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Razavi AC, Potts KS, Kelly TN, Bazzano LA. Sex, gut microbiome, and cardiovascular disease risk. Biol Sex Differ 2019; 10:29. [PMID: 31182162 PMCID: PMC6558780 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-019-0240-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Key differences exist between men and women in the determinants and manifestations of cardiovascular and cardiometabolic diseases. Recently, gut microbiome-host relations have been implicated in cardiovascular disease and associated metabolic conditions; therefore, gut microbiota may be key mediators or modulators driving the observed sexual dimorphism in disease onset and progression. While current evidence regarding pure physiological sex differences in gut microbiome composition is modest, robust research suggests that gut microbiome-dependent metabolites may interact with important biological pathways under sex hormone control, including toll-like receptor and flavin monooxygenase signaling. Here, we review key sex differences in gut microbiome interactions with four primary determinants of cardiovascular disease, impaired glucose regulation, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and obesity. Through this process, we propose important sex differences in downstream metabolic pathways that may be at the interface of the gut microbiome and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C. Razavi
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2000, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA
| | - Kaitlin S. Potts
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2000, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA
| | - Tanika N. Kelly
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2000, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA
| | - Lydia A. Bazzano
- Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, 1440 Canal Street, Suite 2000, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA
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Grabherr F, Grander C, Effenberger M, Adolph TE, Tilg H. Gut Dysfunction and Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:611. [PMID: 31555219 PMCID: PMC6742694 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has emerged as one of the leading liver diseases worldwide. NAFLD is characterized by hepatic steatosis and may progress to an inflammatory condition termed non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. It became evident in the last years that NAFLD pathophysiology is complex and involves diverse immunological and metabolic pathways. An association between intestinal signals (e.g., derived from the gut microbiota) and the development of obesity and its metabolic consequences such as NAFLD are increasingly recognized. Pre-clinical studies have shown that germ-free mice are protected against obesity and hepatic steatosis. Several human studies from the past years have demonstrated that NAFLD contains a disease-specific gut microbiome signature. Controlled studies propose that certain bacteria with rather pro-inflammatory features such as Proteobacteria or Escherichia coli are dominantly present in these patients. In contrast, rather protective bacteria such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii are decreased in NAFLD patients. Furthermore, various bacterial metabolites and microbiota-generated secondary bile acids are involved in NAFLD-associated metabolic dysfunction. Although these findings are exciting, research currently lack evidence that interference at the level of the gut microbiome is beneficial for these diseases. Further preclinical and clinical studies are needed to advance this aspect of NAFLD research and to support the notion that the intestinal microbiota is indeed of major relevance in this disorder.
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Selective tracking of FFAR3-expressing neurons supports receptor coupling to N-type calcium channels in mouse sympathetic neurons. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17379. [PMID: 30478340 PMCID: PMC6255804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35690-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of short-chain free fatty acid receptors 3 (FFAR3) has been suggested to promote sympathetic outflow in postganglionic sympathetic neurons or hamper it by a negative coupling to N-type calcium (CaV2.2) channels. Heterogeneity of FFAR3 expression in sympathetic neurons, however, renders single neurons studies extremely time-consuming in wild-type mice. Previous studies demonstrated large variability of the degree of CaV2.2 channel inhibition by FFAR3 in a global population of rat sympathetic neurons. Therefore, we focused on a small subpopulation of mouse sympathetic neurons using an FFAR3 antibody and an Ffar3 reporter mouse to perform immunofluorescent and electrophysiological studies. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of identified FFAR3-expressing neurons from reporter mice revealed a 2.5-fold decrease in the CaV2.2-FFAR3 inhibitory coupling variability and 1.5-fold increase in the mean ICa2+ inhibition, when compared with unlabeled neurons from wild-type mice. Further, we found that the ablation of Ffar3 gene expression in two knockout mouse models led to a complete loss-of-function. Subpopulations of sympathetic neurons are associated with discrete functional pathways. However, little is known about the neural pathways of the FFAR3-expressing subpopulation. Our data indicate that FFAR3 is expressed primarily in neurons with a vasoconstrictor phenotype. Thus, fine-tuning of chemically-coded neurotransmitters may accomplish an adequate outcome.
