51
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Asai K, Foley SC, Sumi Y, Yamauchi Y, Takeda N, Desrosiers M, Lavigne F, Hamid Q. Amb a 1-immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide conjugate immunotherapy increases CD4+CD25+ T cells in the nasal mucosa of subjects with allergic rhinitis. Allergol Int 2008; 57:377-81. [PMID: 18797179 DOI: 10.2332/allergolint.o-07-528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Accepted: 05/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have previously shown that short-course treatment with Amb a 1-immunostimulatory phosphorothioate oligonucleotide conjugate (AIC) before the ragweed season modifies the response of the nasal mucosa to allergen challenge in ragweed-sensitive patients by increasing Th1 cytokines and decreasing both Th2 cytokines and eosinophilia after the ragweed season. The effect of AIC immunotherapy on CD4+CD25+ T cell expression in the nasal mucosa is unknown. OBJECTIVE To determine the in vivo effect of short-course AIC immunotherapy on CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in the nasal mucosa of ragweed-sensitive subjects. METHODS 19 ragweed-sensitive patients with allergic rhinitis were randomly assigned to receive either 6 escalating doses of AIC (0.06-12microg; n = 12) or placebo (n = 7) at weekly intervals immediately before the 2001 ragweed season. Nasal biopsies were taken at baseline prior to immunization and again post immunization 24 hours after ragweed allergen challenge at the start and end of the ragweed season. The expression of T regulatory cells, IL-10 and TGF-beta was assessed at each time point by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The numbers of allergen-induced CD4+-, CD4+CD25+-, IL-10- and TGF-beta-positive cells in the nasal mucosa after AIC immunization before the ragweed season did not differ between the two groups. Repeat challenge after the ragweed season led to a significant increase in CD4+CD25+ cells in AIC-compared with placebo-treated subjects. A trend toward an increase in IL-10-positive cells in the AIC-treated group did not reach statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS Short-course AIC immunotherapy increases CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cell infiltration in the nasal mucosa following allergen challenge after seasonal ragweed-pollen exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhisa Asai
- Meakins-Christie Laboratories, McGill University, Quebec, Canada
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52
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Melief CJM, van der Burg SH. Immunotherapy of established (pre)malignant disease by synthetic long peptide vaccines. Nat Rev Cancer 2008; 8:351-60. [PMID: 18418403 DOI: 10.1038/nrc2373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This Review deals with recent progress in the immunotherapy of established (pre)malignant disease of viral or non-viral origin by synthetic vaccines capable of inducing robust T-cell responses. The most attractive vaccine compounds are synthetic long peptides (SLP) corresponding to the sequence of tumour viral antigens or tumour-associated non-viral antigens. Crucial to induction of therapeutic T-cell immunity is the capacity of SLP to deliver specific cargo to professional antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells (DC)). Proper DC activation then induces the therapeutic CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses that are associated with regression of established (pre)malignant lesions, including those induced by high-risk human papilloma virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelis J M Melief
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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53
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Abstract
Heplisav™ is a vaccine comprising recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen mixed with a synthetic oligonucleotide containing CpG motifs, which stimulates innate immunity. A clinical study demonstrated that Heplisav was significantly more immunogenic compared with Engerix-B in terms of an earlier seroprotection (78.9 vs 11.8%) 4 weeks after the first dose, and 100 versus only 64% seroprotection 4 weeks after the second dose. Geometric mean concentrations also peaked earlier in the Heplisav group. A similar finding was confirmed in a Phase III study in an older (aged >40 years) vaccine-naive population, with 100 versus 73.1% seroprotection in Heplisav versus Engerix-B recipients, respectively, 4 weeks after the third injection. The main adverse events were injection-site reactions, but these were usually mild and self-limiting. In conclusion, Heplisav, a vaccine containing a CpG adjuvant mixed with hepatitis B surface antigen, was more immunogenic and produced earlier seroprotection compared with an existing vaccine, Engerix-B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seng Gee Lim
- Yong Yoo Lin School of Medicine, Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Department of Medicine, National University Hospital, 5 Lower Kent Ridge Rd, 119074, Singapore and, Principal Investigator, Immunovirology Group, Centre for Molecular Medicine, and Co-Prinicipal Investigator, Institute of Molecular & Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology & Research (ASTAR), Biopolis, Singapore
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54
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Zhang XQ, Dahle CE, Weiner GJ, Salem AK. A comparative study of the antigen-specific immune response induced by co-delivery of CpG ODN and antigen using fusion molecules or biodegradable microparticles. J Pharm Sci 2008; 96:3283-92. [PMID: 17497736 DOI: 10.1002/jps.20978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
CpG ODN are toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) agonists that can enhance antigen presentation by antigen presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells (DCs). The most potent antigen-specific responses are seen when CpG ODN and the antigen are co-localized in the same APC. CpG ODN-antigen fusion molecules and biodegradable microparticles entrapping CpG ODN and antigen can ensure both components are delivered to the same APC. In this study, we compared the efficacy of the CpG-ODN fusion molecules against biodegradable microparticles entrapping antigen and CpG ODN. Microparticles were prepared using a double emulsion solvent evaporation methodology. CpG ODN-OVA fusion molecules were prepared by mixing maleimide-activated protein with thiolated CpG ODN. Both CpG ODN-OVA fusion molecules and microparticles co-entrapping CpG ODN and OVA generated stronger IgG2a and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) responses than delivery of soluble CpG ODN and OVA. The microparticles generated stronger IgG2a and IFN-gamma immune responses than did CpG ODN-antigen fusion molecules.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/chemistry
- Alum Compounds
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Drug Carriers
- Drug Compounding
- Female
- Immunoconjugates/chemistry
- Immunoconjugates/immunology
- Immunoglobulin G/blood
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Lactic Acid/chemistry
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/chemistry
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology
- Ovalbumin/chemistry
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Particle Size
- Polyglycolic Acid/chemistry
- Polylactic Acid-Polyglycolic Acid Copolymer
- Polymers/chemistry
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Technology, Pharmaceutical/methods
- Vaccines, Synthetic/chemistry
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Qing Zhang
- Division of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, 115 S. Grand Avenue, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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55
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Abstract
The mammalian immune system senses pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and responds with activation. The Toll-like receptor (TLR) family that consists of 13 receptors plays a critical role in this process. TLRmediated signaling activates immune cells and leads to an innate immune response with subsequent initiation of an adaptive immune response. Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) recognizes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) leading to cellular activation and cytokine production influencing the immune response against viruses and bacteria. The stimulation of TLR9 will be exploited for adjuvant therapy and treatment of cancer or allergy. In this review we will discuss TLR9 ligands, TLR9 expression, signaling, and the therapeutic potential of TLR9 ligands in treatment of infectious or allergic diseases and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Müller
- Institut fur Immunology, Philipps-Universitat marburg, Marburg, Germany
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56
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Jiang W, Ren L, Jin N. HIV-1 DNA vaccine efficacy is enhanced by coadministration with plasmid encoding IFN-α. J Virol Methods 2007; 146:266-73. [PMID: 17868910 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2007] [Revised: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/10/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Numerous strategies have been employed in an attempt to improve the immunogenicity and efficacy of nucleic acid vaccines. In the present study, the immunogenicity in the induction of humoral and cellular immune responses to HIV-1 DNA vaccine expressing a chimeric gene of gag and gp120 and the adjuvant effect of IFN-alpha on HIV-1 DNA vaccine were studied in a murine model. The DNA vaccine plasmid pVAX1-gag-gp120 and eukaryotic expression plasmid pVAX1-IFN were constructed by inserting the chimeric gene of gag and gp120 of HIV-1 and IFN-alpha into the downstream of CMV promoter of eukaryotic expression vector pVAX1, respectively. In vitro expression detected by RT-PCR and Western blotting showed that the genes of interest could be expressed in transfected HeLa cells. After BALB/c mice were immunized by three intramuscular inoculations of the HIV-1 DNA vaccine plasmids alone or in combination with IFN-alpha expression plasmids, the different levels of anti-HIV-1 humoral and cellular responses were measured comparable to the control groups immunized with pVAX1-IFN, parent plasmid pVAX1 or PBS. The percentage of CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ subgroups of spleen T lymphocytes and the specific cytotoxicity activities of splenic CTLs in the coinoculation group were significantly higher than those in the separate inoculation group, and an enhancement of antibody response was also observed in the coinoculation group compared with the separate inoculation group. Take together, coadministration of HIV-1 DNA vaccine plasmids and IFN-alpha expression plasmids can elicit stronger humoral and cellular immune responses in mice than HIV-1 DNA vaccine plasmids alone, and IFN-alpha can be an effective immunological adjuvant in DNA vaccination against HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzheng Jiang
- Genetic Engineering Key Laboratory of PLA, The Eleventh Institute of Academy of Military Medical Sciences of PLA, Changchun 130062, People's Republic of China
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57
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Higgins D, Marshall JD, Traquina P, Van Nest G, Livingston BD. Immunostimulatory DNA as a vaccine adjuvant. Expert Rev Vaccines 2007; 6:747-59. [PMID: 17931155 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.6.5.747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Immunostimulatory DNA containing unmethylated CpG motifs is recognized by Toll-like receptor 9, resulting in the activation of innate immune responses that subsequently amplify the adaptive-immune response. Advances in the characterization of Toll-like receptor 9 signaling have identified immunostimulatory sequences (ISS) with distinct biological activities. Numerous animal models have demonstrated that synthetic ISS are effective adjuvants that enhance both humoral and cellular immune responses in diverse indications, ranging from infectious disease to cancer and allergy. An added benefit supporting the use of ISS as a vaccine adjuvant is that the specific activation of a pathway critical to the regulation of the immune response results in minimal toxicity. To date, clinical testing has largely affirmed the potency and safety of ISS-adjuvanted vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie Higgins
- Preclinical Research, Dynavax Technologies, 2929 Seventh Street, Suite 100, Berkeley, CA 94710, USA.
