fertilization outcome by modulating sperm metabolism

Porcine seminal plasma (SP) is loaded with a heterogeneous population of extracellular vesicles (sEVs) that modulate several reproductive-related processes. This study investigated the effect of two sEV subsets, small (S-sEVs) and large (L-sEVs), on porcine in vitro fertilization (IVF). The sEVs were isolated from nine SP pools (five ejaculates/pool) using a size-exclusion chromatography-based procedure and characterized for quantity (total protein), morphology (cryogenic electron microscopy), size distribution (dynamic light scattering), purity and EV-protein markers (flow cytometry; albumin, CD81, HSP90β). The characterization confirmed the existence of two subsets of high purity (low albumin content) sEVs that differed in size (S- and L-sEVs). In vitro fertilization was performed with in vitro matured oocytes and frozen-thawed spermatozoa and the IVF medium was supplemented during gamete coincubation (1 h at 38.5 °C, 5 % CO2 in a humidified atmosphere) with three different concentrations of each sEV subset: 0 (control, without sEVs), 0.1, and 0.2 mg/mL. The first experiment showed that sEVs, regardless of subset and concentration, decreased penetration rates and total IVF efficiency (P < 0.0001). In a subsequent experiment, it was shown that sEVs, regardless of subset and concentration, impaired the ability of spermatozoa to bind to the zona pellucida of oocytes (P < 0.0001). The following experiment showed that sEVs, regardless of the subset, bound to frozen-thawed sperm but not to in vitro matured oocytes, indicating that sEVs would affect sperm functionality but not oocyte functionality. The lack of effect on oocytes was confirmed by incubating sEVs with oocytes prior to IVF, achieving sperm-zona pellucida binding results similar to those of control. In the last experiment, conducted under IVF conditions, sperm functionality was analyzed in terms of tyrosine phosphorylation, acrosome integrity and metabolism. The sEVs, regardless of the subset, did not affect sperm tyrosine phosphorylation or acrosome integrity, but did influence sperm metabolism by decreasing sperm ATP production under capacitating conditions. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the presence of sEVs on IVF medium impairs IVF outcomes, most likely by altering sperm metabolism.

Molecular mechanisms of naringenin modulation of mitochondrial permeability transition acting on F1FO-ATPase and counteracting saline load-induced injury in SHRSP cerebral endothelial cells

Naringenin (NRG) was characterized for its ability to counteract mitochondrial dysfunction which is linked to cardiovascular diseases. The F1FO-ATPase can act as a molecular target of NRG. The interaction of NRG with this enzyme can avoid the energy transmission mechanism of ATP hydrolysis, especially in the presence of Ca2+ cation used as cofactor. Indeed, NRG was a selective inhibitor of the hydrophilic F1 domain displaying a binding site overlapped with quercetin in the inside surface of an annulus made by the three α and the three β subunits arranged alternatively in a hexamer. The kinetic constant of inhibition suggested that NRG preferred the enzyme activated by Ca2+ rather than the F1FO-ATPase activated by the natural cofactor Mg2+. From the inhibition type mechanism of NRG stemmed the possibility to speculate that NRG can prevent the activation of F1FO-ATPase by Ca2+. The event correlated to the protective role in the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening by NRG as well as to the reduction of ROS production probably linked to the NRG chemical structure with antioxidant action. Moreover, in primary cerebral endothelial cells (ECs) obtained from stroke prone spontaneously hypertensive rats NRG had a protective effect on salt-induced injury by restoring cell viability and endothelial cell tube formation while also rescuing complex I activity.

Selenite ameliorates the ATP hydrolysis of mitochondrial F1FO-ATPase by changing the redox state of thiol groups and impairs the ADP phosphorylation

Selenite as an inorganic form of selenium can affect the redox state of mitochondria by modifying the thiol groups of cysteines. The F1FO-ATPase has been identified as a mitochondrial target of this compound. Indeed, the bifunctional mechanism of ATP turnover of F1FO-ATPase was differently modified by selenite. The activity of ATP hydrolysis was stimulated, whereas the ADP phosphorylation was inhibited. We ascertain that a possible new protein adduct identified as seleno-dithiol (-S-Se-S-) mercaptoethanol-sensitive caused the activation of F-ATPase activity and the oxidation of free -SH groups in mitochondria. Conversely, the inhibition of ATP synthesis by selenite might be irreversible. The kinetic analysis of the activation mechanism was an uncompetitive mixed type with respect to the ATP substrate. Selenite bound more selectively to the F1FO-ATPase loaded with the substrate by preferentially forming a tertiary (enzyme-ATP-selenite) complex. Otherwise, the selenite was a competitive mixed-type activator with respect to the Mg2+ cofactor. Thus, selenite more specifically bound to the free enzyme forming the complex enzyme-selenite. However, even if the selenite impaired the catalysis of F1FO-ATPase, the mitochondrial permeability transition pore phenomenon was unaffected. Therefore, the reversible energy transduction mechanism of F1FO-ATPase can be oppositely regulated by selenite.

Understanding differential aspects of microdiffusion (channeling) in the Coenzyme Q and Cytochrome c regions of the mitochondrial respiratory system

Over the past decades, models of the organization of mitochondrial respiratory system have been controversial. The goal of this perspective is to assess this "conflict of models" by focusing on specific kinetic evidence in the two distinct segments of Coenzyme Q- and Cytochrome c-mediated electron transfer. Respiratory supercomplexes provide kinetic advantage by allowing a restricted diffusion of Coenzyme Q and Cytochrome c, and short-range interaction with their partner enzymes. In particular, electron transfer from NADH is compartmentalized by channeling of Coenzyme Q within supercomplexes, whereas succinate oxidation proceeds separately using the free Coenzyme Q pool. Previous evidence favoring Coenzyme Q random diffusion in the NADH-dependent electron transfer is due to downstream flux interference and misinterpretation of results. Indeed, electron transfer by complexes III and IV via Cytochrome c is less strictly dependent on substrate channeling in mammalian mitochondria. We briefly describe these differences and their physiological implications.

Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonism Prevents Type 2 Familial Partial Lipodystrophy Brown Adipocyte Dysfunction

Type-2 Familial Partial Lipodystrophy (FPLD2), a rare lipodystrophy caused by LMNA mutations, is characterized by a loss of subcutaneous fat from the trunk and limbs and excess accumulation of adipose tissue in the neck and face. Several studies have reported that the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) plays an essential role in adipose tissue differentiation and functionality. We previously showed that brown preadipocytes isolated from a FPLD2 patient's neck aberrantly differentiate towards the white lineage. As this condition may be related to MR activation, we suspected altered MR dynamics in FPLD2. Despite cytoplasmic MR localization in control brown adipocytes, retention of MR was observed in FPLD2 brown adipocyte nuclei. Moreover, overexpression of wild-type or mutated prelamin A caused GFP-MR recruitment to the nuclear envelope in HEK293 cells, while drug-induced prelamin A co-localized with endogenous MR in human preadipocytes. Based on in silico analysis and in situ protein ligation assays, we could suggest an interaction between prelamin A and MR, which appears to be inhibited by mineralocorticoid receptor antagonism. Importantly, the MR antagonist spironolactone redirected FPLD2 preadipocyte differentiation towards the brown lineage, avoiding the formation of enlarged and dysmorphic lipid droplets. Finally, beneficial effects on brown adipose tissue activity were observed in an FPLD2 patient undergoing spironolactone treatment. These findings identify MR as a new lamin A interactor and a new player in lamin A-linked lipodystrophies.

Proton leak through the UCPs and ANT carriers and beyond: A breath for the electron transport chain

Mitochondria produce heat as a result of an ineffective H+ cycling of mitochondria respiration across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This event present in all mitochondria, known as proton leak, can decrease protonmotive force (Δp) and restore mitochondrial respiration by partially uncoupling the substrate oxidation from the ADP phosphorylation. During impaired conditions of ATP generation with F1FO-ATPase, the Δp increases and IMM is hyperpolarized. In this bioenergetic state, the respiratory complexes support H+ transport until the membrane potential stops the H+ pump activity. Consequently, the electron transfer is stalled and the reduced form of electron carriers of the respiratory chain can generate O2∙¯ triggering the cascade of ROS formation and oxidative stress. The physiological function to attenuate the production of O2∙¯ by Δp dissipation can be attributed to the proton leak supported by the translocases of IMM.

Inflammatory signaling in NASH driven by hepatocyte mitochondrial dysfunctions

Liver steatosis, inflammation, and variable degrees of fibrosis are the pathological manifestations of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an aggressive presentation of the most prevalent chronic liver disease in the Western world known as nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL). Mitochondrial hepatocyte dysfunction is a primary event that triggers inflammation, affecting Kupffer and hepatic stellate cell behaviour. Here, we consider the role of impaired mitochondrial function caused by lipotoxicity during oxidative stress in hepatocytes. Dysfunction in oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial ROS production cause the release of damage-associated molecular patterns from dying hepatocytes, leading to activation of innate immunity and trans-differentiation of hepatic stellate cells, thereby driving fibrosis in NASH.

Cell bioenergetics and ATP production of boar spermatozoa

Cellular metabolism is an important feature of spermatozoa that deserves more insights to be fully understood, in particular in porcine semen physiology. The present study aims to characterize the balance between glycolytic and oxidative metabolism in boar sperm cells. Agilent Seahorse technology was used to assess both oxygen consumption rate (OCR), as an oxidative metabolism index, and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), as a glycolytic index. Different metabolic parameters were studied on freshly ejaculated sperm cells (identified as day zero sample, d0) and after one day of storage at 17 °C in Androhep extender (d1). Mitochondrial ATP production rate (MitoATP) was higher than the glycolytic ATP production rate (glycoATP) at both d0 and d1 while at d1 the amount of ATP production decreased, in particular, due to OXPHOS reduction. Conversely, glycoATP was not significantly different between d0 and d1. Interestingly, OCR profile showed no different bioenergetic parameters (i.e. ATP turnover, basal or maximal respiration, and spare respiration) between d0 and d1, thus indicating that sperm cell metabolism was reversibly decreased by preservation conditions. Other metabolic parameters showed the same trend, irrespective of the storage time: under stressed conditions (oligomycin plus FCCP), spermatozoa showed an increase in mitochondrial respiration while the metabolic potential of glycolysis did not undergo variations when compared to baseline metabolism. The rate of oxidation of fuel substrates - glucose, fatty acids, and glutamine - showed that sperm reliance on glucose oxidation to maintain baseline respiration was higher than fatty acids or glutamine. Interestingly spermatozoa demonstrated to have a low "capacity" parameter, which indicates that they cannot use only a single fuel substrate to produce energy. This feature of sperm metabolism to be unable to increase oxidation of a particular fuel to compensate for inhibition of alternative fuel pathway(s) was demonstrated by the negative value of "flexibility". Our results showed that ATP production in boar sperm cells relied on mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in freshly ejaculated cells, while, under liquid storage conditions, their oxidative metabolism decreased while the glycolysis remained constant. These results open new fields of research in the preservation techniques of boar sperm cells.

Cell Metabolism Therapy by Small Natural Compounds

Cellular metabolism therapy counteracting metabolic dysfunction performs a preeminent role in the pathophysiology of different diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [...].

Two separate pathways underlie NADH and succinate oxidation in swine heart mitochondria: Kinetic evidence on the mobile electron carriers

We have investigated NADH and succinate aerobic oxidation in frozen and thawed swine heart mitochondria. Simultaneous oxidation of NADH and succinate showed complete additivity under a variety of experimental conditions, suggesting that the electron fluxes originating from NADH and succinate are completely independent and do not mix at the level of the so-called mobile diffusible components. We ascribe the results to mixing of the fluxes at the level of cytochrome c in bovine mitochondria: the Complex IV flux control coefficient in NADH oxidation was high in swine mitochondria but very low in bovine mitochondria, suggesting a stronger interaction of cytochrome c with the supercomplex in the former. This was not the case in succinate oxidation, in which Complex IV exerted little control also in swine mitochondria. We interpret the data in swine mitochondria as restriction of the NADH flux by channelling within the I-III₂-IV supercomplex, whereas the flux from succinate shows pool mixing for both Coenzyme Q and probably cytochrome c. The difference between the two types of mitochondria may be ascribed to different lipid composition affecting the cytochrome c binding properties, as suggested by breaks in Arrhenius plots of Complex IV activity occurring at higher temperatures in bovine mitochondria.

Inflammation, Mitochondria and Natural Compounds Together in the Circle of Trust

Human diseases are characterized by the perpetuation of an inflammatory condition in which the levels of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are quite high. Excessive ROS production leads to DNA damage, protein carbonylation and lipid peroxidation, conditions that lead to a worsening of inflammatory disorders. In particular, compromised mitochondria sustain a stressful condition in the cell, such that mitochondrial dysfunctions become pathogenic, causing human disorders related to inflammatory reactions. Indeed, the triggered inflammation loses its beneficial properties and turns harmful if dysregulation and dysfunctions are not addressed. Thus, reducing oxidative stress with ROS scavenger compounds has proven to be a successful approach to reducing inflammation. Among these, natural compounds, in particular, polyphenols, alkaloids and coenzyme Q₁₀, thanks to their antioxidant properties, are capable of inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and the expression of target genes, including those involved in inflammation. Even more, clinical trials, and in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of phytosomes, which are capable of increasing the bioavailability and effectiveness of natural compounds, and have long been considered an effective non-pharmacological therapy. Therefore, in this review, we wanted to highlight the relationship between inflammation, altered mitochondrial oxidative activity in pathological conditions, and the beneficial effects of phytosomes. To this end, a PubMed literature search was conducted with a focus on various in vitro and in vivo studies and clinical trials from 2014 to 2022.

