Lithium in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder

The Changes of Blood and CSF Ion Levels in Depressed Patients: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Micronutrient deficiencies and excesses are closely related to developing and treating depression. Traditional and effective antidepressants include tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and lithium. There is no consensus on the fluctuation of zinc (Zn2+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), copper (Cu2+), iron (Fe2+), and manganese (Mn2+) ion levels in depressed individuals before and after therapy. In order to determine whether there were changes in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of these ions in depressed patients compared with healthy controls and depressed patients treated with TCAs, SSRIs, or lithium, we applied a systematic review and meta-analysis. Using the Stata 17.0 software, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the changes in ion levels in human samples from healthy controls, depressive patients, and patients treated with TCAs, SSRIs, and lithium, respectively. By searching the PubMed, EMBASE, Google Scholar, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and WAN FANG databases, 75 published analyzable papers were chosen. In the blood, the levels of Zn2+ and Mg2+ in depressed patients had decreased while the Ca2+ and Cu2+ levels had increased compared to healthy controls, Fe2+ and Mn2+ levels have not significantly changed. After treatment with SSRIs, the levels of Zn2+ and Ca2+ in depressed patients increased while Cu2+ levels decreased. Mg2+ and Ca2+ levels were increased in depressed patients after Lithium treatment. The findings of the meta-analysis revealed that micronutrient levels were closely associated with the onset of depression and prompted more research into the underlying mechanisms as well as the pathophysiological and therapeutic implications.

The Effect of Neuropsychiatric Drugs on the Oxidation-Reduction Balance in Therapy

The effectiveness of available neuropsychiatric drugs in the era of an increasing number of patients is not sufficient, and the complexity of neuropsychiatric disease entities that are difficult to diagnose and therapeutically is increasing. Also, discoveries about the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric diseases are promising, including those initiating a new round of innovations in the role of oxidative stress in the etiology of neuropsychiatric diseases. Oxidative stress is highly related to mental disorders, in the treatment of which the most frequently used are first- and second-generation antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and antidepressants. Literature reports on the effect of neuropsychiatric drugs on oxidative stress are divergent. They are starting with those proving their protective effect and ending with those confirming disturbances in the oxidation-reduction balance. The presented publication reviews the state of knowledge on the role of oxidative stress in the most frequently used therapies for neuropsychiatric diseases using first- and second-generation antipsychotic drugs, i.e., haloperidol, clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, or aripiprazole, mood stabilizers: lithium, carbamazepine, valproic acid, oxcarbazepine, and antidepressants: citalopram, sertraline, and venlafaxine, along with a brief pharmacological characteristic, preclinical and clinical studies effects.

Precision Medicine in Depression: The Role of Proteomics and Metabolomics in Personalized Treatment Approaches

Depression, or major depressive disorder (MDD), is a widespread mental health condition marked by enduring feelings of sorrow and loss of interest. Treatment of depression frequently combines psychotherapy, medication, and lifestyle modifications. However, the occurrence of treatment resistance in certain individuals makes it difficult for physicians to effectively manage this disorder, calling for the implementation of alternative therapeutic strategies. Recently, precision medicine has gained increased attention in the field of mental health, paving the way for more personalized and effective therapeutic interventions in depression. Also known as personalized medicine, this approach relies on genetic composition, molecular profiles, and environmental variables to customize therapies to individual patients. In particular, precision medicine has offered novel viewpoints on depression through two specific domains: proteomics and metabolomics. On one hand, proteomics is the thorough study of proteins in a biological system, while metabolomics focuses on analyzing the complete set of metabolites in a living being. In the past few years, progress in research has led to the identification of numerous depression-related biomarkers using proteomics and metabolomics techniques, allowing for early identification, precise diagnosis, and improved clinical outcome. However, despite significant progress in these techniques, further efforts are required for advancing precision medicine in the diagnosis and treatment of depression. The overarching goal of this chapter is to provide the current state of knowledge regarding the use of proteomics and metabolomics in identifying biomarkers related to depression. It also highlights the potential of proteomics and metabolomics in elucidating the intricate processes underlying depression, opening the door for tailored therapies that could eventually enhance clinical outcome in depressed patients. This chapter finally discusses the main challenges in the use of proteomics and metabolomics and discusses potential future research directions.

Psychopharmacological Approaches for Neural Plasticity and Neurogenesis in Major Depressive Disorders

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a mental health disorder associated with cognitive impairment, dysregulated appetite, fatigue, insomnia or hypersomnia, and severe mood changes that significantly impact the ability of the affected individual to perform day-to-day tasks, leading to suicide in the worst-case scenario. As MDD is becoming more prevalent, affecting roughly 300 million individuals worldwide, its treatment has become a major point of interest. Antidepressants acting as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are currently used as the first line of treatment for MDD. Other antidepressants currently used for the treatment of MDD include the serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). However, although effective in alleviating symptoms of MDD, most antidepressants require weeks or even months of regular administration prior to eliciting a rational clinical effect. Owing to the strong evidence showing a relationship between neural plasticity, neurogenesis, and MDD, researchers have also looked at the possibility of using treatment modalities that target these processes in an attempt to improve clinical outcome. The overarching aim of this chapter is to highlight the role of neural plasticity and neurogenesis in the pathophysiology of MDD and discuss the most recently studied treatment strategies that target these processes by presenting supporting evidence from both animal and human studies.

Ketamine for Major Depressive Disorder

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. Conventional antidepressant treatment is characterised by a significant time to onset of therapeutic action (approximately 2 weeks) and fails to achieve a stable remission of symptoms in one-third of subjects with MDD. In the last 20 years the discovery of antidepressant effects of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine as a rapid acting (within hours) and sustained (up to 7 days) antidepressant has represented a major paradigm shift in the field.The present chapter reviews the pharmacology, safety, and efficacy of ketamine as a novel therapeutic agent for MDD and specifically for subjects who did not respond to conventional antidepressant (treatment resistant depression). The impact of ketamine on suicidal ideation, the availability of brain biomarkers of ketamine treatment response and the association of ketamine and psychotherapy are considered.

Evaluation of Antidepressive-like Behaviours and Oxidative Stress Parameters in Mice Receiving Imipramine-Zinc Complex Compound

The study aimed to evaluate the antidepressant-like effects of an imipramine-zinc (IMI-Zn) complex compound on mice and assess the level of oxidative stress parameters. The research also investigated whether the IMI-Zn complex showed superior antidepressant activity compared to individual treatments of both compounds at effective doses and their joint administration at subtherapeutic doses. The study was conducted on mice. Forced swim (FST), tail suspension (TST), and locomotor activity tests were used for behavioral studies. The results demonstrated the IMI-Zn complex's dose-dependent antidepressant potential when orally administered to mice. Its efficacy was similar to the separate administration of therapeutic doses of imipramine (IMI) and zinc (Zn) and their joint administration at subtherapeutic doses. Moreover, subjecting mice to acute stress did not significantly affect the activity of on glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione reductase (GR), and total antioxidant status (TAS), possibly due to the short exposure time to the stress stimulus. By developing the IMI-Zn complex, it might be possible to simplify the treatment approach, potentially improving patient compliance by combining the therapeutic effects of both IMI and Zn within a single compound, thus addressing one of the contributing factors to non-compliance in depression therapy. The IMI-Zn complex could be a valuable strategy to optimize therapeutic outcomes and balance efficacy and tolerability.