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58
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Anderson RB, Cianciolo GJ, Kennedy MN, Pizzo SV. Alpha 2-macroglobulin binds CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and enhances their immunostimulatory properties by a receptor-dependent mechanism. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 83:381-92. [PMID: 17967834 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0407236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) stimulate the immune system and are under evaluation as treatments and vaccine adjuvants for infectious diseases, cancer, and immune system disorders. Although they have shown promising results in numerous clinical trials, the ultimate use of CpG ODN-based therapeutics may hinge on improved pharmacokinetics and reduced systemic side-effects. CpG ODN efficacy and potency might be enhanced greatly by packaging them into particles that protect them from degradation and specifically target them for uptake by immune-competent cells. The plasma proteinase inhibitor alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M) binds numerous biologically active macromolecules, including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors, and can modulate their activity. Molecules bound to alpha 2M are protected from interactions with neighboring macromolecules and are targeted for receptor-mediated uptake by immune-competent cells. Here, we report that activated alpha 2M (alpha 2M*) binds CpG ODN and enhances their immunostimulatory properties significantly. Murine macrophages treated with alpha 2M*-ODN complexes respond more rapidly and produce a greater cytokine response than induced by free CpG ODN. Using human PBMC, alpha 2M*-ODN complexes exhibit fourfold enhanced potency and 15-fold greater efficacy for stimulating production of inflammatory cytokines. alpha 2M* targets delivery of CpG ODN specifically to immune-competent cells, which endocytose the complexes sixfold more rapidly than free CpG ODN. CpG ODN bound to alpha 2M* are also protected from degradation by nucleases. This novel targeting technology may improve CpG ODN-based therapeutics by increasing efficacy at reduced doses, thus reducing side-effects and cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Anderson
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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59
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Yu J, Heck S, Yazdanbakhsh K. Prevention of red cell alloimmunization by CD25 regulatory T cells in mouse models. Am J Hematol 2007; 82:691-6. [PMID: 17492644 PMCID: PMC3607942 DOI: 10.1002/ajh.20959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Transfusion therapy is currently an effective therapeutic intervention in a number of diseases, including sickle cell disease. However, its use is complicated by a high incidence of red blood cell (RBC) alloimmunization in the transfusion recipients. The identification of T regulatory cells (Tregs) among the CD4(+) CD25(+) T cell subset as key regulators of peripheral tolerance in mice as well as humans has opened an exciting era in the prevention and treatment of autoimmune disease and for improving organ transplantation. However, their potential in inducing transfusion tolerance remains to be explored. We used red cells from mice transgenic for human glycophorin A blood group antigen as donor cells and transfused wild-type mice to induce alloantibodies, as an experimental system to study RBC alloimmunization. We found that depletion with anti-CD25 enhanced the alloantibody production, indicating that CD25 Tregs play an important role in regulation of alloantibody responses. More importantly, adoptive transfer of purified population of CD4(+)CD25(+) but not CD4(+)CD25(-) cells from naïve mice prevented the induction of IgG and IgM alloantibody production in transfusion recipients, with a concomitant reduction in activated splenic B cells and macrophages. Similarly, adoptive transfer of purified populations of CD4(+)CD25(+) cells from naïve mice into naïve syngeneic recipients inhibited the anti-Ig response to rat RBCs in the recipients but transfer of control CD4(+)CD25(-) cells did not. Altogether, our results demonstrate that Tregs participate in the control of transfusion-associated RBC alloantibody responses, opening up the possibility that Treg immunotherapy may be exploited for suppressing transfusion immunization events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Yu
- Laboratory of Complement Biology, New York Blood Center, New York, New York
| | - Susanne Heck
- Flow Cytometry Laboratory, New York Blood Center, New York, New York
| | - Karina Yazdanbakhsh
- Laboratory of Complement Biology, New York Blood Center, New York, New York
- Correspondence to: Karina Yazdanbakhsh, PhD, Laboratory of Complement Biology, New York Blood Center, 310, E 67th Street, New York, NY 10021.
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60
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Abstract
Vaccine-induced antibodies that interfere with viral entry are the protective correlate of most existing prophylactic vaccines. However, for highly variable viruses such as HIV-1, the ability to elicit broadly neutralizing antibody responses through vaccination has proven to be extremely difficult. The major targets for HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies are the viral envelope glycoprotein trimers on the surface of the virus that mediate receptor binding and entry. HIV-1 has evolved many mechanisms on the surface of envelope glycoproteins to evade antibody-mediated neutralization, including the masking of conserved regions by glycan, quaternary protein interactions and the presence of immunodominant variable elements. The primary challenge in the development of an HIV-1 vaccine that elicits broadly neutralizing antibodies therefore lies in the design of suitable envelope glycoprotein immunogens that circumvent these barriers. Here, we describe neutralizing determinants on the viral envelope glycoproteins that are defined by their function in receptor binding or by rare neutralizing antibodies isolated from HIV-infected individuals. We also describe the nonvariable cellular receptors involved in the HIV-1 entry process, or other cellular proteins, and ongoing studies to determine if antibodies against these proteins have efficacy as therapeutic reagents or, in some cases, as vaccine targets to interfere with HIV-1 entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Phogat
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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61
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Mullen GED, Aebig JA, Dobrescu G, Rausch K, Lambert L, Long CA, Miles AP, Saul A. Enhanced antibody production in mice to the malaria antigen AMA1 by CPG 7909 requires physical association of CpG and antigen. Vaccine 2007; 25:5343-7. [PMID: 17566616 PMCID: PMC1997297 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2007] [Revised: 04/27/2007] [Accepted: 05/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
CpG oligodeoxynucleotides are potent immunostimulants. In this study, CPG 7909 was formulated with the recombinant Plasmodium falciparum protein AMA1-C1 adsorbed to Alhydrogel (aluminum hydroxide) and used to immunize mice. Mice receiving free CPG 7909 in a separate same site injection to the AMA1-C1/Alhydrogel had the same antibody responses as mice receiving AMA1-C1/Alhydrogel alone. For mice immunized with CPG 7909 bound to the AMA1-C1/Alhydrogel formulation, there was a bell shaped CPG 7909 dose-response curve with the highest antibody response co-incident with the concentration of CPG 7909 that saturated binding to the Alhydrogel. At a higher CPG 7909 dose where 74% was unbound, there was no enhancement of response over AMA1-C1/Alhydrogel alone. Our results suggest that the adjuvant effects of CpGs are optimal when adsorbed to Alhydrogel and highlight the need for careful characterization of the vaccine formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joan A. Aebig
- *Corresponding author. Phone: 301-435-2936. Fax: 301-480-1962. E-mail:
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62
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Formulation of vaccines containing CpG oligonucleotides and alum. J Immunol Methods 2007; 323:139-46. [PMID: 17512533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2007.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2007] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
CpG oligodeoxynucleotides are potent immunostimulants. For parenterally delivered alum-based vaccines, the immunostimulatory effect of CpG depends on the association of the CpG and antigen to the alum. We describe effects of buffer components on the binding of CPG 7909 to aluminum hydroxide (Alhydrogel), assays for measuring binding of CPG 7909 to alum and CPG 7909 induced dissociation of antigen from the alum. Free CPG 7909 is a potent inducer of IP-10 in mice. However the lack of IP-10 production from formulations containing bound CPG 7909 suggested that CPG 7909 does not rapidly dissociate from the alum after injection. It also suggests that IP-10 assays are not a good basis for potency assays for alum-based vaccines containing CPG 7909.