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Priyadarshini M, Kotlo KU, Dudeja PK, Layden BT. Role of Short Chain Fatty Acid Receptors in Intestinal Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2018; 8:1091-1115. [PMID: 29978895 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c170050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nutrient sensing is a mechanism for organisms to sense their environment. In larger animals, including humans, the intestinal tract is a major site of nutrient sensing for the body, not surprisingly, as this is the central location where nutrients are absorbed. In the gut, bacterial fermentation results in generation of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a class of nutrients, which are sensed by specific membrane bound receptors, FFA2, FFA3, GPR109a, and Olfr78. These receptors are expressed uniquely throughout the gut and signal through distinct mechanisms. To date, the emerging data suggests a role of these receptors in normal and pathological conditions. The overall function of these receptors is to regulate aspects of intestinal motility, hormone secretion, maintenance of the epithelial barrier, and immune cell function. Besides in intestinal health, a prominent role of these receptors has emerged in modulation of inflammatory and immune responses during pathological conditions. Moreover, these receptors are being revealed to interact with the gut microbiota. This review article updates the current body of knowledge on SCFA sensing receptors in the gut and their roles in intestinal health and disease as well as in whole body energy homeostasis. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 8:1091-1115, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medha Priyadarshini
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kumar U Kotlo
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Pradeep K Dudeja
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Brian T Layden
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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55
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McKenzie C, Tan J, Macia L, Mackay CR. The nutrition-gut microbiome-physiology axis and allergic diseases. Immunol Rev 2018; 278:277-295. [PMID: 28658542 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Dietary and bacterial metabolites influence immune responses. This raises the question whether the increased incidence of allergies, asthma, some autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular disease, and others might relate to intake of unhealthy foods, and the decreased intake of dietary fiber. In recent years, new knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underpinning a 'diet-gut microbiota-physiology axis' has emerged to substantiate this idea. Fiber is fermented to short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly acetate, butyrate, and propionate. These metabolites bind 'metabolite-sensing' G-protein-coupled receptors such as GPR43, GPR41, and GPR109A. These receptors play fundamental roles in the promotion of gut homeostasis and the regulation of inflammatory responses. For instance, these receptors and their metabolites influence Treg biology, epithelial integrity, gut homeostasis, DC biology, and IgA antibody responses. The SCFAs also influence gene transcription in many cells and tissues, through their inhibition of histone deacetylase expression or function. Contained in this mix is the gut microbiome, as commensal bacteria in the gut have the necessary enzymes to digest dietary fiber to SCFAs, and dysbiosis in the gut may affect the production of SCFAs and their distribution to tissues throughout the body. SCFAs can epigenetically modify DNA, and so may be one mechanism to account for diseases with a 'developmental origin', whereby in utero or post-natal exposure to environmental factors (such as nutrition of the mother) may account for disease later in life. If the nutrition-gut microbiome-physiology axis does underpin at least some of the Western lifestyle influence on asthma and allergies, then there is tremendous scope to correct this with healthy foodstuffs, probiotics, and prebiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig McKenzie
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - Jian Tan
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - Laurence Macia
- Nutritional Immunometabolism Node Laboratory, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Charles R Mackay
- Infection and Immunity Program, Department of Biochemistry, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic., Australia
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56
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Zhang Q, Yu H, Xiao X, Hu L, Xin F, Yu X. Inulin-type fructan improves diabetic phenotype and gut microbiota profiles in rats. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4446. [PMID: 29507837 PMCID: PMC5835350 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims Accumulating research has addressed the linkage between the changes to gut microbiota structure and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Inulin is one type of soluble dietary fiber that can alleviate T2D. As a prebiotic, inulin cannot be digested by humans, but rather is digested by probiotics. However, whether inulin treatment can benefit the entire gut bacteria community remains unknown. In this study, we evaluated the differences in gut microbiota composition among diabetic, inulin-treated diabetic, normal control, and inulin-treated normal control rats. Methods A diabetic rat model was generated by a high-fat diet and streptozotocin injections (HF/STZ). Inulin was orally administered to normal and diabetic rats. To determine the composition of the gut microbiota, fecal DNA extraction and 16S rRNA gene 454 pyrosequencing were performed. Results We found that inulin treatment reduced fasting blood glucose levels and alleviated glucose intolerance and blood lipid panels in diabetic rats. Additionally, inulin treatment increased the serum glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) level, reduced serum IL-6 level, Il6 expression in epididymal adipose tissue, and Pepck, G6pc expression in liver