The sperm mitochondria: clues and challenges

Sperm cells rely on different substrates to fulfil thei energy demand for different functions and diverse moments of their life. Species specific mechanism involve both energy substrate transport and their utilization: hexose transporters, a protein family of facilitative passive transporters of glucose and other hexose, have been identified in spermatozoa of different species and, within the species, their localization has been identified and, in some cases, linked to specific glycilitic enzyme presence. The catabolism of hexose sources for energy purposes has been studied in various species, and recent advances has been made in the knowledge of metabolic strategies of sperm cells. In particular, the importance of aerobic metabolism has been defined and described in horse, boar and even mouse spermatozoa; bull sperm cells demonstrate to have a good adaptability and capacity to switch between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation; finally, dog sperm cells have been demonstrated to have a great plasticity in energy metabolism management, being also able to activate the anabolic pathway of glycogen syntesis. In conclusion, the study of energy management and mitochondrial function in spermatozoa of different specie furnishes important base knowledge to define new media for preservation as well as newbases for reproductive biotechnologies.

Novel Regioselective Synthesis of 1,3,4,5-Tetrasubstituted Pyrazoles and Biochemical Valuation on F1FO-ATPase and Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Formation

An efficient, eco-compatible, and very cheap method for the construction of fully substituted pyrazoles (Pzs) via eliminative nitrilimine-alkene 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (ENAC) reaction was developed in excellent yield and high regioselectivity. Enaminones and nitrilimines generated in situ were selected as dipolarophiles and dipoles, respectively. A deep screening of the employed base, solvent, and temperature was carried out to optimize reaction conditions. Recycling tests of ionic liquid were performed, furnishing efficient performance until six cycles. Finally, a plausible mechanism of cycloaddition was proposed. Then, the effect of three different structures of Pzs was evaluated on the F₁F_O-ATPase activity and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening. The Pz derivatives' titration curves of 6a, 6h, and 6o on the F₁F_O-ATPase showed a reduced activity of 86%, 35%, and 31%, respectively. Enzyme inhibition analysis depicted an uncompetitive mechanism with the typical formation of the tertiary complex enzyme-substrate-inhibitor (ESI). The dissociation constant of the ESI complex (K_i') in the presence of the 6a had a lower order of magnitude than other Pzs. The pyrazole core might set the specific mechanism of inhibition with the F₁F_O-ATPase, whereas specific functional groups of Pzs might modulate the binding affinity. The mPTP opening decreased in Pz-treated mitochondria and the Pzs' inhibitory effect on the mPTP was concentration-dependent with 6a and 6o. Indeed, the mPTP was more efficiently blocked with 0.1 mM 6a than with 1 mM 6a. On the contrary, 1 mM 6o had stronger desensitization of mPTP formation than 0.1 mM 6o. The F₁F_O-ATPase is a target of Pzs blocking mPTP formation.

'Rotor free-wheeling' in impaired F1FO-ATPase induces congenital hypermetabolism

A de novo heterozygous variant in the catalytic subunit of mitochondrial F₁F_O-ATPase has been recently discovered by Ganetzky et al. to be the main cause of an autosomal dominant syndrome of hypermetabolism associated with defective ATP production. We describe how the 'rotor free-wheeling' causes this F₁F_O-ATPase dysfunction in primary congenital hypothyroidism.

Effects of cryopreservation on the mitochondrial bioenergetics of bovine sperm

This study evaluated the bioenergetic map of mitochondria metabolism in cryopreserved bovine sperm. The detected oligomycin-sensitive basal respiration supported ATP production; frozen-thawed spermatozoa were found to have a coupling efficiency higher than 0.80. Cell respiration, however, was not stimulated by the protonophoric action of FCCP, as its titration with 1, 2, 4 and 6 μM did not stimulate the uncoupling activity on oxidative phosphorylation as highlighted by unresponsive oxygen consumption. The unusual effect on the stimulation of maximal respiration was not related to fibronectin- or PDL-coated plates used for cellular metabolism analysis. Conversely, irradiation of frozen-thawed bovine sperm with the red light improved mitochondrial parameters. In effect, the maximal respiration of red-light-stimulated sperm in PDL-coated plates was higher than the non-irradiated. In spite of this, red-light irradiation had no impact on membrane integrity and mitochondrial activity evaluated by epifluorescence microscopy.

1,5-disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles counteract mitochondrial dysfunction acting on F1FO-ATPase in models of cardiovascular diseases

The compromised viability and function of cardiovascular cells are rescued by small molecules of triazole derivatives (Tzs), identified as 3a and 3b, by preventing mitochondrial dysfunction. The oxidative phosphorylation improves the respiratory control rate in the presence of Tzs independently of the substrates that energize the mitochondria. The F₁F_O-ATPase, the main candidate in mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) formation, is the biological target of Tzs and hydrophilic F₁ domain of the enzyme is depicted as the binding region of Tzs. The protective effect of Tz molecules on isolated mitochondria was corroborated by immortalized cardiomyocytes results. Indeed, mPTP opening was attenuated in response to ionomycin. Consequently, increased mitochondrial roundness and reduction of both length and interconnections between mitochondria. In in-vitro and ex-vivo models of cardiovascular pathologies (i.e., hypoxia-reoxygenation and hypertension) were used to evaluate the Tzs cardioprotective action. Key parameters of porcine aortic endothelial cells (pAECs) oxidative metabolism and cell viability were not affected by Tzs. However, in the presence of either 1 μM 3a or 0.5 μM 3b the impaired cell metabolism of pAECs injured by hypoxia-reoxygenation was restored to control respiratory profile. Moreover, endothelial cells isolated from SHRSP exposed to high-salt treatment rescued the Complex I activity and the endothelial capability to form vessel-like tubes and vascular function in presence of Tzs. As a result, the specific biochemical mechanism of Tzs to block Ca²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase protected cell viability and preserved the pAECs bioenergetic metabolism upon hypoxia-reoxygenation injury. Moreover, SHRSP improved vascular dysfunction in response to a high-salt treatment.