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63
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Lasarte JJ, Casares N, Gorraiz M, Hervás-Stubbs S, Arribillaga L, Mansilla C, Durantez M, Llopiz D, Sarobe P, Borrás-Cuesta F, Prieto J, Leclerc C. The Extra Domain A from Fibronectin Targets Antigens to TLR4-Expressing Cells and Induces Cytotoxic T Cell Responses In Vivo. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:748-56. [PMID: 17202335 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.2.748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination strategies based on the in vivo targeting of Ags to dendritic cells (DCs) are needed to improve the induction of specific T cell immunity against tumors and infectious agents. In this study, we have used a recombinant protein encompassing the extra domain A from fibronectin (EDA), an endogenous ligand for TLR4, to deliver Ags to TLR4-expressing DC. The purified EDA protein was shown to bind to TLR4-expressing HEK293 cells and to activate the TLR4 signaling pathway. EDA also stimulated the production by DC of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-12 or TNF-alpha and induced their maturation in vitro and in vivo. A fusion protein between EDA and a cytotoxic T cell epitope from OVA efficiently presented this epitope to specific T cells and induced the in vivo activation of a strong and specific CTL response. Moreover, a fusion protein containing EDA and the full OVA also improved OVA presentation by DC and induced CTL responses in vivo. These EDA recombinant proteins protected mice from a challenge with tumor cells expressing OVA. These results strongly suggest that the fibronectin extra domain A may serve as a suitable Ag carrier for the development of antiviral or antitumoral vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Lasarte
- Area de Hepatología y Terapia Génica, Universidad de Navarra, Centro de Investigación Médica Aplicada, Avenida Pío XII 55, 31008 Pamplona, Spain.
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64
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Horner AA. Update on toll-like receptor ligands and allergy: implications for immunotherapy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2006; 6:395-401. [PMID: 16899201 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-996-0012-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Innate responses to microbes are mediated in large part via toll-like receptors (TLRs) that recognize a diverse family of ligands produced by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Great effort has been directed toward translating this knowledge into the development of therapies for the prevention and treatment of diseases, including those fueled by allergic (Th2-biased) hypersensitivities. In this review, we consider the ways in which ligands for different TLRs influence the allergic phenotype. In addition, an update on safety and efficacy data from clinical trials of allergic patients treated with TLR9 ligand-based interventions is provided. Finally, recent experimental results that help elucidate how ambient TLR ligand exposures influence allergic risk and their relevance to the development of TLR ligand-based therapeutics are discussed. Investigations presented within this opinion paper suggest that several TLR ligands could have clinical utility in the treatment of allergic diseases, whereas other TLR ligands appear less attractive, as they facilitate development of Th2-biased hypersensitivities in murine studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Horner
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego,9500 Gilman Drive, Mail code 0663, La Jolla, CA 92093-0663, USA.
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65
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Creticos PS, Schroeder JT, Hamilton RG, Balcer-Whaley SL, Khattignavong AP, Lindblad R, Li H, Coffman R, Seyfert V, Eiden JJ, Broide D. Immunotherapy with a ragweed-toll-like receptor 9 agonist vaccine for allergic rhinitis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355:1445-55. [PMID: 17021320 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa052916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 453] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conjugating immunostimulatory sequences of DNA to specific allergens offers a new approach to allergen immunotherapy that reduces acute allergic responses. METHODS We conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial of a vaccine consisting of Amb a 1, a ragweed-pollen antigen, conjugated to a phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotide immunostimulatory sequence of DNA (AIC) in 25 adults who were allergic to ragweed. Patients received six weekly injections of the AIC or placebo vaccine before the first ragweed season and were monitored during the next two ragweed seasons. RESULTS There was no pattern of vaccine-associated systemic reactions or clinically significant laboratory abnormalities. AIC did not alter the primary end point, the vascular permeability response (measured by the albumin level in nasal-lavage fluid) to nasal provocation. During the first ragweed season, the AIC group had better peak-season rhinitis scores on the visual-analogue scale (P=0.006), peak-season daily nasal symptom diary scores (P=0.02), and midseason overall quality-of-life scores (P=0.05) than the placebo group. AIC induced a transient increase in Amb a 1-specific IgG antibody but suppressed the seasonal increase in Amb a 1-specific IgE antibody. A reduction in the number of interleukin-4-positive basophils in AIC-treated patients correlated with lower rhinitis visual-analogue scores (r=0.49, P=0.03). Clinical benefits of AIC were again observed in the subsequent ragweed season, with improvements over placebo in peak-season rhinitis visual-analogue scores (P=0.02) and peak-season daily nasal symptom diary scores (P=0.02). The seasonal specific IgE antibody response was again suppressed, with no significant change in IgE antibody titer during the ragweed season (P=0.19). CONCLUSIONS In this pilot study, a 6-week regimen of the AIC vaccine appeared to offer long-term clinical efficacy in the treatment of ragweed allergic rhinitis. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00346086 [ClinicalTrials.gov] .).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Creticos
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.
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66
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McCluskie MJ, Krieg AM. Enhancement of infectious disease vaccines through TLR9-dependent recognition of CpG DNA. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2006; 311:155-78. [PMID: 17048708 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-32636-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The adaptive immune system-with its remarkable ability to generate antigen-specific antibodies and T lymphocytes against pathogens never before "seen" by an organism-is one of the marvels of evolution. However, to generate these responses, the adaptive immune system requires activation by the innate immune system. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are perhaps the best-understood family of innate immune receptors for detecting infections and stimulating adaptive immune responses. TLR9 appears to have evolved to recognize infections by a subtle structural difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic/viral DNA; only the former frequently methylates CpG dinucleotides. Used as vaccine adjuvants, synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) ligands for TLR9--CpG ODN--greatly enhance the speed and strength of the immune responses to vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J McCluskie
- Coley Pharmaceutical Group, Inc., 93 Worcester Street, Suite 101, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA
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67
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Abstract
A significant amount of data generated over the last few years supports the contention that Toll-like receptor (TLR) 9-based immunotherapy is effective in the prevention and treatment of animal models of allergic disorders. We will review here our experience with two distinct therapeutic strategies: TLR9-based immunomodulation and TLR9-based vaccination. Immunomodulation of allergic inflammation by TLR9 ligand (TLR9-L) is transient. It prevents both the early and late phases of the allergic reaction in experimental models of allergic asthma, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis. It also reverses ongoing allergic inflammation. Indoleamine 2.3-dioxygenase, the rate-limiting enzyme of tryptophan, is induced by TLR9-L and mediates, in part, these anti-inflammatory effects. TLR9-based immunomodulation is independent of allergens and, therefore, has a potential therapeutic advantage in a broad spectrum of allergic patients. On the other hand, TLR9-based vaccination therapy is an allergen-specific mode of immunotherapy, which provides long-term inhibition of allergen-specific hypersensitivities. Current clinical trials with TLR9-based immunotherapy demonstrate high immunogenic and therapeutic efficacy, as well as improved safety when compared with conventional allergen desensitization. Thus, if proven efficient, therapeutic strategies with TLR9-L may revolutionize the current treatment of allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Hayashi
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla CA, 92093, USA
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van der Burg SH, Bijker MS, Welters MJP, Offringa R, Melief CJM. Improved peptide vaccine strategies, creating synthetic artificial infections to maximize immune efficacy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2006; 58:916-30. [PMID: 16979788 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2005.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2005] [Accepted: 07/10/2006] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Soon after it was realized that T-cells recognize their target antigens as small protein fragments or peptides presented by MHC molecules at the cell surface, these peptide epitopes have been tried as vaccines. Human testing of such vaccines, although protective in mouse models, has produced mixed results. Since these initial trials, there has been an tremendous increase in our understanding of how infectious organisms can induce potent immune responses. In this article we review the key changes in the design, formulation and delivery of synthetic peptide vaccines that are applied to improve peptide vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sjoerd H van der Burg
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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69
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Abstract
In the decade since the discovery that mouse B cells respond to certain unmethylated CpG dinucleotides in bacterial DNA, a specific receptor for these 'CpG motifs' has been identified, Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), and a new approach to immunotherapy has moved into the clinic based on the use of synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) as TLR9 agonists. This review highlights the current understanding of the mechanism of action of these CpG ODN, and provides an overview of the preclinical data and early human clinical trial results using these drugs to improve vaccines and treat cancer, infectious disease and allergy/asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur M Krieg
- Coley Pharmaceutical Group, Inc., 93 Worcester Street, Suite 101, Wellesley, Massachusetts 02481, USA.