of diabetic rats. Pyrophosphate sequencing of the 16s V3–V4 region demonstrated an elevated proportion of Firmicutes and a reduced abundance of Bacteroidetes at the phylogenetic level in diabetic rats compared to normal control rats. The characteristics of the gut microbiota in control and inulin-treated rats were similar. Inulin treatment can normalize the composition of the gut microbiota in diabetic rats. At the family and genus levels, probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria Lachnospiraceae, Phascolarctobacterium, and Bacteroides were found to be significantly more abundant in the inulin-treated diabetic group than in the non-treated diabetic group. In addition, inulin-treated rats had a lower abundance of Desulfovibrio, which produce lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The abundance of Lachnospiraceae was negatively correlated with the blood glucose response after a glucose load. Conclusion In summary, diabetic rats have different gut microbiota from control rats. Inulin treatment can alleviate gut microbiota dysbiosis in T2D model rats. Moreover, inulin treatment enhanced serum GLP-1 level to suppress IL-6 secretion and production and hepatic gluconeogenesis, resulted in moderation of insulin tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Endocrinology, Translational Medicine Center, Ministry of Health, Department of Endocrinology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hongyue Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Taiyuan, China
| | - Xinhua Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Endocrinology, Translational Medicine Center, Ministry of Health, Department of Endocrinology, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Hu
- Department of Endocrinology, Shanxi Provincial People's Hospital, Taiyuan, China
| | - Fengjiao Xin
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing, China
| | - Xiaobing Yu
- Fengning Ping'an High-tech Industrial Co., Ltd., Hebei Province, China
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57
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Meza-Cuenca F, Medina-Contreras JML, Mailloux-Salinas P, Bautista-Hernández LA, Buentello-Volante B, Domínguez-López A, Garfias Y, Correa-López PV, Bautista de Lucio VM, Bravo G. Characterization of free fatty acid receptors expression in an obesity rat model with high sucrose diet. J Recept Signal Transduct Res 2018; 38:76-82. [PMID: 29369009 DOI: 10.1080/10799893.2018.1426609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION/AIMS In recent years, it has been shown that free fatty acids receptors (FFAR) of whose function in the cell surface plays a significant role in the regulation of cell function and nutrition as well are activated by various endogenous ligands, but mainly by fatty acids. Within FFAR of our interest are GPR 41, 43 and 120. The functions of these receptors are varied and dependent on the tissue where they are. The activation and signaling of these receptors, FFAR, are involved in many physiological processes, and currently the target of many drugs in metabolic disorders like obesity, diabetes and atherosclerosis. MATERIAL AND METHODS Obesity was induced with hypercaloric diet (HD) in male Wistar rats for 20 weeks (n = 10). At the end, adipose tissue (abdominal and subcutaneous) was taken to perform assays for relative quantification mRNA expression by end-point RT-PCR and protein level expression by Western blot. RESULTS These present data have shown for the first time that total mRNA isolation and protein expression from both adipose tissues (abdominal and subcutaneous) of rat in obesity condition yield significative statistical difference among the control versus obese groups, showing that the diet high in carbohydrates modifies the total presence of mRNA and protein level expression of the receptors GPR41, 43 and 120. CONCLUSIONS Further comparative methods are in process to clarify whether or not the obesity changes the functional receptors in these two tissues for new pharmacological approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabián Meza-Cuenca
- a Pharmacobiology Department , Cinvestav-IPN Unidad Coapa , Mexico City , Mexico.,b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico
| | | | | | - Luis A Bautista-Hernández
- b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Beatríz Buentello-Volante
- b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Alfredo Domínguez-López
- b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Yonathan Garfias
- b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico.,c Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine , Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , Mexico City , Mexico
| | | | - Víctor M Bautista de Lucio
- b Microbiology and Ocular Proteomics, Research Unit, Institute of Ophthalmology "Fundación de Asistencia Privada Conde de Valenciana" , Mexico City , Mexico
| | - Guadalupe Bravo
- a Pharmacobiology Department , Cinvestav-IPN Unidad Coapa , Mexico City , Mexico
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58
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Takeyama A, Nagata Y, Shirouchi B, Nonaka C, Aoki H, Haraguchi T, Sato M, Tamaya K, Yamamoto H, Tanaka K. Dietary Sparassis crispa Reduces Body Fat Mass and Hepatic Lipid Levels by Enhancing Energy Expenditure and Suppressing Lipogenesis in Rats. J Oleo Sci 2018; 67:1137-1147. [DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess18043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ai Takeyama
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
| | - Yasuo Nagata
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
| | - Bungo Shirouchi
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University
| | - Chika Nonaka
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
| | - Hiromu Aoki
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
| | - Tsubasa Haraguchi
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
| | - Masao Sato
- Laboratory of Nutrition Chemistry, Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Graduate School, Kyushu University
| | - Kei Tamaya
- Industrial Technology Center of Nagasaki
| | | | - Kazunari Tanaka
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Nursing and Nutrition, University of Nagasaki