Impact of lithium on mortality among older adults with major psychiatric disorders: A 5-year prospective multicenter study

OBJECTIVE

Prior studies report conflicting results about the association between lithium use and all-cause mortality. In addition, data are scarce on this association among older adults with psychiatric disorders. In this report, we sought to examine the associations of lithium use with all-cause mortality and specific causes of death (i.e., due to cardiovascular disorder, non-cardiovascular disease, accident, or suicide) among older adults with psychiatric disorders during a 5-year follow-up period.

METHODS

In this observational epidemiological study, we used data from 561 patients belonging to a Cohort of individuals with Schizophrenia or Affective disorders aged 55-years or more (CSA). Patients taking lithium at baseline were first compared to patients not taking lithium, and then to patients taking (i) antiepileptics and (ii) atypical antipsychotics in sensitivity analyses. Analyses were adjusted for socio-demographic (e.g., age, gender), clinical characteristics (e.g., psychiatric diagnosis, cognitive functioning), and other psychotropic medications (e.g. benzodiazepines).

RESULTS

There was no significant association between lithium use and all-cause mortality [AOR=1.12; 95%CI=0.45-2.79; p=0.810] or disease-related mortality [AOR=1.37; 95%CI=0.51-3.65; p=0.530]. None of the 44 patients taking lithium died from suicide, whereas 4.0% (N=16) of patients not receiving lithium did.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that lithium may not be associated with all-cause or disease-related mortality and might be associated with reduced risk of suicide in this population. They argue against the underuse of lithium as compared with antiepileptics and atypical antipsychotics among older adults with mood disorders.

Re-Purposing FDA-Approved Drugs for Opioid Use Disorder

OBJECTIVE

To investigate FDA-approved drugs prescribed for unrelated diseases or conditions that promote remission in subjects diagnosed with opioid use disorder (OUD).

METHODS

This was a retrospective observational study utilizing the TriNetX electronic medical record data. Subjects between 18 and 65 years old were included in this study. First, a drug screen was employed to identify medications used for chronic illness that are associated with OUD remission. Based on Fisher's exact test for significance, 28 of 101 medications were selected for further analysis. Positive (buprenorphine/methadone) and negative controls (benazepril) were included in the analysis. Medications were analyzed in the absence and presence of buprenorphine or methadone, two medications used to treat OUD, to identify the likelihood of OUD remission up to one year following the index event.

RESULTS

We identify 8 medications (prazosin, propranolol, lithium carbonate, olanzapine, quetiapine, bupropion, citalopram, and escitalopram) that may be useful for increasing remission in OUD in the absence of buprenorphine or methadone. Additionally, our results identify psychiatric medications that when taken alongside buprenorphine and methadone improve remission rates.

CONCLUSION

These results provide medication options that may be useful in treating OUD as well as integrated therapies to treat comorbid mental illness.

Clinical use of mood stabilizers beyond treatment for bipolar disorder: The REAP-MS study

OBJECTIVE

Mood stabilizers are psychotropic drugs mainly used to treat bipolar disorder in the acute phase or for maintenance therapy to prevent relapse. In clinical practice, mood stabilizers are commonly prescribed for conditions other than bipolar disorder. This study investigated the distribution of mood stabilizer prescriptions for different psychiatric diagnoses and studied differences in the drugs, dosage, and plasma concentration in 10 Asian countries including Taiwan, South Korea, Malaysia, China, Thailand, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Indonesia, and Myanmar.

METHODS

Patients prescribed mood stabilizers (lithium, carbamazepine, valproic acid, or lamotrigine) for a psychiatric condition other than bipolar disorder (codes F31.0-F31.9 in the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition, Clinical Modification) were recruited through convenience sampling. A website-based data entry system was used for data collection.

RESULTS

In total, 1557 psychiatric patients were enrolled. Schizophrenia, schizotypal, delusional, and other non-mood psychotic disorders (F20-F29, 55.8 %) was the most common diagnosis, followed by non-bipolar mood disorders (F30, F31- F39, 25.3 %), organic mental disorder (F00-F09, 8.8 %), mental retardation (F70-F79, 5.8 %) and anxiety, dissociative, stress-related, somatoform and other nonpsychotic mental disorders (F40-F48, 4.4 %). The most frequently targeted symptoms (>20 %) were irritability (48 %), impulsivity (32.4 %), aggression (29.2 %), anger (20.8 %), and psychosis (24.1 %). Valproic acid was the most frequently used medication.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians typically prescribe mood stabilizers as empirically supported treatment to manage mood symptoms in patients with diagnoses other than bipolar disorders, though there is on official indication for these disorders. The costs and benefits of this add-on symptomatic treatment warrant further investigation.

Delirium with Concurrent Use of Lithium and ECT and the Safety Implications: Case Reports and Review of the Literature

Using electroconvulsive treatment and lithium together to treat acute manic episodes is common, but the effects of combining these therapies vary according to the literature. Some studies have found severe adverse side effects, while others have found the combination of both medications safe and helpful. To investigate potential adverse side effects, this study reports on two cases where bipolar affective disorder patients developed delirium after receiving electroconvulsive therapy and lithium concurrently. The delirium was attributed only to the combined administration of these medicines after ruling out other potential causes. Additionally, alterations in blood-brain barrier permeability, such as those caused by electroconvulsive therapy and age, increased the likelihood of delirium. As a result, caution should be taken when using this combination of medicines, especially in those predisposed to delirium. This study established links between these medications and adverse effects, such as delirium. Further research is necessary to determine the efficacy and risks of combining these medications, establish causality, and develop prevention strategies.

Lithium bioaccumulation in Lentinus crinitus mycelia grown in media with different lithium sources and pH values

Lentinus crinitus bioaccumulates lithium in mycelia, but bioaccumulation may be affected by pH of the culture medium. Lithium is used in clinical practice as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant. This study aimed to assess the effect of culture medium pH and lithium source (LiCl or Li₂CO₃) on lithium bioaccumulation in vegetative mycelia of L. crinitus grown in malt extract broth. Lentinus crinitus U9-1 was cultured in malt extract broth supplemented with Li₂CO₃ or LiCl (50 mg L^-1 lithium) in the pH range of 3.0 to 6.0. The pH was adjusted using HCl solution. The results showed that medium pH affected mycelial biomass production, lithium bioaccumulation in mycelial biomass, and lithium transfer from the culture medium to mycelial biomass. The effect of lithium source on the bioaccumulation capacity of mycelial biomass varied according to pH. At pH 4.0, both lithium sources stimulated mycelial biomass production compared to the control without the addition of lithium. At pH 5.5, Li₂CO₃ provided the highest lithium bioaccumulation in mycelial biomass. Lithium transfer from the culture medium to mycelia was highest in Li₂CO₃-supplemented cultures at pH 4.5. LiCl reduced hyphal width compared with Li₂CO₃ and the control. However, pH and lithium sources did not affect the formation of clamp connections in hyphae. For the first time, the influence of the pH of the culture medium on lithium bioaccumulation by Lentinus crinitus is reported. Finally, we conclude that the culture medium pH affected lithium transfer and bioaccumulation in mycelial biomass differently depending on the lithium source. Additionally, we report the presence of clamp connections in the hyphae of L. crinitus as an indicator of even growth.

Toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides): Body weight, hepatic lipid accumulation, antioxidant defense and inflammation response

The unreasonably anthropogenic activities make lithium a widespread pollutant in aquatic environment, and this metallic element can enter the food chain to influence humans. Therefore, the study was designed to explore the influence of dietary lithium supplementation on body weight, lipid deposition, antioxidant capacity and inflammation response of largemouth bass. Multivariate statistical analysis confirmed the toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on largemouth bass. Specifically, excessive dietary lithium (≥87.08 mg/kg) significantly elevated weight gain and feed intake of largemouth bass. Meanwhile, overload lithium inclusion aggravated the accumulation of hepatic lipid and serum lithium. Gene expression results showed that lithium inclusion, especially overload lithium, promoted the transcription of lipogenesis related genes, PPARγ, ACC and FAS, inhibited the expression of fatty acid oxidation related genes, PPARα and ACO, and lipolysis related genes, HSL and MGL. Meanwhile, high lithium inclusion caused the oxidative stress, which was partly through the inhibition of Nrf2/Keap1 pathway. Moreover, dietary lithium inclusion significantly depressed the activity of hepatic lysozyme, and promoted the transcription of proinflammation factors, TNF-α, 5-LOX, IL-1β and IL-8, which was suggested to be regulated by the p38 MAPK pathway. Our findings suggested that overload lithium resulted in increased body weight, hepatic lipid deposition, oxidative stress and inflammation response. The results obtained here provided novel insights on the toxicological impacts of excessive lithium on aquatic animals.

Hemodialysis Treatment for Patients with Lithium Poisoning

BACKGROUND

Hemodialysis is often recommended to treat severe lithium poisoning. Nevertheless, the application rate of hemodialysis in patients with lithium poisoning is varied across different groups and the effect of hemodialysis is still undetermined. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the hemodialysis rate of patients with lithium poisoning and to explore the clinical features of lithium-poisoned-patients treated or untreated with hemodialysis.

METHODS

Between 2001 and 2019, 36 patients treated at the Chang Gung Memorial Hospital for the management of lithium poisoning were stratified according to whether they were treated with hemodialysis (n = 7) or not (n = 29).

RESULTS

The patients were aged 50.7 ± 18.1 years. The poisoning patterns were acute on chronic (61.1%), chronic (25.0%) and acute (13.9%). The precipitating factors of dehydration and infection were noted in 36.1% and 25.0% of patients, respectively. Bipolar disorder (72.2%), depressive disorder (27.8%) and psychotic disorder (11.1%) were the top three psychiatric comorbidities. The hemodialysis group not only had a lower Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score (p = 0.001) but also had a higher respiratory failure rate (p = 0.033), aspiration pneumonia rate (p = 0.033) and acute kidney injury network (AKIN) score (p = 0.002) than the non-hemodialysis group. Although none of the patients died of lithium poisoning, the hemodialysis group required more endotracheal intubation (p = 0.033), more intensive care unit admission (p = 0.033) and longer hospitalization (p = 0.007) than the non-hemodialysis group.

CONCLUSION

The analytical results revealed zero mortality rate and low hemodialysis rate (1.9%). Compared with patients without hemodialysis, patients receiving hemodialysis suffered severer lithium-associated complications and needed a more intensive care unit admission and longer hospital stay.

Pharmacological treatment of major depressive disorder according to severity in psychiatric inpatients: results from the AMSP pharmacovigilance program from 2001-2017

The International Classification of Diseases (10^th Version) categorizes major depressive disorder (MDD) according to severity. Guidelines provide recommendations for the treatment of MDD according to severity. Aim of this study was to assess real-life utilization of psychotropic drugs based on severity of MDD in psychiatric inpatients. Drug utilization data from the program “Drug Safety in Psychiatry” (German: Arzneimittelsicherheit in der Psychiatrie, AMSP) were analyzed according to the severity of MDD. From 2001 to 2017, 43,868 psychiatric inpatients with MDD were treated in participating hospitals. Most patients were treated with ≥ 1 antidepressant drug (ADD; 85.8% of patients with moderate MDD, 89.8% of patients with severe MDD, and 87.9% of patients with psychotic MDD). More severely depressed patients were more often treated with selective serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors and mirtazapine and less often with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (p < 0.001 each). Use of antipsychotic drugs (APDs), especially second-generation APDs, increased significantly with severity (37.0%, 47.9%, 84.1%; p < 0.001 each). APD + ADD was the most used combination (32.8%, 43.6%, 74.4%), followed by two ADDs (26.3%, 29.3%, 24.9%). Use of lithium was minimal (3.3%, 6.1% ,7.1%). The number of psychotropic drugs increased with severity of MDD—patients with psychotic MDD had the highest utilization of psychotropic drugs (93.4%, 96.5%, 98.7%; p < 0.001). ADD monotherapy was observed to a lesser extent, even in patients with non-severe MDD (23.2%, 17.1%, 4.4%). Findings reveal substantial discrepancies between guideline recommendations and real-life drug utilization, indicating that guidelines may insufficiently consider clinical needs within the psychiatric inpatient setting.

Lithium upregulates growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95) in cultured neurons exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation and improves electrophysiological outcomes in rats subjected to transient focal cerebral ischemia following a long-term recovery period

OBJECTIVES

Lithium has numerous neuroplastic and neuroprotective effects in patients with stroke. Here, we evaluated whether delayed and short-term lithium treatment reduces brain infarction volume and improves electrophysiological and neurobehavioral outcomes following long-term recovery after cerebral ischemia and the possible contributions of lithium-mediated mechanisms of neuroplasticity.

METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to right middle cerebral artery occlusion for 90 min, followed by 28 days of recovery. Lithium chloride (1 mEq/kg) or vehicle was administered via intraperitoneal infusion once per day at 24 h after reperfusion onset. Neurobehavioral outcomes and somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) were examined before and 28 days after ischemia-reperfusion. Brain infarction was assessed using Nissl staining. Primary cortical neuron cultures were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and treated with 2 or 20 μM lithium for 24 or 48 h; subsequent brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43), postsynaptic density-95 (PSD-95), and synaptosomal-associated protein-25 (SNAP-25) levels were analyzed using western blotting.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, lithium significantly reduced infarction volume in the ischemic brain and improved electrophysiological and neurobehavioral outcomes at 28 days post-insult. In cultured cortical neurons, BDNF, GAP-43, and PSD-95 expression were enhanced by 24- and 48-h treatment with lithium after OGD.

CONCLUSION

Lithium upregulates BDNF, GAP-43, and PSD-95, which partly accounts for its improvement of neuroplasticity and provision of long-term neuroprotection in the ischemic brain.Abbreviations: BDNF: brain-derived neurotrophic factor; ECM: extracellular matrix; EDTA: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; GAP-43: growth-associated protein-43; GSK-3β: glycogen synthase kinase-3β; HBSS: Hank's balanced salt solution; LCBF: local cortical blood perfusion; LDF: laser-Doppler flowmetry; MCAO: middle cerebral artery occlusion; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate; NMDAR: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; OCT: optimal cutting temperature compound; OGD: oxygen-glucose deprivation; PSD-95: postsynaptic density-95; SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate; SNAP-25: synaptosomal-associated protein-25; SSEP: somatosensory evoked potential.