Protein folding and unfolding: proline cis-trans isomerization at the c subunits of F1 FO -ATPase might open a high conductance ion channel

The c subunits, which constitute the c-ring apparatus of the F1 FO -ATPase, could be the main components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). The well-known modulator of the mPTP formation and opening is the cyclophilin D (CyPD), a peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase. On the loop, which connects the two hairpin α-helix of c subunit, is present the unique proline residue (Pro40 ) that could be a biological target of CyPD. Indeed, the proline cis-trans isomerization might provide the switch that interconverts the open/closed states of the pore by pulling out the c-ring lipid plug.

Use of specific mitochondrial complex inhibitors to investigate mitochondrial involvement on horse sperm motility and ROS production

Equine spermatozoa highly rely on oxidative phosphorylation for their energy management. The present work aimed to characterize the role of mitochondria on horse sperm motility and ROS production by incubating spermatozoa with specific inhibitors of the different mitochondrial complexes. Equine spermatozoa were incubated 1 h and 3 h at 37 °C with: complex I inhibitor rotenone (5 μM, ROT), complex II inhibitor dimethyl-malonate (10 mM, DMM), complex III inhibitor antimycin A (1.8 μM, ANTI), the uncoupling agent carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazine (5 μM, CCCP), ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin (5 μM, OLIGO), and 2 μL vehicle DMSO (control, CTL). Samples were analyzed for sperm motility and for mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial integrity, mitochondrial O₂^•- production, and cytoplasmic H₂O₂. A multivariate analysis was performed on the data. CCCP caused a pronounced MMP reduction at both time points while ROT and ANTI showed the same effect at 3 h. All treatments at 3 h incubation significantly reduced the percentage of sperm with early changes in membrane permeability with active mitochondria. The H₂O₂ production of live cells was low at 1 h incubation in all treatments; after 3 h a slight decrease in the percentage of low-H₂O₂ producing cells was recorded. All treatments, except DMM, induced a significant decline in sperm motility and kinematics and modified the pattern of sperm subpopulations. The effect of DMM was evident only after 3 h, increasing the percentage of slow sperm subpopulation. In conclusion, the disruption of mitochondrial integrity induces an increase of mitochondrial ROS production that could be detrimental for cell function and survivior.

The Impairment of Cell Metabolism by Cardiovascular Toxicity of Doxorubicin Is Reversed by Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction Treatment in Endothelial Cells

The beneficial effects of bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) on the mitochondrial bioenergetics of porcine aortic endothelial cells (pAECs) were verified under the cardiotoxic action of doxorubicin (DOX). The cell viability of pAECs treated for 24 h with different concentrations of DOX was reduced by 50%, but the negative effect of DOX was reversed in the presence of increasing doses of BPF (100 µg/mL and 200 µg/mL BPF). An analysis of the protective effect of BPF on the toxic action of DOX was also carried out on cell respiration. We observed the inhibition of the mitochondrial activity at 10 µM DOX, which was not restored by 200 µg/mL BPF. Conversely, the decrease in basal respiration and ATP production caused by 0.5 or 1.0 µM DOX were improved in the presence of 100 or 200 µg/mL BPF, respectively. After 24 h of cell recovery with 100 µg/mL or 200 µg/mL BPF on pAECs treated with 0.5 µM or 1.0 µM DOX, respectively, the mitochondrial parameters of oxidative metabolism impaired by DOX were re-boosted.

What happens when the mitochondrial H+-translocating F1FO-ATP(hydrol)ase becomes a molecular target of calcium? The pore opens

The F₁F_O-ATPase has Mg²⁺ cofactor as the natural divalent cation to support the bifunctional activity of ATP synthesis and hydrolysis. Different physio(patho)logical conditions permit the molecular interaction of Ca²⁺ with the enzyme and the modification of the biological role. Three distinct binding regions of Ca²⁺ have been localized on the enzyme complex: one in the F₁ catalytic sites and the other two sites in the membrane-embedded domain F_O. In all likelihood, Ca²⁺-activated enzyme most frequently works as an H⁺-translocating F₁F_O-ATP(hydrol)ase with a monofunctional activity that triggers the formation of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) phenomenon. The protein(s) component of the mPTP is considered an arcane mystery. However, the F₁F_O-ATPase could reveal the molecular mechanism of pore opening when Ca²⁺ is bound to the enzyme. In this regard, the role of Ca²⁺-dependent function of the F₁F_O-ATPase in the formation of the mPTP is discussed.

Mitochondria Bioenergetic Functions and Cell Metabolism Are Modulated by the Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction

The bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) was evaluated in the F₁F_O-ATPase activity of swine heart mitochondria. In the presence of a concentration higher than 50 µg/mL BPF, the ATPase activity of F₁F_O-ATPase, dependent on the natural cofactor Mg²⁺, increased by 15%, whereas the enzyme activity in the presence of Ca²⁺ was inhibited by 10%. By considering this opposite BPF effect, the F₁F_O-ATPase activity involved in providing ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation and triggering mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) formation has been evaluated. The BPF improved the catalytic coupling of oxidative phosphorylation in the presence of a substrate at the first phosphorylation site, boosting the respiratory control ratios (state 3/state 4) by 25% and 85% with 50 µg/mL and 100 µg/mL BPF, respectively. Conversely, the substrate at the second phosphorylation site led to the improvement of the state 3/state 4 ratios by 15% only with 100 µg/mL BPF. Moreover, the BPF carried out its beneficial effect on the mPTP phenomenon by desensitizing the pore opening. The acute effect of the BPF on the metabolism of porcine aortica endothelial cells (pAECs) showed an ATP rate index greater than one, which points out a prevailing mitochondrial oxidative metabolism with respect to the glycolytic pathway, and this ratio rose by about three times with 100 µg/mL BPF. Consistently, the mitochondrial ATP turnover, in addition to the basal and maximal respiration, were higher in the presence of the BPF than in the controls, and the MTT test revealed an increase in cell viability with a BPF concentration above 200 µg/mL. Therefore, the molecule mixture of the BPF aims to ensure good performance of the mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters.

From the Structural and (Dys)Function of ATP Synthase to Deficiency in Age-Related Diseases

The ATP synthase is a mitochondrial inner membrane complex whose function is essential for cell bioenergy, being responsible for the conversion of ADP into ATP and playing a role in mitochondrial cristae morphology organization. The enzyme is composed of 18 protein subunits, 16 nuclear DNA (nDNA) encoded and two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encoded, organized in two domains, F_O and F₁. Pathogenetic variants in genes encoding structural subunits or assembly factors are responsible for fatal human diseases. Emerging evidence also underlines the role of ATP-synthase in neurodegenerative diseases as Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and motor neuron diseases such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Post-translational modification, epigenetic modulation of ATP gene expression and protein level, and the mechanism of mitochondrial transition pore have been deemed responsible for neuronal cell death in vivo and in vitro models for neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we will explore ATP synthase assembly and function in physiological and pathological conditions by referring to the recent cryo-EM studies and by exploring human disease models.