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59
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Fernández Real JM, Moreno-Navarrete JM, Manco M. Iron influences on the Gut-Brain axis and development of type 2 diabetes. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 59:443-449. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1376616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- José Manuel Fernández Real
- University Hospital of Girona ‘Dr JosepTrueta’, Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Girona IdibGi
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Girona, Spain
| | - José Maria Moreno-Navarrete
- University Hospital of Girona ‘Dr JosepTrueta’, Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Nutrition, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Girona IdibGi
- CIBER Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición, Girona, Spain
| | - Melania Manco
- Research Area for multifactorial diseases, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital and Research Institute, Research Unit for Multifactorial Disease, Rome, Italy
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Effect of GPR84 deletion on obesity and diabetes development in mice fed long chain or medium chain fatty acid rich diets. Eur J Nutr 2017; 57:1737-1746. [PMID: 28429080 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-017-1456-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Although there is good evidence showing that diets rich in medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) have less marked obesogenic and diabetogenic effects than diets rich in long chain fatty acids (LCFAs), the role of the pro-inflammatory, medium chain fatty acid receptor (GPR84) in the aetiology of obesity and glucose intolerance is not well characterised. We set out to determine whether GPR84 expression influences obesity and glucose intolerance susceptibility in MCFA and LCFA rich diet fed mice. METHODS Wild type (WT) and GPR84 knockout (KO) mice were fed a control, MCFA or LCFA diet, and body mass, heart, liver and epididymal fat mass was assessed, as well as glucose tolerance and adipocyte size. RESULTS LCFA diets increased body mass and decreased glucose tolerance in both WT and GPR84 KO animals while MCFA diets had no effect on these parameters. There were no differences in body weight when comparing WT and GPR84 KO mice on the respective diets. Glucose tolerance was also similar in WT and GPR84 KO mice irrespective of diet. Liver mass was increased following LCFA feeding in WT but not GPR84 KO mice. Hepatic triglyceride content was increased in GPR84 KO animals fed MCFA, and myocardial triglyceride content was increased in GPR84 KO animals fed LCFA. CONCLUSIONS GPR84 deletion had no effects on body weight or glucose tolerance in mice fed either a high MCFA or LCFA diet. GPR84 may influence lipid metabolism, as GPR84 KO mice had smaller livers and increased myocardial triglyceride accumulation when fed LCFA diets, and increased liver triglyceride accumulation in responses to increased dietary MCFAs.
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61
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Abstract
Overfeeding of fat can cause various metabolic disorders including obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Diet provided free fatty acids (FFAs) are not only essential nutrients, but they are also recognized as signaling molecules, which stimulate various important biological functions. Recently, several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including FFA1-4, have been identified as receptors of FFAs by various physiological and pharmacological studies. FFAs exert physiological functions through these FFA receptors (FFARs) depending on carbon chain length and degree of unsaturation. Functional analyses have revealed that several important metabolic processes, such as peptide hormone secretion, cell maturation and nerve activities, are regulated by FFARs and thereby FFARs contribute to the energy homeostasis through these physiological functions. Hence, FFARs are expected to be promising pharmacological targets for metabolic disorders since imbalances in energy homeostasis lead to metabolic disorders. In human, it is established that different responses of individuals to endogenous ligands and chemical drugs may be due to differences in the ability of such ligands to activate nucleotide polymorphic variants of receptors. However, the clear links between genetic variations that are involved in metabolic disorders and polymorphisms receptors have been relatively difficult to assess. In this review, I summarize current literature describing physiological functions of FFARs and genetic variations of those receptors to discuss the potential of FFARs as drug targets for metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuhiko Ichimura
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, 46-29, Sakyo-ku, yoshidashimoadachi-cho, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan.
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62
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Abstract
The short-chain fatty acid receptors FFA2 (GPR43) and FFA3 (GPR41) are activated by acetate, propionate, and butyrate. These ligands are produced by bacteria in the gut. In addition, the body itself can in particular produce acetate, and acetate plasma levels have been shown to be increased, e.g., in diabetic patients or during periods of starvation. FFA2 and FFA3 are both expressed by enteroendocrine cells and pancreatic β-cells. In addition, FFA2 is found on immune cells and adipocytes, whereas FFA3 is expressed by some peripheral neurons. It has therefore been speculated that short-chain fatty acid receptors are involved in the regulation of various body functions under different nutritional and metabolic conditions. Here we summarize recent data on the role of FFA2 and FFA3 in the regulation of metabolic, immunological, and neuronal functions and discuss the potential pharmacological relevance of this receptor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Tang
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstr. 43, 61231, Bad Nauheim, Germany.