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70
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Gauvreau GM, Hessel EM, Boulet LP, Coffman RL, O'Byrne PM. Immunostimulatory Sequences Regulate Interferon-inducible Genes but not Allergic Airway Responses. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 174:15-20. [PMID: 16574937 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200601-057oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE 1018 ISS is a synthetic oligonucleotide containing immunostimulatory CpG motifs. In animal studies, 1018 ISS effectively inhibited Th2-mediated lung inflammation, including eosinophil infiltration, and airway hyperresponsiveness. OBJECTIVES To evaluate whether 1018 ISS has activity in subjects with allergic asthma. METHODS Forty subjects (n = 21, 1018 ISS; n = 19, placebo) were enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study to examine safety, pharmacologic activity, and efficacy of 1018 ISS on allergen-induced airway responses. Subjects received 36 mg of 1018 ISS or placebo by nebulization weekly for 4 wk. MEASUREMENTS Allergen inhalation challenge was performed 24 h after the 2nd and 4th doses to measure the early and late fall in FEV(1). Sputum cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells were collected before and after dosing, and gene expression was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. MAIN RESULTS Treatment with 1018 ISS significantly increased expression of interferon (IFN)-gamma and IFN-inducible genes, such as IFN-gamma-inducible 10 kD protein (IP10), monokine induced by IFN-gamma (MIG), IFN-stimulated gene (ISG)-54, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, and MCP-2 from cells collected postdose (p < 0.05). There was no attenuation of the early or late decrease in FEV(1) after 1018 ISS compared with placebo, nor a reduction in allergen-induced sputum eosinophils or Th2-related gene expression measured in sputum cells. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated that 1018 ISS is safe and pharmacologically active in the respiratory tract of asthmatics but, at this dose regimen, did not inhibit a fall in FEV(1) or other key features of the response to inhaled allergen challenge. This suggests that induction of IFN and IFN-inducible genes alone is not sufficient to inhibit allergen-induced responses in asthmatic subjects.
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71
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Horner AA. Toll-like receptor ligands and atopy: a coin with at least two sides. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117:1133-40. [PMID: 16675343 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2006.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2006] [Revised: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Allergic disease prevalence rates have increased dramatically in affluent countries over the last half century. One proposed explanation is that decreased exposures to microbes caused by modern public health practices has led to deficiencies in an important source of immune education and a consequent increase in the risk of pathogenic immune responses to environmental antigens. Recently, it has become clear that innate responses to microbes are mediated in large part by Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which recognize a diverse family of ligands produced by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. In this perspectives article we will review experimental evidence suggesting that TLRs also play a dominant role in innate responses to noninfectious immunostimulatory materials present in environments of daily living. We will further discuss how ligands for different TLRs can polarize the T(H) bias of adaptive responses in opposing directions. Finally, we will consider how TLRs might contribute to the genesis of atopy and the clinical potential of pharmacologic interventions that target TLRs for the prevention and treatment of allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony A Horner
- Department of Medicineand The Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Aging, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0663, USA.
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72
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Weterings JJ, Khan S, van der Heden GJ, Drijfhout JW, Melief CJM, Overkleeft HS, van der Burg SH, Ossendorp F, van der Marel GA, Filippov DV. Synthesis of 2-alkoxy-8-hydroxyadenylpeptides: towards synthetic epitope-based vaccines. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2006; 16:3258-61. [PMID: 16581248 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2006] [Revised: 03/13/2006] [Accepted: 03/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The preparation of three different 2-alkoxy-8-hydroxyadenylpeptide conjugates has been accomplished by solid-phase synthesis combined with 'on-resin' Cu(I) catalyzed Huisgen cycloaddition. The immunogenicity of the compounds has been evaluated in IL-12 production and antigen presentation assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy J Weterings
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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73
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Tsalik EL. DNA-based immunotherapy to treat atopic disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2005; 95:403-10; quiz 410-1, 451. [PMID: 16312161 DOI: 10.1016/s1081-1206(10)61163-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review the current literature regarding DNA-based immunotherapy with respect to signaling mechanisms, cytokine profiles, and the applicability and success of this strategy to treat allergic disease. DATA SOURCES English-language articles were identified from the PubMed database using both standard and clinical queries. Search terms included CpG, allergy, atopic disease, immunotherapy, DNA vaccination, immunomodulation, and immunostimulatory DNA. Other sources included bibliographies from relevant articles. STUDY SELECTION Recent studies that provide information about the mechanisms or applications of DNA-based immunotherapy with respect to atopic disease are included in this review. RESULTS DNA-based immunotherapy composed of unmethylated CpG repeats is capable of inducing a shift in the cytokine profile and immune response that favors the T(H)1 arm. This observation makes DNA-based immunotherapy a promising candidate for the treatment of atopic diseases, which are known to be mediated by T(H)2-based responses. Early animal and human trials of DNA-based immunotherapy have shown the strategy to be both safe and effective. CONCLUSIONS DNA-based immunotherapy, although still in the early stages of development, has thus far been shown to be both safe and effective for a variety of atopic diseases and offers the potential for significant improvements over current immunotherapy protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ephraim L Tsalik
- Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA.
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74
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Abstract
Insect sting allergy is a common condition with a risk of life-threatening anaphylaxis. After a severe reaction, the fear of being restung can significantly reduce quality of life. Venom immunotherapy (VIT) is a highly effective treatment of the underlying type I-sensitisation. This review addresses the mechanisms of immune modulation by VIT and outlines current clinical application. Although highly effective in the majority of patients, VIT fails in a few individuals. It can also cause systemic allergic side effects, restricting its application to physicians trained in the treatment of anaphylaxis. This review discusses several new strategies to overcome these problems, which are presently a promising focus of research. These include the use of new adjuvants, of recombinant and genetically engineered venom allergens, as well as vaccination with peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Roers
- Department of Dermatology, University of Cologne, Josef Stelzmann Str. 9, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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75
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Westwood A, Elvin SJ, Healey GD, Williamson ED, Eyles JE. Immunological responses after immunisation of mice with microparticles containing antigen and single stranded RNA (polyuridylic acid). Vaccine 2005; 24:1736-43. [PMID: 16278038 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2005] [Revised: 10/06/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Certain toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, e.g. CpG DNA, can be used as potent vaccine 'adjuvants'. It is known that some sequences of single stranded (ss) RNA stimulate proinflammatory and antiviral responses following interaction with TLR 7 and 8. We have encapsulated ovalbumin (OVA) in the presence and absence of polyuridylic acid (poly-U) inside polylactide microparticles. In comparison to microparticles containing only OVA, bulk cultures of bone marrow-derived plasmacytoid and myeloid dendritic cells produced more (P<0.05) IL-12 and interferon (IFN)-alpha when stimulated with microparticles containing OVA and poly-U. Subcutaneous injection of comicroencapsulated OVA and poly-U resulted in statistically elevated levels of serum anti-OVA IgG1 (P<0.05 versus naïve mice). Conversely, anti-OVA IgG1 levels in C57 BL6 mice immunised with OVA loaded microparticles (without RNA) were statistically indifferent to naïve animals. Furthermore, injection of coencapsulated OVA and poly-U resulted in (P<0.05) greater numbers of OVA specific IFN-gamma secreting T-cells as compared with mice injected with OVA loaded microparticles. A similar trend was seen in mice immunised with OVA loaded microparticles decorated with CpG or solutions of admixed OVA and CpG (P<0.05). These data demonstrate, for the first time, that appropriately formulated ssRNA can act as a potent adjuvant and modulator of adaptive immunological responses.