Post-COVID-19 Depressive Symptoms: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacological Treatment

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is still spreading worldwide over 2 years since its outbreak. The psychopathological implications in COVID-19 survivors such as depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairments are now recognized as primary symptoms of the "post-acute COVID-19 syndrome." Depressive psychopathology was reported in around 35% of patients at short, medium, and long-term follow-up after the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Post-COVID-19 depressive symptoms are known to increase fatigue and affect neurocognitive functioning, sleep, quality of life, and global functioning in COVID-19 survivors. The psychopathological mechanisms underlying post-COVID-19 depressive symptoms are mainly related to the inflammation triggered by the peripheral immune-inflammatory response to the viral infection and to the persistent psychological burden during and after infection. The large number of SARS-CoV-2-infected patients and the high prevalence of post-COVID-19 depressive symptoms may significantly increase the pool of people suffering from depressive disorders. Therefore, it is essential to screen, diagnose, treat, and monitor COVID-19 survivors' psychopathology to counteract the depression disease burden and related years of life lived with disability. This paper reviews the current literature in order to synthesize the available evidence regarding epidemiology, clinical features, neurobiological underpinning, and pharmacological treatment of post-COVID-19 depressive symptoms.

Lithium administered to pregnant, lactating and neonatal rats: entry into developing brain

Background

Little is known about the extent of drug entry into developing brain, when administered to pregnant and lactating women. Lithium is commonly prescribed for bipolar disorder. Here we studied transfer of lithium given to dams, into blood, brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in embryonic and postnatal animals as well as adults.

Methods

Lithium chloride in a clinically relevant dose (3.2 mg/kg body weight) was injected intraperitoneally into pregnant (E15–18) and lactating dams (birth-P16/17) or directly into postnatal pups (P0–P16/17). Acute treatment involved a single injection; long-term treatment involved twice daily injections for the duration of the experiment. Following terminal anaesthesia blood plasma, CSF and brains were collected. Lithium levels and brain distribution were measured using Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry and total lithium levels were confirmed by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry.

Results

Lithium was detected in blood, CSF and brain of all fetal and postnatal pups following lithium treatment of dams. Its concentration in pups’ blood was consistently below that in maternal blood (30–35%) indicating significant protection by the placenta and breast tissue. However, much of the lithium that reached the fetus entered its brain. Levels of lithium in plasma fluctuated in different treatment groups but its concentration in CSF was stable at all ages, in agreement with known stable levels of endogenous ions in CSF. There was no significant increase of lithium transfer into CSF following application of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase inhibitor (digoxin) in vivo, indicating that lithium transfer across choroid plexus epithelium is not likely to be via the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase mechanism, at least early in development. Comparison with passive permeability markers suggested that in acute experiments lithium permeability was less than expected for diffusion but similar in long-term experiments at P2.

Conclusions

Information obtained on the distribution of lithium in developing brain provides a basis for studying possible deleterious effects on brain development and behaviour in offspring of mothers undergoing lithium therapy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12987-021-00285-w.

Exploring the Role of Nutraceuticals in Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Rationale, State of the Art and Future Prospects

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a complex and common disorder, with many factors involved in its onset and development. The clinical management of this condition is frequently based on the use of some pharmacological antidepressant agents, together with psychotherapy and other alternatives in most severe cases. However, an important percentage of depressed patients fail to respond to the use of conventional therapies. This has created the urgency of finding novel approaches to help in the clinical management of those individuals. Nutraceuticals are natural compounds contained in food with proven benefits either in health promotion or disease prevention and therapy. A growing interest and economical sources are being placed in the development and understanding of multiple nutraceutical products. Here, we summarize some of the most relevant nutraceutical agents evaluated in preclinical and clinical models of depression. In addition, we will also explore less frequent but interest nutraceutical products which are starting to be tested, also evaluating future roads to cover in order to maximize the benefits of nutraceuticals in MDD.

Association of polygenic score for major depression with response to lithium in patients with bipolar disorder

Lithium is a first-line medication for bipolar disorder (BD), but only one in three patients respond optimally to the drug. Since evidence shows a strong clinical and genetic overlap between depression and bipolar disorder, we investigated whether a polygenic susceptibility to major depression is associated with response to lithium treatment in patients with BD. Weighted polygenic scores (PGSs) were computed for major depression (MD) at different GWAS p value thresholds using genetic data obtained from 2586 bipolar patients who received lithium treatment and took part in the Consortium on Lithium Genetics (ConLi+Gen) study. Summary statistics from genome-wide association studies in MD (135,458 cases and 344,901 controls) from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) were used for PGS weighting. Response to lithium treatment was defined by continuous scores and categorical outcome (responders versus non-responders) using measurements on the Alda scale. Associations between PGSs of MD and lithium treatment response were assessed using a linear and binary logistic regression modeling for the continuous and categorical outcomes, respectively. The analysis was performed for the entire cohort, and for European and Asian sub-samples. The PGSs for MD were significantly associated with lithium treatment response in multi-ethnic, European or Asian populations, at various p value thresholds. Bipolar patients with a low polygenic load for MD were more likely to respond well to lithium, compared to those patients with high polygenic load [lowest vs highest PGS quartiles, multi-ethnic sample: OR = 1.54 (95% CI: 1.18-2.01) and European sample: OR = 1.75 (95% CI: 1.30-2.36)]. While our analysis in the Asian sample found equivalent effect size in the same direction: OR = 1.71 (95% CI: 0.61-4.90), this was not statistically significant. Using PGS decile comparison, we found a similar trend of association between a high genetic loading for MD and lower response to lithium. Our findings underscore the genetic contribution to lithium response in BD and support the emerging concept of a lithium-responsive biotype in BD.

Prospects for personalization of depression treatment with genome sequencing

The effectiveness of antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder varies considerably between patients. With these interindividual differences and a number of antidepressants to choose from, the first choice of treatment often fails to produce improvement in the patient's condition. A substantial part of the variation in response to antidepressants can be explained by genetic factors. Accordingly, variants related to drug metabolism in two pharmacogenes, CYP2D6 and CYP2C19, have already been translated into guidelines for antidepressant prescriptions. The role of variants in other genes that influence antidepressant responses is not yet understood. Furthermore, rare and individual variants account for a substantial part of genetic differences in antidepressant efficacy. Recent years have brought a tremendous increase in the accessibility of genome sequencing in terms of data availability and its clinical use. In this review, we summarize recent developments and current issues in the personalization of major depressive disorder treatment through pharmacogenomics.

The neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19: Interactions with psychiatric illness and pharmacological treatment

The recent outbreak of the corona virus disease (COVID-19) has had major global impact. The relationship between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection and psychiatric diseases is of great concern, with an evident link between corona virus infections and various central and peripheral nervous system manifestations. Unmitigated neuro-inflammation has been noted to underlie not only the severe respiratory complications of the disease but is also present in a range of neuro-psychiatric illnesses. Several neurological and psychiatric disorders are characterized by immune-inflammatory states, while treatments for these disorders have distinct anti-inflammatory properties and effects. With inflammation being a common contributing factor in SARS-CoV-2, as well as psychiatric disorders, treatment of either condition may affect disease progression of the other or alter response to pharmacological treatment. In this review, we elucidate how viral infections could affect pre-existing psychiatric conditions and how pharmacological treatments of these conditions may affect overall progress and outcome in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2. We address whether any treatment-induced benefits and potential adverse effects may ultimately affect the overall treatment approach, considering the underlying dysregulated neuro-inflammatory processes and potential drug interactions. Finally, we suggest adjunctive treatment options for SARS-CoV-2-associated neuro-psychiatric symptoms.