- Medical Faculty, University of Frankfurt, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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63
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Suckow AT, Briscoe CP. Key Questions for Translation of FFA Receptors: From Pharmacology to Medicines. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2017; 236:101-131. [PMID: 27873087 DOI: 10.1007/164_2016_45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The identification of fatty acids as ligands for the G-protein coupled free fatty acid (FFA) receptor family over 10 years ago led to intensive chemistry efforts to find small-molecule ligands for this class of receptors. Identification of potent, selective modulators of the FFA receptors and their utility in medicine has proven challenging, in part due to their complex pharmacology. Nevertheless, ligands have been identified that are sufficient for exploring the therapeutic potential of this class of receptors in rodents and, in the case of FFA1, FFA2, FFA4, and GPR84, also in humans. Expression profiling, the phenotyping of FFA receptor knockout mice, and the results of studies exploring the effects of these ligands in rodents have uncovered a number of indications where engagement of one or a combination of FFA receptors might provide some clinical benefit in areas including diabetes, inflammatory bowel syndrome, Alzheimer's, pain, and cancer. In this chapter, we will review the clinical potential of modulating FFA receptors based on preclinical and in some cases clinical studies with synthetic ligands. In particular, key aspects and challenges associated with small-molecule ligand identification and FFA receptor pharmacology will be addressed with a view of the hurdles that need to be overcome to fully understand the potential of the receptors as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Celia P Briscoe
- Epigen Biosciences, 10225 Barnes Canyon Rd, San Diego, CA, 92121, USA.
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64
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Interplay between gut microbiota, its metabolites and human metabolism: Dissecting cause from consequence. Trends Food Sci Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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65
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Remely M, Haslberger AG. The microbial epigenome in metabolic syndrome. Mol Aspects Med 2016; 54:71-77. [PMID: 27670623 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Dietary habits, lifestyle, medication, and food additives affect the composition and functions of the GI microbiota. Metabolic syndrome is already known to be associated with an aberrant gut microbiota affecting systemic low-grade inflammation, which is also outlined by differing epigenetic patterns. Thus, structural changes and compositional evaluation of gut microbial differences affecting epigenetic patterns in metabolic syndrome are of research interest. In the present review we focus on the disparities in the gut microbiota composition of metabolic syndrome and the resulting aberrant profile of bioactive microbial metabolites known to affect epigenetic modifications such as G-protein coupled receptors and inflammatory pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Remely
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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66
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Hanatani S, Motoshima H, Takaki Y, Kawasaki S, Igata M, Matsumura T, Kondo T, Senokuchi T, Ishii N, Kawashima J, Kukidome D, Shimoda S, Nishikawa T, Araki E. Acetate alters expression of genes involved in beige adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells and obese KK-Ay mice. J Clin Biochem Nutr 2016; 59:207-214. [PMID: 27895388 PMCID: PMC5110936 DOI: 10.3164/jcbn.16-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The induction of beige adipogenesis within white adipose tissue, known as "browning", has received attention as a novel potential anti-obesity strategy. The expression of some characteristic genes including PR domain containing 16 is induced during the browning process. Although acetate has been reported to suppress weight gain in both rodents and humans, its potential effects on beige adipogenesis in white adipose tissue have not been fully characterized. We examined the effects of acetate treatment on 3T3-L1 cells and in obese diabetic KK-Ay mice. The mRNA expression levels of genes involved in beige adipocyte differentiation and genes selectively expressed in beige adipocytes were significantly elevated in both 3T3-L1 cells incubated with 1.0 mM acetate and the visceral white adipose tissue from mice treated with 0.6% acetate for 16 weeks. In KK-Ay mice, acetate reduced the food efficiency ratio and increased the whole-body oxygen consumption rate. Additionally, reduction of adipocyte size and uncoupling protein 1-positive adipocytes and interstitial areas with multilocular adipocytes appeared in the visceral white adipose tissue of acetate-treated mice, suggesting that acetate induced initial changes of "browning". In conclusion, acetate alters the expression of genes involved in beige adipogenesis and might represent a potential therapeutic agent to combat obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoko Hanatani
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Motoshima
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Yuki Takaki
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Shuji Kawasaki
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Motoyuki Igata
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takeshi Matsumura
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Kondo
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takafumi Senokuchi
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Norio Ishii
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Junji Kawashima