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76
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Daftarian P, Sharan R, Haq W, Ali S, Longmate J, Termini J, Diamond DJ. Novel conjugates of epitope fusion peptides with CpG-ODN display enhanced immunogenicity and HIV recognition. Vaccine 2005; 23:3453-68. [PMID: 15837369 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.01.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2004] [Accepted: 01/05/2005] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination strategies remain elusive that are effective against viral disease pathogens yet remain gentle enough for widespread human use. We developed a model system that relies on the recognition of specific T-cell epitopes from immunodominant antigens of HIV to explore single-stranded CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) (CpG) as an adjuvant. We improved upon current strategies of utilizing CpG in combination with peptide vaccines by covalently modifying epitope fusion peptides with CpG motifs. Characterization of the immune recognition of DNA-peptide conjugates was carried out in a murine model of human HLA A2. Immunogenicity of DNA-peptide conjugates was superior in sensitivity to non-covalently linked mixtures of the same functional molecules as measured by peptide-mediated cytotoxicity and IFN-gamma release, as well as protection against viral infection. Enhancement of sensitivity of immune recognition by covalent attachment of DNA to epitope peptides should be further evaluated as a novel prophylactic vaccine strategy for HIV infection and other infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirouz Daftarian
- Laboratory of Vaccine Research, Fox South, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
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77
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Wille-Reece U, Wu CY, Flynn BJ, Kedl RM, Seder RA. Immunization with HIV-1 Gag protein conjugated to a TLR7/8 agonist results in the generation of HIV-1 Gag-specific Th1 and CD8+ T cell responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:7676-83. [PMID: 15944268 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
One strategy to induce optimal cellular and humoral immune responses following immunization is to use vaccines or adjuvants that target dendritic cells and B cells. Activation of both cell types can be achieved using specific TLR ligands or agonists directed against their cognate receptor. In this study, we compared the ability of the TLR7/8 agonist R-848, which signals only via TLR7 in mice, with CpG oligodeoxynucleotides for their capacity to induce HIV-1 Gag-specific T cell and Ab responses when used as vaccine adjuvants with HIV-1 Gag protein in mice. Injection of R-848 and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides alone enhanced the innate immune responses in vivo as demonstrated by high serum levels of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-12p70 and IFN-alpha, and increased expression of CD80, CD86, and CD40 on CD11c(+) dendritic cells. By contrast, R-848 was a relatively poor adjuvant for inducing primary Th1 or CD8(+) T cell responses when administered with HIV-1 Gag protein. However, when a TLR7/8 agonist structurally and functionally similar to R-848 was conjugated to HIV-1 Gag protein both Th1 and CD8(+) T cells responses were elicited as determined by intracellular cytokine and tetramer staining. Moreover, within the population of HIV-1 Gag-specific CD8(+) CD62(low) cells, approximately 50% of cells expressed CD127, a marker shown to correlate with the capacity to develop into long-term memory cells. Overall, these data provide evidence that TLR7/8 agonists can be effective vaccine adjuvants for eliciting strong primary immune responses with a viral protein in vivo, provided vaccine delivery is optimized.
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MESH Headings
- AIDS Vaccines/administration & dosage
- AIDS Vaccines/immunology
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- Dendritic Cells/cytology
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/administration & dosage
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Gene Products, gag/administration & dosage
- Gene Products, gag/immunology
- HIV-1/immunology
- Imidazoles/administration & dosage
- Imidazoles/immunology
- Immunoglobulin G/biosynthesis
- Membrane Glycoproteins/agonists
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/agonists
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/metabolism
- Th1 Cells/virology
- Toll-Like Receptor 7
- Vaccines, Conjugate/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Conjugate/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Wille-Reece
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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78
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Heit A, Schmitz F, O'Keeffe M, Staib C, Busch DH, Wagner H, Huster KM. Protective CD8 T cell immunity triggered by CpG-protein conjugates competes with the efficacy of live vaccines. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:4373-80. [PMID: 15778402 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.7.4373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to infectious (live) vaccines are those based on subunit Ag that are notoriously poor in eliciting protective CD8 T cell responses, presumably because subunit Ags become insufficiently cross-presented by dendritic cells (DCs) and because the latter need to be activated to acquire competence for cross-priming. In this study, we show that CpG-Ag complexes overcome these limitations. OVA covalently linked to CpG-DNA (CpG-OVA complex), once it is efficiently internalized by DCs via DNA receptor-mediated endocytosis, is translocated to lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1)-positive endosomal-lysosomal compartments recently shown to display competence for cross-presentation. In parallel, CpG-OVA complex loaded DCs become activated and acquire characteristics of professional APCs. In vivo, a single s.c. dose of CpG-OVA complex (10 mug of protein) induces primary and secondary clonal expansion/contraction of Ag-specific CD8 T cells similar in kinetics to live vaccines; examples including Listeria monocytogenes genetically engineered to produce OVA (LM-OVA) and two viral vector-based OVA vaccines analyzed. Interestingly, CpG-OVA complex induced almost equal percentages of Ag-specific memory CD8 T cells as did infection with LM-OVA. A single dose vaccination with CpG-OVA complex protected mice against lethal doses of LM-OVA. These data underscore that the synergy imparted by CpG-OVA complex-mediated combined triggering of innate and specific immunity might be key to initiate CD8 T cell-based immunoprotection by synthetic vaccines based on subunit Ag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antje Heit
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technische Universität München, Germany
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79
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Durand V, Wong SY, Tough DF, Le Bon A. Shaping of adaptive immune responses to soluble proteins by TLR agonists: a role for IFN-alpha/beta. Immunol Cell Biol 2005; 82:596-602. [PMID: 15550117 DOI: 10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01285.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLR) are believed to play a major role in the recognition of invading organisms, although their ability to shape immune responses is not completely understood. Our aim was to investigate in vivo the effect of different TLR stimuli on the generation of antibody responses and the induction of CD8+ T-cell cross-priming after immunization with soluble protein antigens. While all TLR agonists tested elicited the production of immunomodulatory cytokines, marked differences were observed in their ability to stimulate antigen-specific immune responses. Zymosan, poly(I:C) and CpG DNA, which signal through TLR2/6, 3 and 9, respectively, were found to strongly induce the production of IgG2a antibodies, whereas R-848 (TLR7) and LPS (TLR4) did so much more weakly. In contrast, LPS, poly(I:C) and CpG DNA, but not zymosan, induced functional CD8+ T-cell responses against OVA; peptidoglycan (TLR2/?) and R-848 were also ineffective in stimulating cross-priming. Experiments using IFN-alpha/beta R-deficient mice showed that the induction of cross-priming by LPS and poly(I:C) was abrogated in the absence of IFN-alpha/beta signalling, and induction by CpG DNA was greatly reduced. Overall, our results identify LPS as another TLR agonist that is able to generate functional cross-priming against a soluble protein antigen. In addition, our results demonstrate that the ability of TLR stimuli to initiate CD8+ T-cell responses against soluble protein antigens is largely dependent on the IFN-alpha/beta signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Durand
- The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research, Compton, Berkshire, UK
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80
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Abstract
With the impressive growth in gene sequence data that has become available, recombinant proteins represent an increasingly vast source of molecular components, with unique functional and structural properties, for use in biotechnological applications and devices. To facilitate the use, manipulation, and integration of such molecules into devices, a controllable method for their chemical modification was developed. In this approach, a trifunctional labeling reagent first recognizes and binds a His-tag on the target protein's surface. After binding, a photoreactive group on the trifunctional molecule is triggered to create a covalent linkage between the reagent and the target protein. The third moiety on the labeling reagent can be varied to bring unique chemical functionality to the target protein. This approach provides: (1) specificity in that only His-tagged targets are modified, (2) regio-specific control in that the target is modified proximal to the His-tag, the position of which can be varied, and (3) stoichiometric control in that the number modifications is limited by the binding capacity of the His-tag. Two such labeling reagents were designed, synthesized, and used to modify both N- and C-terminally His-tagged versions of the enzyme murine dihydrofolate reductase (mDHFR). The first reagent biotinylated the enzyme,while the second served to attach an oligonucleotide to yield a protein-DNA conjugate. In all cases, modification in this manner brings new functionality to the protein while leaving the enzymatic activity intact. The protein-DNA conjugate was used to specifically immobilize the active enzyme through DNA hybridization onto polystyrene microspheres, a step toward creating a functional protein microarray.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin D Meredith
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of California - Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-4560, USA.