The mitochondrial F1FO-ATPase exploits the dithiol redox state to modulate the permeability transition pore

The dithiol reagents phenylarsine oxide (PAO) and dibromobimane (DBrB) have opposite effects on the F₁F_O-ATPase activity. PAO 20% increases ATP hydrolysis at 50 μM when the enzyme activity is activated by the natural cofactor Mg²⁺ and at 150 μM when it is activated by Ca²⁺. The PAO-driven F₁F_O-ATPase activation is reverted to the basal activity by 50 μM dithiothreitol (DTE). Conversely, 300 μM DBrB decreases the F₁F_O-ATPase activity by 25% when activated by Mg²⁺ and by 50% when activated by Ca²⁺. In both cases, the F₁F_O-ATPase inhibition by DBrB is insensitive to DTE. The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) formation, related to the Ca²⁺-dependent F₁F_O-ATPase activity, is stimulated by PAO and desensitized by DBrB. Since PAO and DBrB apparently form adducts with different cysteine couples, the results highlight the crucial role of cross-linking of vicinal dithiols on the F₁F_O-ATPase, with (ir)reversible redox states, in the mPTP modulation.

SARS-CoV-2 first contact: Spike-ACE2 interactions in COVID-19

The full-length human ACE2 in complex with B⁰ AT1 is anchored to two S in open pre-fusion state which allows establishing pre-invasion interactions with the ACE2 N-terminal domain.

The inhibition of gadolinium ion (Gd3+) on the mitochondrial F1FO-ATPase is linked to the modulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (PTP), which drives regulated cell death when Ca²⁺ concentration suddenly increases in mitochondria, was related to changes in the Ca²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase. The effects of the gadolinium cation (Gd³⁺), widely used for diagnosis and therapy, and reported as PTP blocker, were evaluated on the F₁F_O-ATPase activated by Mg²⁺ or Ca²⁺ and on the PTP. Gd³⁺ more effectively inhibits the Ca²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase than the Mg²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase by a mixed-type inhibition on the former and by uncompetitive mechanism on the latter. Most likely Gd³⁺ binding to F₁, is favoured by Ca²⁺ insertion. The maximal inactivation rates (k_inact) of pseudo-first order inactivation are similar either when the F₁F_O-ATPase is activated by Ca²⁺ or by Mg²⁺. The half-maximal inactivator concentrations (K_I) are 2.35 ± 0.35 mM and 0.72 ± 0.11 mM, respectively. The potency of a mechanism-based inhibitor (k_inact/K_I) also highlights a higher inhibition efficiency of Gd³⁺ on the Ca²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase (0.59 ± 0.09 mM^-1∙s^-1) than on the Mg²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase (0.13 ± 0.02 mM^-1∙s^-1). Consistently, the PTP is desensitized in presence of Gd³⁺. The Gd³⁺ inhibition on both the mitochondrial Ca²⁺-activated F₁F_O-ATPase and the PTP strengthens the link between the PTP and the F₁F_O-ATPase when activated by Ca²⁺ and provides insights on the biological effects of Gd³⁺.

Vitamin K Vitamers Differently Affect Energy Metabolism in IPEC-J2 Cells

The fat-soluble vitamin K (VK) has long been known as a requirement for blood coagulation, but like other vitamins, has been recently recognized to play further physiological roles, particularly in cell development and homeostasis. Vertebrates cannot de novo synthesize VK, which is essential, and it can only be obtained from the diet or by the activity of the gut microbiota. The IPEC-J2 cell line, obtained from porcine small intestine, which shows strong similarities to the human one, represents an excellent functional model to in vitro study the effect of compounds at the intestinal level. The acute VK treatments on the bioenergetic features of IPEC-J2 cells were evaluated by Seahorse XP Agilent technology. VK exists in different structurally related forms (vitamers), all featured by a naphtoquinone moiety, but with distinct effects on IPEC-J2 energy metabolism. The VK1, which has a long hydrocarbon chain, at both concentrations (5 and 10 μM), increases the cellular ATP production due to oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) by 5% and by 30% through glycolysis. The VK2 at 5 μM only stimulates ATP production by OXPHOS. Conversely, 10 μM VK3, which lacks the long side chain, inhibits OXPHOS by 30% and glycolysis by 45%. However, even if IPEC-J2 cells mainly prefer OXPHOS to glycolysis to produce ATP, the OXPHOS/glycolysis ratio significantly decreases in VK1-treated cells, is unaffected by VK2, and only significantly increased by 10 μM VK3. VK1, at the two concentrations tested, does not affect the mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters, while 5 μM VK2 increases and 5 μM VK3 reduces the mitochondrial respiration (i.e., maximal respiration and spare respiratory capacity). Moreover, 10 μM VK3 impairs OXPHOS, as shown by the increase in the proton leak, namely the proton backward entry to the matrix space, thus pointing out mitochondrial toxicity. Furthermore, in the presence of both VK1 and VK2 concentrations, the glycolytic parameters, namely the glycolytic capacity and the glycolytic reserve, are unaltered. In contrast, the inhibition of glycoATP production by VK3 is linked to the 80% inhibition of glycolysis, resulting in a reduced glycolytic capacity and reserve. These data, which demonstrate the VK ability to differently modulate IPEC-J2 cell energy metabolism according to the different structural features of the vitamers, can mirror VK modulatory effects on the cell membrane features and, as a cascade, on the epithelial cell properties and gut functions: balance of salt and water, macromolecule cleavage, detoxification of harmful compounds, and nitrogen recycling.

Molecular and Supramolecular Structure of the Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation System: Implications for Pathology

Under aerobic conditions, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) converts the energy released by nutrient oxidation into ATP, the currency of living organisms. The whole biochemical machinery is hosted by the inner mitochondrial membrane (mtIM) where the protonmotive force built by respiratory complexes, dynamically assembled as super-complexes, allows the F1FO-ATP synthase to make ATP from ADP + Pi. Recently mitochondria emerged not only as cell powerhouses, but also as signaling hubs by way of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. However, when ROS removal systems and/or OXPHOS constituents are defective, the physiological ROS generation can cause ROS imbalance and oxidative stress, which in turn damages cell components. Moreover, the morphology of mitochondria rules cell fate and the formation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in the mtIM, which, most likely with the F1FO-ATP synthase contribution, permeabilizes mitochondria and leads to cell death. As the multiple mitochondrial functions are mutually interconnected, changes in protein composition by mutations or in supercomplex assembly and/or in membrane structures often generate a dysfunctional cascade and lead to life-incompatible diseases or severe syndromes. The known structural/functional changes in mitochondrial proteins and structures, which impact mitochondrial bioenergetics because of an impaired or defective energy transduction system, here reviewed, constitute the main biochemical damage in a variety of genetic and age-related diseases.