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kukidome
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Seiya Shimoda
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Takeshi Nishikawa
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Eiichi Araki
- Department of Metabolic Medicine, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
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Priyadarshini M, Wicksteed B, Schiltz GE, Gilchrist A, Layden BT. SCFA Receptors in Pancreatic β Cells: Novel Diabetes Targets? Trends Endocrinol Metab 2016; 27:653-664. [PMID: 27091493 PMCID: PMC4992600 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2016.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Nutrient sensing receptors are key metabolic mediators of responses to dietary and endogenously derived nutrients. These receptors are largely G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and many are gaining significant interest as drug targets with a potential therapeutic role in metabolic diseases. A distinct subclass of nutrient sensing GPCRs, two short chain fatty acid (SCFA) receptors (FFA2 and FFA3) are uniquely responsive to gut microbiota derived nutrients (such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate). Pharmacological, molecular, and genetic studies have investigated their role in organismal glucose metabolism and recently in pancreatic β cell biology. Here, we summarize the present knowledge on the role of these receptors as metabolic sensors in β cell function and physiology, revealing new therapeutic opportunities for type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medha Priyadarshini
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Barton Wicksteed
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Gary E Schiltz
- Center for Molecular Innovation and Drug Discovery, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Annette Gilchrist
- Midwestern University Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Brian T Layden
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Molecular Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
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Gut microbiota in renal physiology: focus on short-chain fatty acids and their receptors. Kidney Int 2016; 90:1191-1198. [PMID: 27575555 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2016.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A number of recent studies have begun to explore a new and exciting area: the interaction between the gut microbiome and renal physiology. In particular, multiple studies have focused on the role of microbially produced short chain fatty acids, which are generally thought to promote health. This review will focus on what is known to date regarding the influence of the microbiome on renal function, with emphasis on the cell biology, physiology, and clinical implications of short chain fatty acids and short chain fatty acid receptors. It is clear that microbe-host interactions are an exciting and ever-expanding field, which has implications for how we view diseases such as hypertension, acute kidney injury, and chronic kidney disease. However, it is important to recognize that although the potential promise of this area is extremely enticing, we are only the very edge of this new field.
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69
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Veprik A, Laufer D, Weiss S, Rubins N, Walker MD. GPR41 modulates insulin secretion and gene expression in pancreatic β‐cells and modifies metabolic homeostasis in fed and fasting states. FASEB J 2016; 30:3860-3869. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.201500030r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Veprik
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Dana Laufer
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Sara Weiss
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Nir Rubins
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Michael D. Walker
- Department of Biomolecular SciencesWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
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Probiotic Lactobacillus gasseri SBT2055 improves glucose tolerance and reduces body weight gain in rats by stimulating energy expenditure. Br J Nutr 2016; 116:451-8. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114516002245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractProbiotic Lactobacillus gasseri SBT2055 (LG2055) reduces postprandial TAG absorption and exerts anti-obesity effects in rats and humans; however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In the present study, we addressed the mechanistic insights of the anti-obesity activity of LG2055 by feeding Sprague–Dawley rats diets containing skimmed milk fermented or not by LG2055 for 4 weeks and by analysing energy expenditure, glucose tolerance, the levels of SCFA in the caecum and serum inflammatory markers. Rats fed the LG2055-containing diet demonstrated significantly higher carbohydrate oxidation in the dark cycle (active phase for rats) compared with the control group, which resulted in a significant increase in energy expenditure. LG2055 significantly reduced cumulative blood glucose levels (AUC) compared with the control diet after 3 weeks and increased the molar ratio of butyrate:total SCFA in the caecum after 4 weeks. Furthermore, the LG2055-supplemented diet significantly reduced the levels of serum amyloid P component – an indicator of the inflammatory process. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that, in addition to the inhibition of dietary TAG absorption reported previously, the intake of probiotic LG2055 enhanced energy expenditure via carbohydrate oxidation, improved glucose tolerance and attenuated inflammation, suggesting multiple additive and/or synergistic actions underlying the anti-obesity effects exerted by LG2055.