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81
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Krieg AM. CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides for Mucosal Vaccines. Mucosal Immunol 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-012491543-5/50057-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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82
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Creticos PS, Chen YH, Schroeder JT. New approaches in immunotherapy: allergen vaccination with immunostimulatory DNA. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2004; 24:569-81, v. [PMID: 15474859 DOI: 10.1016/j.iac.2004.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Despite its success, conventional immunotherapy is saddled with a number of encumbrances. An allergenic vaccine that could reduce allergenicity, maintain immunogenicity, and be given in a few doses would have important therapeutic implications, as millions of patients with poorly controlled allergic rhinitis and asthma would be candidates for such a form of immunomodulation. This article addresses a specific adjuvant approach to immunotherapy in which highly active immunostimulatory phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotide moieties are linked to the principal allergenic moiety of a relevant aeroallergen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Socrates Creticos
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Asthma and Allergy Center, Johns Hopkins University, 5501 Hopkins Bayview Circle, Room 2B, 71, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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83
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Abstract
Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated CpG motifs directly stimulate human B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), thereby promoting the production of T helper 1 (Th1) and pro-inflammatory cytokines and the maturation/activation of professional antigen-presenting cells. These activities enable CpG ODNs to act as immune adjuvants, accelerating and boosting antigen-specific immune responses by 5-500-fold. These effects are optimized by maintaining close physical contact between the CpG DNA and the immunogen. Animal challenge models establish that protective immunity can be accelerated and magnified by coadministering CpG DNA with vaccines. Ongoing clinical studies indicate that CpG ODNs are safe and well tolerated when administered as adjuvants to humans, and in some cases, they increase vaccine-induced immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis M Klinman
- Section of Retroviral Immunology, Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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84
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Welters MJP, Filippov DV, van den Eeden SJF, Franken KLMC, Nouta J, Valentijn ARPM, van der Marel GA, Overkleeft HS, Lipford G, Offringa R, Melief CJM, van Boom JH, van der Burg SH, Drijfhout JW. Chemically synthesized protein as tumour-specific vaccine: immunogenicity and efficacy of synthetic HPV16 E7 in the TC-1 mouse tumour model. Vaccine 2004; 23:305-11. [PMID: 15530672 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2004] [Revised: 06/03/2004] [Accepted: 06/15/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Many successful candidate vaccines capable of combating tumours in animal models come to an untimely end because of the costs associated with the approval and production of the GMP-grade materials, which are usually of biological origin, for use in humans. We have used a GMP-compatible method to chemically synthesize a pure synthetic E7 protein of the human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16-E7). This oncogen-derived protein is constitutively expressed in cervical cancer and its precursors and is thus considered as an excellent target for tumour-specific immunity. Injection of a mixture of the synthetic HPV16-E7 protein and the synthetic adjuvant CpG in mice resulted in strong functional HPV16-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses as measured by CD8+ MHC class I-tetramer staining, the detection of antigen-specific intracellular IFNgamma production and the ability to protect mice against a challenge with HPV16-E7+ TC-1 tumour cells in both prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination regimens. Our results demonstrate the potential use of pure synthetic vaccines that can be efficiently produced under GMP at low cost, which will stimulate the translation of new vaccination strategies into phase I/II clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marij J P Welters
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, P.O. Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
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85
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Farkas L, Kvale EO, Johansen FE, Jahnsen FL, Lund-Johansen F. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells activate allergen-specific TH2 memory cells: modulation by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 114:436-43. [PMID: 15316529 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) accumulate in the nasal mucosa of allergic rhinitis patients, but their function in upper airway allergy has not been determined. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, potent adjuvants in immunotherapeutic strategies in animal models, are especially effective at activating PDCs. These cells are therefore potential targets for immunomodulation in humans. OBJECTIVE In this study, PDCs were compared with CD11c+ dendritic cells (DCs), a very potent antigen-presenting cell type, for their capacity to induce allergen-dependent activation of TH2 memory cells. Then, we investigated whether CpG-activated PDCs were able to modulate the allergen-specific TH2 memory response. METHODS DCs were isolated from patients with upper airway allergy and cocultured with autologous CD4+ T cells with or without grass pollen extract and CpG. In some experiments cells were restimulated with allergen-pulsed monocyte-derived DCs. T-cell activation was measured by their proliferative response and cytokine production. RESULTS PDCs stimulated allergen-dependent T-cell proliferation and TH2 cytokine production as efficiently as CD11c+ DCs. CpG-activated PDCs inhibited allergen-dependent proliferation of TH2 memory cells and markedly increased IFN-gamma production in PDC/T-cell cocultures; the former effect depended on the CpG-induced IFN-alpha/beta production by the PDCs. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrated that PDCs efficiently drive allergen-dependent TH2 memory responses, suggesting that they play an active role in the allergic reaction. However, in the presence of CpG, PDCs were responsible for increased production of the TH1-related cytokines IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma, indicating that mucosal PDCs may be targets for CpG-based immunotherapeutic strategies against airway allergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorant Farkas
- Section for Immune Regulation and Allergy, LIIPAT, Institute of Pathology, Rikshospitalet University Hospital, Norway.
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86
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Wagner
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Trogerstr. 9, 81675 Munich, Germany.