Biological characteristics and metabolic profile of canine mesenchymal stem cells isolated from adipose tissue and umbilical cord matrix

Despite the increasing demand of cellular therapies for dogs, little is known on the differences between adult and fetal adnexa canine mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and data on their metabolic features are lacking. The present study aimed at comparing the characteristics of canine adipose tissue (AT) and umbilical cord matrix (UC) MSCs. Moreover, for the first time in the dog, the cellular bioenergetics were investigated by evaluating the two main metabolic pathways (oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis) of ATP production. Frozen-thawed samples were used for this study. No differences in mean cell proliferation were found (P>0.05). However, while AT-MSCs showed a progressive increase in doubling time over passages, UC-MSCs showed an initial post freezing-thawing latency. No differences in migration, spheroid formation ability, and differentiation potential were found (P>0.05). RT-PCR analysis confirmed the expression of CD90 and CD44, the lack of CD14 and weak expression of CD34, mostly by AT-MSCs. DLA-DRA1 and DLA-DQA1 were weakly expressed only at passage 0 by UC-MSCs, while they were expressed at different passages for AT-MSCs. There was no difference (P>0.05) in total ATP production between cell cultures, but the ratio between the “mitochondrial ATP Production Rate” and the “glycolytic ATP Production Rate” was higher (P<0.05) in AT- than in UC-MSCs. However, in both MSCs types the mitochondrial respiration was the main pathway of ATP production. Mitochondrial respiration and ATP turnover in UC-MSCs were higher (P<0.05) than in AT-MSCs, but both had a 100% coupling efficiency. These features and the possibility of increasing the oxygen consumption by a spare respiratory capacity of four (AT-MSCSs) and two (UC-MSCs) order of magnitude greater than basal respiration, can be taken as indicative of the cell propensity to differentiate. The findings may efficiently contribute to select the most appropriate MSCs, culture and experimental conditions for transplantation experiments in mesenchymal stem cell therapy for companion animals.

Sulfide affects the mitochondrial respiration, the Ca2+-activated F1FO-ATPase activity and the permeability transition pore but does not change the Mg2+-activated F1FO-ATPase activity in swine heart mitochondria

In mammalian cells enzymatic and non-enzymatic pathways produce H₂S, a gaseous transmitter which recently emerged as promising therapeutic agent and modulator of mitochondrial bioenergetics. To explore this topic, the H₂S donor NaHS, at micromolar concentrations, was tested on swine heart mitochondria. NaHS did not affect the F₁F_O-ATPase activated by the natural cofactor Mg², but, when Mg²⁺ was replaced by Ca²⁺, a slight 15% enzyme inhibition at 100 µM NaHS was shown. Conversely, both the NADH-O₂ and succinate-O₂ oxidoreductase activities were totally inhibited by 200 μM NaHS with IC₅₀ values of 61.6 ± 4.1 and 16.5 ± 4.6 μM NaHS, respectively. Since the mitochondrial respiration was equally inhibited by NaHS at both first or second respiratory substrates sites, the H₂S generation may prevent the electron transfer from complexes I and II to downhill respiratory chain complexes, probably because H₂S competes with O₂ in complex IV, thus reducing membrane potential as a consequence of the cytochrome c oxidase activity inhibition. The Complex IV blockage by H₂S was consistent with the linear concentration-dependent NADH-O₂ oxidoreductase inhibition and exponential succinate-O₂ oxidoreductase inhibition by NaHS, whereas the coupling between substrate oxidation and phosphorylation was unaffected by NaHS. Even if H₂S is known to cause sulfhydration of cysteine residues, thiol oxidizing (GSSG) or reducing (DTE) agents, did not affect the F₁F_O-ATPase activities and mitochondrial respiration, thus ruling out any involvement of post-translational modifications of thiols. The permeability transition pore, the lethal channel which forms when the F₁F_O-ATPase is stimulated by Ca²⁺, did not open in the presence of NaHS, which showed a similar effect to ruthenium red, thus suggesting a putative Ca²⁺ transport cycle inhibition.

Ca2+ as cofactor of the mitochondrial H+ -translocating F1 FO -ATP(hydrol)ase

The mitochondrial F₁ F_O -ATPase in the presence of the natural cofactor Mg²⁺ acts as the enzyme of life by synthesizing ATP, but it can also hydrolyze ATP to pump H⁺ . Interestingly, Mg²⁺ can be replaced by Ca²⁺ , but only to sustain ATP hydrolysis and not ATP synthesis. When Ca²⁺ inserts in F₁ , the torque generation built by the chemomechanical coupling between F₁ and the rotating central stalk was reported as unable to drive the transmembrane H⁺ flux within F_O . However, the failed H⁺ translocation is not consistent with the oligomycin-sensitivity of the Ca²⁺ -dependent F₁ F_O -ATP(hydrol)ase. New enzyme roles in mitochondrial energy transduction are suggested by recent advances. Accordingly, the structural F₁ F_O -ATPase distortion driven by ATP hydrolysis sustained by Ca²⁺ is consistent with the permeability transition pore signal propagation pathway. The Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase, by forming the pore, may contribute to dissipate the transmembrane H⁺ gradient created by the same enzyme complex.

Incoming news on the F-type ATPase structure and functions in mammalian mitochondria

•Recent findings of cryo-EM structures of mammalian F₁F_O-ATPase.•The membrane-embedded domain of the F₁F_O-ATPase and the permeability transition pore.•The Ca²⁺-activated ₁F_O-ATPase role in the mPTP is consistent with recent cryo-EM findings.•The membrane-embedded FO participates in mPTP formation in mammalian mitochondria.•Conformational changes within FO modify the inner mitochondrial membrane shape.