The i-Motif as a Molecular Target: More Than a Complementary DNA Secondary Structure

Stretches of cytosine-rich DNA are capable of adopting a dynamic secondary structure, the i-motif. When within promoter regions, the i-motif has the potential to act as a molecular switch for controlling gene expression. However, i-motif structures in genomic areas of repetitive nucleotide sequences may play a role in facilitating or hindering expansion of these DNA elements. Despite research on the i-motif trailing behind the complementary G-quadruplex structure, recent discoveries including the identification of a specific i-motif antibody are pushing this field forward. This perspective reviews initial and current work characterizing the i-motif and providing insight into the biological function of this DNA structure, with a focus on how the i-motif can serve as a molecular target for developing new therapeutic approaches to modulate gene expression and extension of repetitive DNA.

Pharmacological Augmentation in Unipolar Depression: A Guide to the Guidelines

BACKGROUND

Pharmacological augmentation is a recommended strategy for patients with treatment-resistant depression. A range of guidelines provide advice on treatment selection, prescription, monitoring and discontinuation, but variation in the content and quality of guidelines may limit the provision of objective, evidence-based care. This is of importance given the side effect burden and poorer long-term outcomes associated with polypharmacy and treatment-resistant depression. This review provides a definitive overview of pharmacological augmentation recommendations by assessing the quality of guidelines for depression and comparing the recommendations made.

METHODS

A systematic literature search identified current treatment guidelines for depression published in English. Guidelines were quality assessed using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II tool. Data relating to the prescription of pharmacological augmenters were extracted from those developed with sufficient rigor, and the included recommendations compared.

RESULTS

Total of 1696 records were identified, 19 guidelines were assessed for quality, and 10 were included. Guidelines differed in their quality, the stage at which augmentation was recommended, the agents included, and the evidence base cited. Lithium and atypical antipsychotics were recommended by all 10, though the specific advice was not consistent. Of the 15 augmenters identified, no others were universally recommended.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides a comprehensive overview of current pharmacological augmentation recommendations for major depression and will support clinicians in selecting appropriate treatment guidance. Although some variation can be accounted for by date of guideline publication, and limited evidence from clinical trials, there is a clear need for greater consistency across guidelines to ensure patients receive consistent evidence-based care.

Stalin's "black dog": a postmortem diagnosis

Undoubtedly, the two leaders who were under enormous pressure during World War II (WWII) were Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin' since their respective countries had to sustain most of the war weight, at least in Europe. Lord Moran recounted in his memoir Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival that he had diagnosed a middle-aged Churchill with bipolar disorder. Churchill himself often referred to his periods of intense and prolonged depression as his "black dog." On the contrary, not much is known about Stalin's mental conditions, although in 1927 the neurologist V. M. Bekhterev, the day prior to his sudden death, upon a long examination of the leader's mental status, declared that he had found him affected by paranoia. No chemical evidence via clinical chemistry analyses was provided for the two leaders, though. We have had access to the collection of books (stored in the Russian Government Archive of Social and Political History, RGASPI, of the former Institute of Marxism and Leninism under the Central Committee of the USSR Communist Party) that Stalin was reading during WWII, with pages containing personal annotations on the margins. Upon harvesting surface material via EVA disks (ethylene-vinyl acetate studded with strong cation and anion exchangers and C₈-C₁₈ resins) and instrumental analysis via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, we detected lithium levels (~ 100 ± 8 ng/cm²) compatible with those present in the sweat and/or saliva of patients treated with lithium salts for curing bipolarity and paranoia or probably gout. These data are the first clear indication that Stalin was under cure for this pathology.Graphical abstract.

When and how to use lithium

BACKGROUND

Lithium is an old proven medication, but it is infrequently used in current practice. This review examines evidence for its benefits and risks and provides clinical guidance to its use.

METHOD

Narrative review.

RESULTS

Besides its benefit in bipolar illness, lithium has important underappreciated proven benefits in prevention of unipolar depression and suicide. Emerging data support neurobiological benefits for cognition and possible dementia prevention. Likely benefits also exist in low doses for mood temperaments (cyclothymia and hyperthymia). High doses (over 1.0 mmol/L) should be avoided since they increase side effects, complications associated with long-term use, and risk of toxicity. Conversely, low dosing can be legitimate, especially for suicide and dementia prevention. Nuisance side effects of lithium may affect adherence, and medically serious side-effects can occur. Managing strategies are available for side effects.

CONCLUSION

Lithium is the most effective medication in psychiatry, because it has disease-modifying, not just symptomatic, effects. It is effective not only for bipolar illness but also for prevention of suicide, episodes of unipolar depression, mood temperaments, and possibly dementia. Its many benefits need better appreciation, while lowered dosing can reduce risks.

Lithium Stabilizes the Mood of Bipolar Patients by Depolarizing the Neuronal Membrane Via Quantum Tunneling through the Sodium Channels

Objective

Lithium is used as first line in treating bipolar patients to stabilize their mood. However, the exact mechanism of lithium is not yet established. One of the proposed mechanisms is that lithium depolarizes the hyperpolarized neuronal membrane of bipolar patients bringing it back to the normal potential. On the other hand, the only way that lithium causes significant therapeutic depolarization is to have a membrane conductance that must be at least an order of magnitude higher than that for sodium but this is not achieved since both; lithium and sodium have the same conductance because the membrane channels are selective for them approximately by the same degree. So, this study aimed to explain how lithium could achieve higher conductance than sodium.

Methods

The idea of quantum tunneling through closed channels was used in a way to calculate the tunneling probability and the quantum conductance for lithium ions.

Results

It was found that lithium could achieve higher conductance than sodium because it has a smaller mass than sodium making lithium to have higher probability of tunneling and consequently higher conductance through channels and membrane.

Conclusion

Lithium tunneling model provides a reasonable explanation for the therapeutic depolarization effect of lithium. This model is experimentally testable to prove the tunneling effect of ions through the closed channels and to show the variations of quantum conductance between ions according to their mass.

Lithium - Pharmacological and Toxicological Aspects: The Current State of the Art

:

Lithium is the smallest monovalent cation with many different biological effects. Although lithium is present in the pharmacotherapy of psychiatric illnesses for decades, its precise mechanism of action is still not clarified. Today lithium represents first-line therapy for bipolar disorders (because it possesses both antimanic and antidepressant properties) and the adjunctive treatment for major depression (due to its antisuicidal effects). Beside, lithium showed some protective effects in neurological diseases including acute neural injury, chronic degenerative conditions, Alzheimer's disease as well as in treating leucopenia, hepatitis and some renal diseases. Recent evidence suggested that lithium also possesses some anticancer properties due to its inhibition of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) which is included in the regulation of a lot of important cellular processes such as: glycogen metabolism, inflammation, immunomodulation, apoptosis, tissue injury, regeneration etc.

:

Although recent evidence suggested a potential utility of lithium in different conditions, its broader use in clinical practice still trails. The reason for this is a narrow therapeutic index of lithium, numerous toxic effects in various organ systems and some clinically relevant interactions with other drugs. Additionally, it is necessary to perform more preclinical as well as clinical studies in order to a precise therapeutic range of lithium, as well as its detailed mechanism of action. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge concerning the pharmacological and toxicological effects of lithium.