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71
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Richards JL, Yap YA, McLeod KH, Mackay CR, Mariño E. Dietary metabolites and the gut microbiota: an alternative approach to control inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Clin Transl Immunology 2016; 5:e82. [PMID: 27350881 PMCID: PMC4910123 DOI: 10.1038/cti.2016.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now convincingly clear that diet is one of the most influential lifestyle factors contributing to the rise of inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity in both developed and developing countries. In addition, the modern 'Western diet' has changed in recent years with increased caloric intake, and changes in the relative amounts of dietary components, including lower fibre and higher levels of fat and poor quality of carbohydrates. Diet shapes large-bowel microbial ecology, and this may be highly relevant to human diseases, as changes in the gut microbiota composition are associated with many inflammatory diseases. Recent studies have demonstrated a remarkable role for diet, the gut microbiota and their metabolites-the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)-in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, colon cancer and wound-healing. This review summarizes how diet, microbiota and gut microbial metabolites (particularly SCFAs) can modulate the progression of inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity, and reveal the molecular mechanisms (metabolite-sensing G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs) and inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs)). Therefore, considerable benefit could be achieved simply through the use of diet, probiotics and metabolites for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Richards
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Yu Anne Yap
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Keiran H McLeod
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Charles R Mackay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eliana Mariño
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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72
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Soderborg TK, Borengasser SJ, Barbour LA, Friedman JE. Microbial transmission from mothers with obesity or diabetes to infants: an innovative opportunity to interrupt a vicious cycle. Diabetologia 2016; 59:895-906. [PMID: 26843076 PMCID: PMC4829383 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-016-3880-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Maternal obesity and diabetes dramatically increase the long-term risk for obesity in the next generation, and pregnancy and lactation may be critical periods at which to aim primary prevention to break the obesity cycle. It is becoming increasingly clear that the gut microbiome in newborns and infants plays a significant role in gut health and therefore child development. Alteration of the early infant gut microbiome has been correlated with the development of childhood obesity and autoimmune conditions, including asthma, allergies and, more recently, type 1 diabetes. This is likely to be due to complex interactions between mode of delivery, antibiotic use, maternal diet, components of breastfeeding and a network of regulatory events involving both the innate and adaptive immune systems within the infant host. Each of these factors are critical for informing microbiome development and can affect immune signalling, toxin release and metabolic signals, including short-chain fatty acids and bile acids, that regulate appetite, metabolism and inflammation. In several randomised controlled trials, probiotics have been administered with the aim of targeting the microbiome during pregnancy to improve maternal and infant health but the findings have often been confounded by mode of delivery, antibiotic use, ethnicity, infant sex, maternal health and length of exposure. Understanding how nutritional exposure, including breast milk, affects the assembly and development of both maternal and infant microbial communities may help to identify targeted interventions during pregnancy and in infants born to mothers with obesity or diabetes to slow the transmission of obesity risk to the next generation. The aim of this review is to discuss influences on infant microbiota colonisation and the mechanism(s) underlying how alterations due to maternal obesity and diabetes may lead to increased risk of childhood obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor K Soderborg
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Mail Stop 8106, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Sarah J Borengasser
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Nutrition, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Linda A Barbour
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Jacob E Friedman
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Mail Stop 8106, 12801 East 17th Avenue, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
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73
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Benefits of short-chain fatty acids and their receptors in inflammation and carcinogenesis. Pharmacol Ther 2016; 164:144-51. [PMID: 27113407 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have linked increased incidence of inflammatory diseases and intestinal cancers in the developed parts of the world to the consumption of diets poor in dietary fibers and rich in refined carbohydrates. Gut bacteria residing in the intestinal lumen exclusively metabolize dietary fibers. Butyrate, propionate and acetate, which are collectively called short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), are generated by fermentation of dietary fibers by gut microbiota. Evidences indicate that SCFAs are key players in regulating beneficial effect of dietary fibers and gut microbiota on our health. SCFAs interact with metabolite-sensing G protein-coupled receptors GPR41, GPR43 and GPR109A expressed in gut epithelium and immune cells. These interactions induce mechanisms that play a key role in maintaining homeostasis in gut and other organs. This review summarizes the protective roles of GPR41, GPR43 and GPR109A in dietary fibers-, gut microbiota- and SCFAs-mediated suppression of inflammation and carcinogenesis in gut and other organs.