Mitochondrial F1FO-ATPase and permeability transition pore response to sulfide in the midgut gland of Mytilus galloprovincialis

The molecular mechanisms which rule the formation and opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), the lethal mechanism which permeabilizes mitochondria to water and solutes and drives the cell to death, are still unclear and particularly little investigated in invertebrates. Since Ca²⁺ increase in mitochondria is accompanied by mPTP opening and the participation of the mitochondrial F₁F_O-ATPase in the mPTP is increasingly sustained, the substitution of the natural cofactor Mg²⁺ by Ca²⁺ in the F₁F_O-ATPase activation has been involved in the mPTP mechanism. In mussel midgut gland mitochondria the similar kinetic properties of the Mg²⁺- or Ca²⁺-dependent F₁F_O-ATPase activities, namely the same affinity for ATP and bi-site activation kinetics by the ATP substrate, in spite of the higher enzyme activity and coupling efficiency of the Mg²⁺-dependent F₁F_O-ATPase, suggest that both enzyme activities are involved in the bioenergetic machinery. Other than being a mitochondrial poison and environmental contaminant, sulfide at low concentrations acts as gaseous mediator and can induce post-translational modifications of proteins. The sulfide donor NaHS, at micromolar concentrations, does not alter the two F₁F_O-ATPase activities, but desensitizes the mPTP to Ca²⁺ input. Unexpectedly, NaHS, under the conditions tested, points out a chemical refractoriness of both F₁F_O-ATPase activities and a failed relationship between the Ca²⁺-dependent F₁F_O-ATPase and the mPTP in mussels. The findings suggest that mPTP role and regulation may be different in different taxa and that the F₁F_O-ATPase insensitivity to NaHS may allow mussels to cope with environmental sulfide.

1,5-Disubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles as inhibitors of the mitochondrial Ca2+ -activated F1 FO -ATP(hydrol)ase and the permeability transition pore

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), a high-conductance channel triggered by a sudden Ca²⁺ concentration increase, is composed of the F₁ F_O -ATPase. Since mPTP opening leads to mitochondrial dysfunction, which is a feature of many diseases, a great pharmacological challenge is to find mPTP modulators. In our study, the effects of two 1,5-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazole derivatives, five-membered heterocycles with three nitrogen atoms in the ring and capable of forming secondary interactions with proteins, were investigated. Compounds 3a and 3b were selected among a wide range of structurally related compounds because of their chemical properties and effectiveness in preliminary studies. In swine heart mitochondria, both compounds inhibit Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase without affecting F-ATPase activity sustained by the natural cofactor Mg²⁺ . The inhibition is mutually exclusive, probably because of their shared enzyme site, and uncompetitive with respect to the ATP substrate, since they only bind to the enzyme-ATP complex. Both compounds show the same inhibition constant (K'_i ), but compound 3a has a doubled inactivation rate constant compared with compound 3b. Moreover, both compounds desensitize mPTP opening without altering mitochondrial respiration. The results strengthen the link between Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase and mPTP and suggest that these inhibitors can be pharmacologically exploited to counteract mPTP-related diseases.

Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide Donor NaHS on Porcine Vascular Wall-Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is now considered not only for its toxicity, but also as an endogenously produced gas transmitter with multiple physiological roles, also in maintaining and regulating stem cell physiology. In the present work, we evaluated the effect of a common H2S donor, NaHS, on porcine vascular wall-mesenchymal stem cells (pVW-MSCs). pVW-MSCs were treated for 24 h with increasing doses of NaHS, and the cell viability, cell cycle, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were evaluated. Moreover, the long-term effects of NaHS administration on the noteworthy characteristics of pVW-MSCs were analyzed. The MTT test revealed no alteration in cell viability, however, the cell cycle analysis demonstrated that the highest NaHS dose tested (300 μM) determined a block in S phase, which did not depend on the ROS production. Moreover, NaHS (10 μM), continuously administered in culture for 21 days, was able to significantly reduce NG2, Nestin and PDGFR-β expression. The pro-angiogenic attitude of pVW-MSCs was partially reduced by NaHS: the cells maintained the ability to grow in spheroid and sprouting from that, but endothelial markers (Factor VIII and CD31) were reduced. In conclusion, NaHS can be toxic for pVW-MSCs in high doses, while in low doses, it influences cellular physiology, by affecting the gene expression with a slowing down of the endothelial lineage.

Mitochondrial F-type ATP synthase: multiple enzyme functions revealed by the membrane-embedded FO structure

Of the two main sectors of the F-type ATP synthase, the membrane-intrinsic F_O domain is the one which, during evolution, has undergone the highest structural variations and changes in subunit composition. The F_O complexity in mitochondria is apparently related to additional enzyme functions that lack in bacterial and thylakoid complexes. Indeed, the F-type ATP synthase has the main bioenergetic role to synthesize ATP by exploiting the electrochemical gradient built by respiratory complexes. The F_O membrane domain, essential in the enzyme machinery, also participates in the bioenergetic cost of synthesizing ATP and in the formation of the cristae, thus contributing to mitochondrial morphology. The recent enzyme involvement in a high-conductance channel, which forms in the inner mitochondrial membrane and promotes the mitochondrial permeability transition, highlights a new F-type ATP synthase role. Point mutations which cause amino acid substitutions in F_O subunits produce mitochondrial dysfunctions and lead to severe pathologies. The F_O variability in different species, pointed out by cryo-EM analysis, mirrors the multiple enzyme functions and opens a new scenario in mitochondrial biology.

Sperm function and mitochondrial activity: An insight on boar sperm metabolism

In this study boar sperm mitochondrial activity was studied and deepened in order to delineate the main metabolic strategies used by boar sperm to obtain energy and to link them to sperm function. Boar spermatozoa were collected, diluted at 30 × 10⁶ spz/mL and incubated for 1 h with: Rotenone (ROT), complex I inhibitor, Dimethyl-malonate (DMM), complex II inhibitor, antimycin A (ANTI), complex III inhibitor, oligomycin (OLIGO), ATP synthase inhibitor, Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP), uncoupling agent, 2-deoxy-glucose (2DG), glucose agonist, and Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) as control vehicle. Viability and mitochondrial membrane potential (Sybr14/PI/JC1 staining) and sperm motility (using CASA system) were assayed after incubation. ROT, ANTI, OLIGO and CCCP significantly reduced total and progressive motility as well as cell velocities; ANTI and CCCP depressed mitochondrial membrane potential but did not affect cell viability. Cluster analysis of kinematic parameters showed some interesting features of sperm subpopulations: ANTI and CCCP caused a shift in sperm subpopulation towards "slow non progressive" cells, OLIGO and ROT caused a shift towards "average" and "slow non progressive" cells, while DMM and 2DG increased the "fast progressive" cells subpopulation. Sperm mitochondrial respiration and substrate oxidation, assayed polographically and spectrofluorimetrically, respectively pointed out a high ATP turnover and a low spare respiratory capacity, mainly linked to the NADH-O₂ oxidase activity. Therefore, boar spermatozoa heavily rely on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, and especially on Complex I activity, to produce ATP and fuel motility.