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87
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Jiao X, Wang RYH, Qiu Q, Alter HJ, Shih JWK. Enhanced hepatitis C virus NS3 specific Th1 immune responses induced by co-delivery of protein antigen and CpG with cationic liposomes. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:1545-1553. [PMID: 15166438 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.79896-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice were immunized intramuscularly with free recombinant hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3 (non-structural protein 3) protein, liposomes encapsulating rNS3 or rNS3 and CpG mixture, liposomes co-encapsulating rNS3 and CpG or liposomes co-encapsulating rNS3 and GpC. Liposomes co-encapsulating rNS3 and CpG induced a much higher titre of anti-HCV NS3 IgG and the dominant IgG subtype was IgG2a. Liposomes co-encapsulating rNS3 and GpC also induced high levels of anti-HCV NS3 IgG antibody, but the dominant IgG subtype was still IgG1, the same as in free HCV/NS3 immunized mice. Liposomes encapsulating rHCV NS3 and the mixture of rHCV NS3 and CpG did not increase the antibody response but switched the IgG subtype. A cytokine profile analysis revealed that the levels of Th1 cytokines in the mice immunized with liposomes co-encapsulating rHCV NS3 and CpG were significantly higher than in other mice while the levels of Th2 cytokine were significantly lower than in the mice immunized with naked rNS3. IL-12 in the mice immunized with liposome-NS3-CpG was significantly higher than in other mice. In conclusion, liposomes co-encapsulating HCV NS3 and CpG are a good candidate vaccine to induce strong Th1 immune responses against hepatitis C viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanmao Jiao
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Warren G. Magnuson Clinical Center, Building 10, Room 1C711, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1184, USA
| | - Richard Yan-Hui Wang
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Warren G. Magnuson Clinical Center, Building 10, Room 1C711, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1184, USA
| | - Qi Qiu
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Warren G. Magnuson Clinical Center, Building 10, Room 1C711, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1184, USA
| | - Harvey J Alter
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Warren G. Magnuson Clinical Center, Building 10, Room 1C711, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1184, USA
| | - J Wai-Kuo Shih
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Warren G. Magnuson Clinical Center, Building 10, Room 1C711, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1184, USA
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88
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Datta SK, Cho HJ, Takabayashi K, Horner AA, Raz E. Antigen-immunostimulatory oligonucleotide conjugates: mechanisms and applications. Immunol Rev 2004; 199:217-26. [PMID: 15233737 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00149.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Conjugation of protein antigen with immunostimulatory oligonucleotides creates a potent immunogen. Physical linking of oligonucleotides to antigen enhances antigen uptake and targets the adjuvant properties of the oligonucleotides to the antigen-presenting cell. In addition, the conjugated oligonucleotides appear to have improved immunostimulatory abilities compared to free oligonucleotides, presumably due to enhanced activation of Toll-like receptor 9. Immunization with these conjugate preparations elicits antigen-specific antibody responses, a T-helper cell 1-biased cytokine profile from CD4 T cells, and CD8 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity that is CD4 independent. The humoral and cellular immune responses induced by these conjugates suggest they can be used to create effective vaccines against infectious pathogens and tumors and to beneficially modulate allergic responses. Indeed, recent clinical trial data show symptom relief and immunomodulation of the allergic response in patients with allergic rhinitis. This review considers the mechanisms of action of antigen-oligonucleotide conjugates and discusses available data regarding their use for the prevention and treatment of infectious, oncologic, and allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandip K Datta
- The Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093-0663, USA
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89
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90
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Spiegelberg HL, Horner AA, Takabayashi K, Raz E. Allergen-immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide conjugate: a novel allergoid for immunotherapy. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2004; 2:547-51. [PMID: 14752340 DOI: 10.1097/00130832-200212000-00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To summarize the data of both preclinical studies and initial clinical trials of a novel allergoid for allergen specific immunotherapy. This allergoid consists of allergen covalently coupled to immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide DNA sequences. RECENT FINDINGS Recently, immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide sequences, also called unmethylated cytosin-guanine dinucleotide motifs, have been discovered that act as strong T helper 1 response inducing adjuvants in mice. Although mixing allergens with immunostimulatory DNA sequences induces T helper 1 responses in T helper 2 biased mice, the allergens in such mixes could still cause anaphylactic reactions when used in humans which is one of the reasons why immunotherapy has gradually been falling out of favor. Therefore, we made allergen-immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide conjugates and investigated their immunogenicity and allergenicity in animal models of allergy. These conjugates were highly immunogenic for inducing T helper 1-like antiallergen responses and reversed T helper 2 responses and symptoms of asthma in mouse models. They were also less allergenic, as shown by the reaction with human immunoglobulin E antibodies and by histamine release from basophils of allergic patients. Preliminary phase I and II trials in ragweed allergic patients showed that allergen-immunostimulatory oligodeoxynucleotide conjugates are well tolerated, less allergenic and induce immunoglobulin G antiallergen antibodies more rapidly than allergen extracts without significantly increasing the immunoglobulin E titer. SUMMARY Allergen-immunostimulatory DNA conjugates induce T helper 1 and down regulate preexisting T helper 2 anti-allergen responses in mice. Initial phase I and II trials in ragweed allergic patients showed that ragweed allergen-DNA conjugates are well tolerated and induce a rapid immunoglobulin G but not E response. The data show that allergen-DNA conjugates are a novel type of allergoid that have great potential for a safe and potent form of allergen specific immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans L Spiegelberg
- Department of Pediatrics, and the Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California 92093-0833, USA.
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91
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Krieg AM. Antitumor applications of stimulating toll-like receptor 9 with CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. Curr Oncol Rep 2004; 6:88-95. [PMID: 14751085 DOI: 10.1007/s11912-004-0019-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy has evolved from the use of crude bacterial extracts to chemically synthesized ligands for specific immune receptors, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs). One of the most promising targets for therapeutic immune activation is TLR9, which detects unmethylated CpG dinucleotides present in viral and prokaryotic genomes, which are generally methylated in host DNA. This review describes the immune effects of synthetic CpG oligonucleotides as TLR9 ligands and their applications in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur M Krieg
- Coley Pharmaceutical Group, 93 Worcester Street, Suite 101, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA.
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92
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Datta SK, Takabayashi K, Raz E. The therapeutic potential of antigen-oligonucleotide conjugates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1002:105-11. [PMID: 14751828 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1281.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Conjugation of protein antigen with immunostimulatory oligonucleotides creates a potent immunogen that elicits antigen-specific antibody responses, a Th1-biased cytokine profile, and CD8 cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. The wide range of humoral and cellular immune responses induced by these conjugates suggests they can be used to create effective vaccines against infectious pathogens and tumors and to beneficially modulate the immune responses seen in allergic diseases. This review summarizes the available data on the use of antigen-oligonucleotide conjugates and discusses their potential use for the treatment of infectious, oncologic, and allergic diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandip K Datta
- The Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging, Department of Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0663, USA.
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93
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Vrtala S, Focke-Tejkl M, Swoboda I, Kraft D, Valenta R. Strategies for converting allergens into hypoallergenic vaccine candidates. Methods 2004; 32:313-20. [PMID: 14962766 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2003.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Specific immunotherapy is based on the administration of increasing doses of allergens to allergic patients with the aim of inducing a state of antigen-specific unresponsiveness. Specific immunotherapy is one of the few causative treatment approaches for Type I allergy but may cause numerous side effects, including local inflammatory reactions, systemic manifestations (e.g., asthma attacks) and in the worst case, anaphylactic shock which may lead to death. Several attempts have been made in the past to reduce the rate of side effects. They included the chemical modification of allergen extracts to reduce their allergenic activity and the adsorption of allergen extracts to adjuvants to prevent the systemic release of allergens after administration. During the last decade, cDNAs coding for the most relevant allergens have been isolated and the corresponding allergens have been produced as recombinant molecules. Using allergen-encoding cDNAs, the amino acid sequence of allergens or purified recombinant allergens several strategies can now be applied to produce allergen derivatives with reduced allergenic activity for allergy vaccination in a controlled and reproducible manner. Currently, allergen-encoding cDNAs are used to engineer recombinant hypoallergenic allergen derivatives. According to the amino acid sequences and experimental epitope mapping data, synthetic peptides representing T- or B-cell epitopes are produced and purified recombinant allergens are coupled to novel adjuvants for vaccine formulation. In this article, strategies for the production and evaluation of allergen derivatives with reduced allergenic activity for allergy vaccination are described. These new vaccines hold great promise to improve the current practice of allergen-specific immunotherapy and maybe also used for prophylactic vaccination in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Vrtala
- Department of Pathophysiology, University of Vienna, Vienna A-1090, Austria
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94