Bipolar depression: a major unsolved challenge

Depression in bipolar disorder (BD) patients presents major clinical challenges. As the predominant psychopathology even in treated BD, depression is associated not only with excess morbidity, but also mortality from co-occurring general-medical disorders and high suicide risk. In BD, risks for medical disorders including diabetes or metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disorders, and associated mortality rates are several-times above those for the general population or with other psychiatric disorders. The SMR for suicide with BD reaches 20-times above general-population rates, and exceeds rates with other major psychiatric disorders. In BD, suicide is strongly associated with mixed (agitated-dysphoric) and depressive phases, time depressed, and hospitalization. Lithium may reduce suicide risk in BD; clozapine and ketamine require further testing. Treatment of bipolar depression is far less well investigated than unipolar depression, particularly for long-term prophylaxis. Short-term efficacy of antidepressants for bipolar depression remains controversial and they risk clinical worsening, especially in mixed states and with rapid-cycling. Evidence of efficacy of lithium and anticonvulsants for bipolar depression is very limited; lamotrigine has long-term benefit, but valproate and carbamazepine are inadequately tested and carry high teratogenic risks. Evidence is emerging of short-term efficacy of several modern antipsychotics (including cariprazine, lurasidone, olanzapine-fluoxetine, and quetiapine) for bipolar depression, including with mixed features, though they risk adverse metabolic and neurological effects.

Leptin gene polymorphisms are associated with weight gain during lithium augmentation in patients with major depression

Weight gain is a common adverse effect of lithium augmentation. Previous studies indicate an impact of genetic variants at the leptin gene on weight gain as a consequence of psychopharmacological treatment. The primary aim of our study was to identify variants at the leptin locus that might predict lithium-induced weight gain. The secondary aim was to investigate if these variants modulate leptin levels. In 180 patients with acute major depressive disorder, body mass index was measured before and after 4 weeks of lithium augmentation, in a subsample also after 4 and/or 7 months. In a subsample of 89 patients, leptin serum concentrations were measured before and during lithium augmentation. We used linear mixed model analyzes to investigate the effects of 2 polymorphisms at the leptin locus (rs4731426 and rs7799039, employing the respective proxy SNPs rs2278815 and rs10487506) on changes in body mass index and leptin levels. For both polymorphisms, which are in high linkage disequilibrium, body mass index was significantly lower in homozygous A-allele carriers than in carriers of other genotypes at baseline. Over the follow-up period, body mass index increased less in homozygous A-allele carriers of rs4731426 than in carriers of other genotypes. This was not the case for rs7799039. Neither polymorphism modulated leptin protein expression. Our study strongly supports the hypothesis that genetic variability at the leptin locus is involved in lithium augmentation-associated weight gain in major depressive disorder. Furthermore, Genotype-Tissue Expression data provide strong evidence that rs4731426 influences the expression of leptin messenger ribonucleic acid in fibroblasts.

Lithium continuation therapy following ketamine in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression: a randomized controlled trial

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine is associated with rapid but transient antidepressant effects in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression (TRD). Based on work suggesting that ketamine and lithium may share overlapping mechanisms of action, we tested lithium compared to placebo as a continuation strategy following ketamine in subjects with TRD. Participants who met all eligibility criteria and showed at least an initial partial response to a single intravenous infusion of ketamine 0.5 mg/kg were randomized under double-blind conditions to lithium or matching placebo before receiving an additional three infusions of ketamine. Subsequent to the ketamine treatments, participants remained on lithium or placebo during a double-blind continuation phase. The primary study outcome was depression severity as measured by the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale compared between the two groups at Study Day 28, which occurred ~2 weeks following the final ketamine of four infusions. Forty-seven participants with TRD were enrolled in the study and underwent an initial ketamine infusion, of whom 34 participants were deemed to have at least a partial antidepressant response and were eligible for randomization. Comparison between treatment with daily oral lithium (n = 18) or matching placebo (n = 16) at the primary outcome showed no difference in depression severity between groups (t₃₂ = 0.11, p = 0.91, 95% CI [-7.87, 8.76]). There was no difference between lithium and placebo in continuing the acute antidepressant response to ketamine. The identification of a safe and effective strategy for preventing depression relapse following an acute course of ketamine treatment remains an important goal for future studies.

Serum level of nerve growth factor is a potential biomarker of conversion to bipolar disorder in women with major depressive disorder

AIM

The aim of this study was to identify biomarkers associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) and conversion from MDD to bipolar disorder (BD) in an outpatient sample of women.

METHODS

This was a longitudinal study including women diagnosed with MDD and aged 18 to 60 years. The follow-up was 3 years. The diagnosis was performed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview Plus. Blood collection was just performed in the first phase. Serum interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor, and nerve growth factor (NGF) levels were measured using a commercial immunoassay kit.

RESULTS

We included 156 women. The conversion rate from MDD to BD was 15.4% (n = 24). NGF serum levels were increased in patients who converted to BD compared to the remitted MDD group and current MDD group (P = 0.013). The Bonferroni post-hoc test for multiple comparisons revealed significant differences for higher NGF levels in patients who converted to BD compared to patients with current MDD (P = 0.037). Interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor serum levels did not differ among the groups.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that NGF might be a useful biomarker associated with early detection of conversion to BD, helping clinicians in the clinical diagnosis.

Adding Lithium to Drinking Water for Suicide Prevention—The Ethics

Recent observations associate naturally occurring trace levels of Lithium in ground water with significantly lower suicide rates. It has been suggested that adding trace Lithium to drinking water could be a safe and effective way to reduce suicide. This article discusses the many ethical implications of such population-wide Lithium medication. It compares this policy to more targeted solutions that introduce trace amounts of Lithium to groups at higher risk of suicide or lower risk of adverse effects. The question of mass treatment with Lithium recalls other choices in public health between population-wide and more targeted interventions. The framework we propose could be relevant to some of these other dilemmas.

Systems Biology Understanding of the Effects of Lithium on Affective and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Lithium has many widely varying biochemical and phenomenological effects, suggesting that a systems biology approach is required to understand its action. Multiple lines of evidence point to lithium intake and consequent blood levels as important determinants of incidence of neurodegenerative disease, showing that understanding lithium action is of high importance. In this paper we undertake first steps toward a systems approach by analyzing mutual enrichment between the interactomes of lithium-sensitive enzymes and the pathways associated with affective and neurodegenerative disorders. This work integrates information from two important databases, STRING and KEGG pathways. We find that for the majority of neurodegenerative disorders the mutual enrichment is many times greater than chance, reinforcing previous lines of evidence that lithium is an important influence on incidence of neurodegeneration. Our work suggests rational prioritization for which disorders are likely to be most sensitive to lithium and identifies genes that are likely to be useful targets for therapy adjunct to lithium.

Differential response to lithium between melancholic and non-melancholic unipolar depression

The purpose of this report was to review the evidence regarding the differential response to lithium treatment between patients with unipolar melancholic and non-melancholic depression. Three studies suggest that the prophylactic effect of lithium in maintenance treatment may be greater in melancholic depression. Another study reported that melancholic symptoms, such as weight loss and psychomotor disturbances, predict a better response to lithium augmentation. These preliminary data suggest that the response to lithium may be greater in melancholic than in non-melancholic depression, which could be the focus of further research.