Mitochondrial Ca2+ -activated F1 FO -ATPase hydrolyzes ATP and promotes the permeability transition pore

The properties of the mitochondrial F₁ F_O -ATPase catalytic site, which can bind Mg²⁺ , Mn²⁺ , or Ca²⁺ and hydrolyze ATP, were explored by inhibition kinetic analyses to cast light on the Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase connection with the permeability transition pore (PTP) that initiates cascade events leading to cell death. While the natural cofactor Mg²⁺ activates the F₁ F_O -ATPase in competition with Mn²⁺ , Ca²⁺ is a noncompetitive inhibitor in the presence of Mg²⁺ . Selective F₁ inhibitors (Is-F₁ ), namely NBD-Cl, piceatannol, resveratrol, and quercetin, exerted different mechanisms (mixed and uncompetitive inhibition) on either Ca²⁺ - or Mg²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase, consistent with the conclusion that the catalytic mechanism changes when Mg²⁺ is replaced by Ca²⁺ . In a partially purified F₁ domain preparation, Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ -ATPase maintained Is-F₁ sensitivity, and enzyme inhibition was accompanied by the maintenance of the mitochondrial calcium retention capacity and membrane potential. The data strengthen the structural relationship between Ca²⁺ -activated F₁ F_O -ATPase and the PTP, and, in turn, on consequences, such as physiopathological cellular changes.

Season and Cooking May Alter Fatty Acids Profile of Polar Lipids from Blue-Back Fish

Polar lipids (PoL) represent a new promising dietary approach in the prevention and treatment of many human diseases, due to their potential nutritional value and unique biophysical properties. This study investigates the effects of catching season and oven baking on the fatty acid profiles (FAP) of PoL in four species of blue-back fish widely present in the North Adriatic Sea: anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus), sprat (Sprattus sprattus), and horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus). PoL levels (427-652 mg/100 g flesh) varied among the four species, with no significant seasonal variations within species. FAP of raw fillets were particularly high in polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and EPA; total PUFA was constant in all species throughout the year, while long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) rose in spring (except in sprat), especially due to the contribution of DHA. The FAP response for PoL to oven baking was species-specific and, among n-3 PUFA, DHA exhibited the greatest heat resistance; the influence of oven baking on FAP was found to be correlated with the catching season, especially for anchovy and sardine, while sprat PoL were not affected by cooking processes. The four species analyzed in this study presented very low n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratios and highly favorable nutritional indices, emphasizing their PoL qualities and promoting their role in increasing human n-3 PUFA intake. The four species can be considered as superior sources of n-3 PUFA and can be employed as supplements in functional food manufacturing and in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.

Nicotinamide Nucleotide Transhydrogenase as a Sensor of Mitochondrial Biology

The enzyme nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase (NNT) transfers hydride from NADH to NADP⁺ coupled to H⁺ translocation across the inner mitochondrial membrane. In a recent study, Kampjut and Sazanov reveal that the bifunctional NNT mechanism rules the NAD(P)⁺/NAD(P)H interconversion ratio, which in turn regulates antioxidant defense and sirtuin actions.

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore in cell death: A promising drug binding bioarchitecture

Bioenergetic failure often features programmed cell death involved in some severe pathologies. When the cell is fated to die, the inner mitochondrial membrane becomes permeable to ions and solutes, due to the formation and opening of a channel known as mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP). Up to now, the still-elusive mPTP structure and mechanism prevented any attempt to identify/design drugs to rule its formation and limit cell death. Latest advances, which strongly suggest that the F₁ F_O -ATPase can coincide with the mPTP, open new perspectives in therapy. Compounds targeting and inhibiting cyclophilin D, a known mPTP promoter, could be exploited to block mPTP formation. Moreover, if the mPTP-F₁ F_O -ATPase connection will be consolidated, selected F₁ F_O -ATPase inhibitors could represent novel therapeutic options to attenuate mPTP-related diseases by directly acting on mPTP molecular mechanism. This intriguing perspective, which raises new hopes to counteract mPTP-related diseases, stimulates further studies to clarify the mPTP architecture and mechanism.

Emerging Roles for the Mitochondrial ATP Synthase Supercomplexes

As pointed out by Gu et al. (Science 2019) in mammalian mitochondria, the H-shaped tetrameric structure of the ATP synthase, the cell powerhouse, consists of two V-shaped dimers linked by two IF1 in antiparallel arrangement. This supramolecular structure reveals new functional/structural roles of the enzyme complex in mitochondria.

A Therapeutic Role for the F1FO-ATP Synthase

Recently, the F₁F_O-ATP synthase, due to its dual role of life enzyme as main adenosine triphosphate (ATP) maker and of death enzyme, as ATP dissipator and putative structural component of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), which triggers cell death, has been increasingly considered as a drug target. Accordingly, the enzyme offers new strategies to counteract the increased antibiotic resistance. The challenge is to find or synthesize compounds able to discriminate between prokaryotic and mitochondrial F₁F_O-ATP synthase, exploiting subtle structural differences to kill pathogens without affecting the host. From this perspective, the eukaryotic enzyme could also be made refractory to macrolide antibiotics by chemically produced posttranslational modifications. Moreover, because the mitochondrial F₁F_O-ATPase activity stimulated by Ca²⁺ instead of by the natural modulator Mg²⁺ is most likely involved in mPTP formation, effectors preferentially targeting the Ca²⁺-activated enzyme may modulate the mPTP. If the enzyme involvement in the mPTP is confirmed, Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitors may counteract conditions featured by an increased mPTP activity, such as neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases and physiological aging. Conversely, mPTP opening could be pharmacologically stimulated to selectively kill unwanted cells. On the basis of recent literature and promising lab findings, the action mechanism of F₁ and F_O inhibitors is considered. These molecules may act as enzyme modifiers and constitute new drugs to kill pathogens, improve compromised enzyme functions, and limit the deathly enzyme role in pathologies. The enzyme offers a wide spectrum of therapeutic strategies to fight at the molecular level diseases whose treatment is still insufficient or merely symptomatic.

Characterization of metabolic profiles and lipopolysaccharide effects on porcine vascular wall mesenchymal stem cells

The link between metabolic remodeling and stem cell fate is still unclear. To explore this topic, the metabolic profile of porcine vascular wall mesenchymal stem cells (pVW-MSCs) was investigated. At the first and second cell passages, pVW-MSCs exploit both glycolysis and cellular respiration to synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), but in the subsequent (third to eighth) passages they do not show any mitochondrial ATP turnover. Interestingly, when the first passage pVW-MSCs are exposed to 0.1 or 10 μg/ml lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) for 4 hr, even if ATP synthesis is prevented, the spare respiratory capacity is retained and the glycolytic capacity is unaffected. In contrast, the exposure of pVW-MSCs at the fifth passage to 10 μg/ml LPS stimulates mitochondrial ATP synthesis. Flow cytometry rules out any reactive oxygen species (ROS) involvement in the LPS effects, thus suggesting that the pVW-MSC metabolic pattern is modulated by culture conditions via ROS-independent mechanisms.