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Chen YF, Lin CW, Tsao YP, Chen SL. Cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte human papillomavirus type 16 E5 peptide with CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide can eliminate tumor growth in C57BL/6 mice. J Virol 2004; 78:1333-43. [PMID: 14722288 PMCID: PMC321407 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.3.1333-1343.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Previously, we identified human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) E5 as a tumor rejection antigen that can induce cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) to protect against tumor growth (D. W. Liu et al., J. Virol. 74:9083-9089, 2000). In the present study, we further mapped the CTL epitope of E5 protein by analyzing E5-specific CD8(+) gamma interferon-positive (IFN-gamma(+)) double-positive cells in C57BL/6 mice with flow cytometry. The results showed the region spanning amino acids 25 to 33 (VCLLIRPLL) contained the potential D(b)-restricted CTL epitope. Subsequently, to determine whether peptide E5 25-33-based vaccination could induce E5-specific CTL activity, syngeneic animals received E5 25-33 emulsified with either CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN 1826) or Freund's adjuvant, and the growth of the tumors was monitored. The results showed that although both adjuvants induced E5-specific CD8(+) IFN-gamma(+) T cells and eradicated E5-containing tumor growth, CpG ODN was found to stimulate stronger CTL response than Freund's adjuvant. We also compared the immune response of the effector/memory/recall phase induced by E5 25-33 peptide or by E5 protein that was synthesized in vivo by adenovirus-based E5 gene delivery. E5 25-33 peptide plus CpG ODN was shown to be a superior vaccine compared to the adenovirus-based E5 gene. Interestingly, their chronological patterns of immune response were similar, suggesting that E5 25-33 is a major CTL peptide of E5 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Fang Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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95
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Schirmbeck R, Riedl P, Zurbriggen R, Akira S, Reimann J. Antigenic epitopes fused to cationic peptide bound to oligonucleotides facilitate Toll-like receptor 9-dependent, but CD4+ T cell help-independent, priming of CD8+ T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 171:5198-207. [PMID: 14607920 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.5198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A priority in current vaccine research is the development of adjuvants that support the efficient priming of long-lasting, CD4(+) T cell help-independent CD8(+) T cell immunity. Oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) with immune-stimulating sequences (ISS) containing CpG motifs facilitate the priming of MHC class I-restricted CD8(+) T cell responses to proteins or peptides. We show that the adjuvant effect of ISS(+) ODN on CD8(+) T cell priming to large, recombinant Ag is enhanced by binding them to short, cationic (arginine-rich) peptides that themselves have no adjuvant activity in CD8(+) T cell priming. Fusing antigenic epitopes to cationic (8- to 10-mer) peptides bound to immune-stimulating ISS(+) ODN or nonstimulating NSS(+) ODN (without CpG-containing sequences) generated immunogens that efficiently primed long-lasting, specific CD8(+) T cell immunity of high magnitude. Different MHC class I-binding epitopes fused to short cationic peptides of different origins showed this adjuvant activity. Quantitative ODN binding to cationic peptides strikingly reduced the toxicity of the latter, suggesting that it improves the safety profile of the adjuvant. CD8(+) T cell priming supported by this adjuvant was Toll-like receptor 9 dependent, but required no CD4(+) T cell help. ODN (with or without CpG-containing sequences) are thus potent Th1-promoting adjuvants when bound to cationic peptides covalently linked to antigenic epitopes, a mode of Ag delivery prevailing in many viral nucleocapsids.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/genetics
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/metabolism
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- DNA-Binding Proteins/physiology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/administration & dosage
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Female
- H-2 Antigens/immunology
- Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/genetics
- Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/immunology
- Immunity, Cellular/genetics
- Injections, Intramuscular
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/genetics
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/metabolism
- Peptides/administration & dosage
- Peptides/genetics
- Peptides/immunology
- Peptides/metabolism
- Protein Binding/genetics
- Protein Binding/immunology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/administration & dosage
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Stem Cells/immunology
- Toll-Like Receptor 9
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinhold Schirmbeck
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany.
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96
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Li WM, Dragowska WH, Bally MB, Schutze-Redelmeier MP. Effective induction of CD8+ T-cell response using CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and HER-2/neu-derived peptide co-encapsulated in liposomes. Vaccine 2003; 21:3319-29. [PMID: 12804863 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(03)00172-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODN) have been shown to have potent adjuvant activity for a wide range of antigens. Of particular interest is their improved activity when closely associated with the antigen. The purpose of this study is to determine the potential benefit of liposomes as a co-delivery vehicle to enhance the adjuvant activity of CpG ODN for a HER-2/neu-derived peptide to induce CD8+ T-cell response. Immunization studies were performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the liposomal vaccine in BALB/c mice. Mice were immunized with p63-71 encapsulated in liposomes alone or in combination with CpG ODN, as well as p63-71 alone in saline or with peptide-pulsed dendritic cells (DC) as controls. Enzyme-linked immunospot assay (ELISPOT) assay was performed to measure the frequency of splenocytes secreting IFN-gamma as a means to determine the antigen-specific response. It was found that immunization using p63-71 co-encapsulated with CpG ODN within the same liposomes enhanced the antigen-specific IFN-gamma response by more than 100-fold when compared with mice immunized with p63-71 alone. Immunization using free CpG ODN plus p63-71 encapsulated in liposomes or p63-71 and CpG ODN encapsulated in separate liposomes could not achieve the same effect. Using CD8 as a second marker and intracellular flow cytometric analysis, it was found that the IFN-gamma response was contributed by CD8+ T-cells, confirming the induction of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) by this vaccination method. This indicates that a close association of HER-2/neu peptide and CpG ODN inside liposomes enhances the CTL epitope delivery and induces CD8+ mediated immune response. These results suggest that a vaccinal approach using liposome delivery system carrying in self-tumoral epitope and CpG ODN as adjuvant may have important implications for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Ming Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of British Columbia, BC, Vancouver, Canada
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97
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Abstract
Microbial infection is sensed by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on innate immune cells. Among the ten so far defined TLRs, TLR9 and its ligand are peculiar. TLR9 recognises bacterial DNA characterised by the abundance of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides, which distinguish bacterial DNA (CpG DNA) from mammalian DNA. Moreover, TLR9 shows a restricted cellular and subcellular pattern of expression. In contrast to other TLR agonists, CpG DNA is superior in activation of dendritic dells and induction of costimulatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-18. This qualifies CpG DNA as a Th1-promoting adjuvant. During infection, recognition of CpG DNA of intracellular pathogens skews and fine-tunes the ongoing immune response and induces long-lasting Th1 milieus. Thus, CpG DNA might play an important role in driving the immune system to a Th1 profile, preventing undesired Th2 milieus that might favour induction of allergic responses. Since CpG DNA can be synthesised with high purity and sequence fidelity, synthetic CpG DNA will become an important agent for Th1 instruction and be an effective adjuvant during vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dalpke
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
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98
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Muñoz-López F. Asthma: will the therapeutic strategy change? Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2003; 31:201-4, 205-8. [PMID: 12890411 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0546(03)79178-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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99
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Marshall JD, Fearon K, Abbate C, Subramanian S, Yee P, Gregorio J, Coffman RL, Van Nest G. Identification of a novel CpG DNA class and motif that optimally stimulate B cell and plasmacytoid dendritic cell functions. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 73:781-92. [PMID: 12773511 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1202630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent reports have identified two major classes of CpG motif-containing oligodeoxynucleotide immunostimulatory sequences (ISS): uniformly modified phosphorothioate (PS) oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs), which initiate B cell functions but poorly activate dendritic cells (DCs) to make interferon (IFN)-alpha, and chimeric PS/phosphodiester (PO) ODNs containing runs of six contiguous guanosines, which induce very high levels of plasmacytoid DC (PDC)-derived IFN-alpha but poorly stimulate B cells. We have generated the first reported ISS, C274, which exhibits very potent effects on all human immune cells known to recognize ISS. C274 is a potent inducer of IFN-gamma/IFN-alpha from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and exhibits accelerated kinetics of activity compared with standard ISS. This ODN also effectively stimulates B cells to proliferate, secrete cytokines, and express costimulatory antigens. In addition, C274 specifically activates PDCs to undergo maturation and secrete cytokines, including very high levels of IFN-alpha. Sequence variation studies based on C274 were used to identify the general motif requirements for this novel and distinct class of ISS. In contrast, chimeric PO/PS CpG-containing ODNs with polyguanosine sequences exert a differential pattern of ISS activity compared with C274, perhaps in part as a result of their greatly different structural nature. This pattern is composed of high IFN-alpha/IFN-gamma induction and low DC maturation in the absence of B cell stimulation. In conclusion, we have generated a novel class of ISS that transcends the limitations ascribed to classes described previously in that it provides excellent stimulation of B cells and simultaneously activates PDCs to differentiate and secrete large amounts of type I IFN.
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100
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Kandimalla ER, Agrawal S. Chemistry of CpG DNA. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NUCLEIC ACID CHEMISTRY 2003; Chapter 4:Unit 4.16. [PMID: 18428906 DOI: 10.1002/0471142700.nc0416s12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The vertebrate immune system can recognize specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns in invading microorganisms, including the unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. This unit discusses the receptors that recognize CpG motifs and important aspects of the sequence context of CpG motifs to the end of understanding and designing CpG DNA for therapeutic purposes.
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