[Not Available]

Zusammenfassung. Diese Empfehlungen sollen dazu dienen, Fachpersonen das Wissen über die aktuelle Evidenz von Diagnostik und Therapie der Depression im Alter zur Verfügung zu stellen und damit zur frühzeitigen Erkennung und evidenzbasierten Behandlung beizutragen. Da für einige Behandlungsansätze nur rudimentär kontrollierte Studien vorliegen, wird auch das klinische Expertenwissen in die Beurteilung einbezogen. Im diagnostischen Vorgehen wird die besondere Symptomatik der Depression im Alter beleuchtet, auf die Suizidalität eingegangen und werden die häufig vorkommenden somatischen Komorbiditäten hervorgehoben. Auch Hypothesen zur Pathogenese, wie Neuroendokrinologie, Neurodegeneration und vaskuläre Faktoren, werden erläutert. In der Behandlung gilt heute ein integrierter biopsychosozialer Ansatz mit gezielten psychosozialen Interventionen, spezifischer Psychotherapie und einer antidepressiven Pharmakotherapie bei schweren Depressionen als sinnvoll. Daneben kommen auch chronobiologische oder Neurostimulationsverfahren zum Einsatz.

Lithium in the episode and suicide prophylaxis and in augmenting strategies in patients with unipolar depression

BACKGROUND

Depressive disorders are a leading cause of the global burden of disease and are associated with high recurrent often continuing morbidity and high excess mortality by suicide and cardiovascular disease. Whilst there are established, effective and cost-effective treatments for depression, their long-term management is often neglected: there is continuing controversy over the case of need for long-term treatment including lifelong treatment and safety issues.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

In this narrative review, we critically examine the evidence for the effectiveness and safety of lithium salts in the long-term management of unipolar depression. We refer to existing recent international guidelines as well as the scientific literature selectively and against the background of our longstanding experience with patients suffering from unipolar depression who are often under treated or inappropriately treated.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to many studies mostly dating back to the 1970/1980s, lithium is efficacious in the prophylaxis of unipolar depression particularly depression with melancholia and delusional depression and showing a clearly episodic course. Also the efficacy of lithium maintenance treatment following recovery by ECT has been clearly shown. Moreover, convincing evidence exists that lithium has added value and benefit for its unique anti-suicidal effects as well as reducing mortality by other causes. The anti-suicidal effect has been convincingly demonstrated in bipolar as well as in unipolar patients. Nevertheless its use in the management of patients with unipolar depression has not been properly recognized by a majority of textbooks and guidelines. Whilst it has been well considered as an effective treatment for depression that has not responded to antidepressants as an adjunct treatment, also called augmentation, it has been much less recommended for the prevention of recurrent episodes of unipolar depression. One of the reasons for this neglect is the blurring of the diagnosis "unipolar depression" by modern diagnostic tools. Lithium will hardly work in a patient with "unipolar depression spectrum disease".

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that lithium is an effective prophylactic treatment for carefully selected patients with unipolar depression and is safe when prescribed in recommended doses/plasma lithium levels and with regular, careful monitoring. We propose that lithium prophylaxis can be indicated in patients with unipolar depression and that the occurrence of 2 episodes of depression within 5 years is a practical criterion for starting lithium prophylaxis particularly in severe depression with psychotic features and high suicidal risk. Furthermore, an indication might be considered especially in unipolar patients in whom a bipolar background is suspected. In some cases, lithium prophylaxis may be recommended after a single episode of depression that is severe with high suicidal risk and continued life-long.

Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology

Lithium has literally been everywhere forever, since it is one of the three elements created in the Big Bang. Lithium concentration in rocks, soil, and fresh water is highly variable from place to place, and has varied widely in specific regions over evolutionary and geologic time. The biological effects of lithium are many and varied. Based on experiments in which animals are deprived of lithium, lithium is an essential nutrient. At the other extreme, at lithium ingestion sufficient to raise blood concentration significantly over 1 mM/, lithium is acutely toxic. There is no consensus regarding optimum levels of lithium intake for populations or individuals-with the single exception that lithium is a generally accepted first-line therapy for bipolar disorder, and specific dosage guidelines for sufferers of that condition are generally agreed on. Epidemiological evidence correlating various markers of social dysfunction and disease vs. lithium level in drinking water suggest benefits of moderately elevated lithium compared to average levels of lithium intake. In contrast to other biologically significant ions, lithium is unusual in not having its concentration in fluids of multicellular animals closely regulated. For hydrogen ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, chloride ions, and magnesium ions, blood and extracellular fluid concentrations are closely and necessarily regulated by systems of highly selective channels, and primary and secondary active transporters. Lithium, while having strong biological activity, is tolerated over body fluid concentrations ranging over many orders of magnitude. The lack of biological regulation of lithium appears due to lack of lithium-specific binding sites and selectivity filters. Rather lithium exerts its myriad physiological and biochemical effects by competing for macromolecular sites that are relatively specific for other cations, most especially for sodium and magnesium. This review will consider what is known about the nature of this competition and suggest using and extending this knowledge towards the goal of a unified understanding of lithium in biology and the application of that understanding in medicine and nutrition.

Efficacy of adding nutritional supplements in unipolar depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis

In this article, we aimed to assess the efficacy of adjunctive administration of nutritional supplements to antidepressants by means of a systematic review and meta-analysis. The supplements included were inositol, vitamin D, folic acid, vitamin B12, S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe), omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) and zinc. A structured database search (MEDLINE, EBSCO, CENTRAL, Web of Science) was performed using terms for the respective substances in conjunction with terms for depression and the mode of treatment ("add-on" OR "adjunctive" OR "augmentation"). Meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized comparative studies that investigated the supplements as an add-on in the treatment of clinically diagnosed MDD were included. Agents had to be added to an existing antidepressant regime (augmentation) or started simultaneously with the antidepressant (acceleration). For n-3 PUFAs, folic acid and zinc, new meta-analyses were performed as part of this work. Our meta-analyses of 10 articles on n-3 PUFAs and four on zinc support their efficacy. For folic acid, our meta-analysis does not support efficacy. For n-3 PUFAs, sensitivity analysis showed no difference between acceleration and augmentation designs, but significant differences between individuals with or without comorbidities. For the remaining substances, only a few RCTs were available. The preliminary data on inositol was negative, while one RCT for vitamin D demonstrated positive results. For vitamin B12 one and for SAMe two RCTs and a few open trials are available reporting positive and mixed results. To summarize, for most of the substances, the available data is not yet sufficient or inconclusive.

Efficacy of off-label augmentation in unipolar depression: A systematic review of the evidence

Treatment of unipolar depression with currently available antidepressants is still unsatisfactory. Augmentation with lithium or second generation antipsychotics is an established practice in non-responders to antidepressant monotherapy, but is also associated with a substantial non-response rate and with non-tolerance. Based on a systematic review of the literature, including meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), non-randomized comparative studies and case studies, off-label augmentation agents (administered in addition to an antidepressant, without FDA approval for treatment of MDD) were identified and evaluated regarding their efficacy using levels of evidence. The agents had to be added to an existing antidepressant regime with the aim of achieving an improved clinical response to an ongoing antidepressant treatment (augmentation) or an earlier onset of effect when starting antidepressant and augmentation agent simultaneously (acceleration). Five substances, modafinil, ketamine, pindolol, testosterone and estrogen (the latter two in hormone-deficient patients) were shown to be clinically effective in high evidence studies. For the six drugs dexamethasone, mecamylamine, riluzole, amantadine, pramipexole and yohimbine clear proof of efficacy was not possible due to low levels of evidence, small sample sizes or discordant results. For the two agents methylphenidate and memantine only studies with negative outcomes could be found. Overall, the quality of study designs was low and results were often contradictory. However, the use of pindolol, ketamine, modafinil, estrogen and testosterone might be an option for depressed patients who are not responding to antidepressant monotherapy or established augmentation strategies. Further high quality studies are necessary and warranted.

Lithium monitoring patterns in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Can shared care agreements play a role in improving monitoring quality? A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The appropriate monitoring of patients on lithium therapy has been the subject of extensive research in the form of clinical audits and surveys culminating in the development of specific guidelines to help clinicians provide optimal care for patients on lithium. The concept of 'shared care' has also gained attention in the literature with various types of shared care interventions being introduced as potential ways of improving communication between primary and secondary care.

OBJECTIVES

This article aims to (1) review the literature evaluating lithium monitoring practices in the United Kingdom and Ireland in the last 25 years and (2) determine whether locally agreed shared care agreements have the potential to improve monitoring quality.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL and PsychInfo. A total of 12 studies were selected for review including 11 audits/prospective chart reviews and one qualitative study using semi-structured interviews.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the quality of lithium monitoring seems to be improving throughout the years. However, none of the studies reviewed revealed complete adherence to monitoring guidelines. This may be due to a lack of effective communication between primary and secondary care. Several shared care interventions have been described in the literature but there is a paucity of studies concerned with the effects of local shared care arrangements designed for the specific purpose of lithium monitoring. Nonetheless, the extant data suggests that such agreements may help improve monitoring standards by allowing the responsibilities for managing the prescribing and monitoring of lithium to be more clearly defined and shared between primary and secondary care.

Lithium Reversibly Inhibits Schwann Cell Proliferation and Differentiation Without Inducing Myelin Loss

This study was undertaken to examine the bioactivity, specificity, and reversibility of lithium's action on the growth, survival, proliferation, and differentiation of cultured Schwann cells (SCs). In isolated SCs, lithium promoted a state of cell cycle arrest that featured extensive cell enlargement and c-Jun downregulation in the absence of increased expression of myelin-associated markers. In addition, lithium effectively prevented mitogen-induced S-phase entry without impairing cell viability. When lithium was administered together with differentiating concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) analogs, a dramatic inhibition of the expression of the master regulator of myelination Krox-20 was observed. Likewise, lithium antagonized the cAMP-dependent expression of various myelin markers such as protein zero, periaxin, and galactocerebroside and allowed SCs to maintain high levels of expression of immature SC markers even in the presence of high levels of cAMP and low levels of c-Jun. Most importantly, the inhibitory action of lithium on SC proliferation and differentiation was shown to be dose dependent, specific, and reversible upon removal of lithium compounds. In SC-neuron cultures, lithium suppressed myelin sheath formation while preserving axonal integrity, SC-axon contact, and basal lamina formation. Lithium was unique in its ability to prevent the onset of myelination without promoting myelin degradation or SC dedifferentiation. To conclude, our results underscored an unexpected antagonistic action of lithium on SC mitogenesis and myelin gene expression. We suggest that lithium represents an attractive pharmacological agent to safely and reversibly suppress the onset of SC proliferation, differentiation, and myelination while maintaining the integrity of pre-existing myelinated fibers.

Lithium attenuates the proconvulsant effect of adolescent social isolation stress via involvement of the nitrergic system

In this study, we tested whether acute administration of lithium mitigates the deleterious effect of adolescent social isolation stress (SIS) on seizure susceptibility. In comparison with socially conditioned (SC) mice, isolated conditioned (IC) mice exhibited an increase in seizure susceptibility to pentylenetetrazole. Acute administration of lithium (10mg/kg) reversed the proconvulsant effect of SIS in IC mice, but this effect was not observed in SC mice. Coadministration of subthreshold doses of lithium (3mg/kg) with nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors reversed the effect of SIS on seizure susceptibility and decreased hippocampal nitrite levels in IC animals. In addition, a subthreshold dose of a nitric oxide precursor reduced the protective effect of lithium on seizure susceptibility and increased nitrite levels in the hippocampus of IC mice. These results suggest that lithium exerts a protective influence against the proconvulsant effect of adolescent SIS via a nitrergic system that includes activation of neuronal NOS in the hippocampus.

Long-term use of lithium and risk of colorectal adenocarcinoma: a nationwide case-control study

Background:

Lithium accumulates in the colon and inhibits the enzyme GSK-3β that possesses anti-carcinogenic effects. We therefore examined the association between lithium use and colorectal cancer risk in a nationwide study.

Methods:

We used the Danish Cancer Registry to identify all patients diagnosed with incident colorectal adenocarcinoma during 2000–2012 (n=36 248). Using a matched case–control approach, we estimated the association between long-term use (⩾5 years) of lithium and risk of colorectal adenocarcinoma using conditional logistic regression.

Results:

Long-term use of lithium was similar among cases (0.22%) and controls (0.20%), yielding an odds ratio of 1.13 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.89–1.43) for colorectal adenocarcinoma. Dose–response, subgroup and other subanalyses returned neutral associations. However, ORs differed for colorectal subsites (proximal colon: 1.01 (95% CI, 0.66–1.55; distal colon: 1.52 (95% CI, 1.05–2.20); and rectum: 0.80 (95% CI, 0.50–1.30).

Conclusions:

Lithium use was not associated with an overall increased risk of colorectal adenocarcinoma. The variation by subsite warrants further investigation.

Mice heterozygous for cathepsin D deficiency exhibit mania-related behavior and stress-induced depression

Mutations in cathepsin D (CTSD), an aspartic protease in the endosomal-lysosomal system, underlie congenital neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis (cNCL, also known as CLN10), a devastating neurodegenerative disease. CLN10 patients die within the first few days of life, and in the few patients who live into adulthood psychopathological symptoms have not been reported. Extensive neuropathology and altered neurotransmission have been reported in CTSD-deficient mice; however signs of neuropsychiatric behavior in these mice are not well characterized due to the severe movement disorder and premature death of the animal. In the present study, we show that heterozygous CTSD-deficient (CTSD HET) mice display an overall behavioral profile that is similar to human mania, including hyperlocomotion, d-amphetamine-induced hyperactivity, sleep-disturbance, and reduced anxiety-like behavior. However, under stressful conditions CTSD HET mice manifest depressive-like behavior, including anhedonia, behavioral despair, and enhanced learned helplessness. Chronic administration of lithium chloride or valproic acid, two clinically effective mood stabilizers, reverses the majority of these behavioral abnormalities. In addition, CTSD HET mice display stress-induced hypersecretion of corticosterone. These findings suggest an important role for CTSD in the regulation of mood stabilization.

Treatment of lithium intoxication: facing the need for evidence

Lithium has been used as the gold standard in the treatment of major depressive and bipolar disorders for decades. Due to its narrow therapeutic index, lithium toxicity is a common clinical problem. Although risk factors for lithium intoxication seem to be well-described, lacking patient education and inexperience of treatment are assumed to contribute to the probability of lithium intoxication. A review of literature shows that the treatment of lithium intoxication has not been adequately studied or standardized. The aim of this literature review is to compile and present current evidence on the treatment of lithium intoxication and contribute to a standardization regarding general treatment recommendations as well as evidence on indication for extracorporeal methods. Against the background of this common and potentially life-threatening condition, the standardization of the treatment of lithium intoxication is definitely a task for the future.