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Boulangé CL, Neves AL, Chilloux J, Nicholson JK, Dumas ME. Impact of the gut microbiota on inflammation, obesity, and metabolic disease. Genome Med 2016; 8:42. [PMID: 27098727 PMCID: PMC4839080 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-016-0303-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 865] [Impact Index Per Article: 108.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gut harbors more than 100 trillion microbial cells, which have an essential role in human metabolic regulation via their symbiotic interactions with the host. Altered gut microbial ecosystems have been associated with increased metabolic and immune disorders in animals and humans. Molecular interactions linking the gut microbiota with host energy metabolism, lipid accumulation, and immunity have also been identified. However, the exact mechanisms that link specific variations in the composition of the gut microbiota with the development of obesity and metabolic diseases in humans remain obscure owing to the complex etiology of these pathologies. In this review, we discuss current knowledge about the mechanistic interactions between the gut microbiota, host energy metabolism, and the host immune system in the context of obesity and metabolic disease, with a focus on the importance of the axis that links gut microbes and host metabolic inflammation. Finally, we discuss therapeutic approaches aimed at reshaping the gut microbial ecosystem to regulate obesity and related pathologies, as well as the challenges that remain in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L Boulangé
- Metabometrix Ltd, Bio-incubator, Prince Consort Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BP, UK
| | - Ana Luisa Neves
- Division of Computational and Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2PH, UK
| | - Julien Chilloux
- Division of Computational and Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2PH, UK
| | - Jeremy K Nicholson
- Metabometrix Ltd, Bio-incubator, Prince Consort Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2BP, UK. .,Division of Computational and Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2PH, UK.
| | - Marc-Emmanuel Dumas
- Division of Computational and Systems Medicine, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2PH, UK.
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Rojas-Morales P, Tapia E, Pedraza-Chaverri J. β-Hydroxybutyrate: A signaling metabolite in starvation response? Cell Signal 2016; 28:917-23. [PMID: 27083590 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ketone bodies β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and acetoacetate are important metabolic substrates for energy production during prolonged fasting. However, BHB also has signaling functions. Through several metabolic pathways or processes, BHB modulates nutrient utilization and energy expenditure. These findings suggest that BHB is not solely a metabolic intermediate, but also acts as a signal to regulate metabolism and maintain energy homeostasis during nutrient deprivation. We briefly summarize the metabolism and emerging physiological functions of ketone bodies and highlight the potential role for BHB as a signaling molecule in starvation response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Rojas-Morales
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Edilia Tapia
- Laboratorio de Fisiopatología Renal, Departamento de Nefrología, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología - Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Pedraza-Chaverri
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico.
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76
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Suzuki K, Kaneko-Kawano T. Biological roles and therapeutic potential of G protein-coupled receptors for free fatty acids and metabolic intermediates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.7600/jpfsm.5.213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Suzuki
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ritsumeikan University
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77
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Bolognini D, Tobin AB, Milligan G, Moss CE. The Pharmacology and Function of Receptors for Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Mol Pharmacol 2015; 89:388-98. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.115.102301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Barlow GM, Yu A, Mathur R. Role of the Gut Microbiome in Obesity and Diabetes Mellitus. Nutr Clin Pract 2015; 30:787-97. [PMID: 26452391 DOI: 10.1177/0884533615609896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity represent two of the biggest global health challenges of this century and are associated with significant comorbidities and healthcare costs. Although multiple factors undoubtedly contribute to the development and progression of DM and obesity, research over the last decade has demonstrated that the microbes that colonize the human gut may play key contributory roles. Gut microbes are now known to codevelop with the human host and are strongly influenced by mode of birth and early diet and nutrition, as well as environmental and other factors including antibiotic exposure. Gut microbes contribute to human health through roles in polysaccharide breakdown, nutrient absorption, inflammatory responses, gut permeability, and bile acid modification. Numerous studies have suggested that disruptions in the relative proportions of gut microbial populations may contribute to weight gain and insulin resistance, including alterations in Gammaproteobacteria and Verrucomicrobia and the ratios of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes in weight gain and possible alterations in butyrate-producing bacteria such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in DM. In addition, it has been shown that the methanogenic Archaea may contribute to altered metabolism and weight gain in the host. However, the majority of studies are performed with stool or colonic samples and may not be representative of the metabolically active small intestine. Studies predominantly in rodent models are beginning to elucidate the mechanisms by which gut microbes contribute to DM and obesity, but much remains to be learned before we can begin to approach targeted treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gillian M Barlow
- GI Motility Program, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Allen Yu
- GI Motility Program, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Ruchi Mathur
- Division of Endocrine Diabetes and Metabolism, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
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Farrag M, Laufenberg LJ, Steiner JL, Weller GE, Lang CH, Ruiz-Velasco V. Modulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels by G protein-coupled receptors in celiac-mesenteric ganglion neurons of septic rats. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125566. [PMID: 26017846 PMCID: PMC4446366 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Septic shock, the most severe complication associated with sepsis, is manifested by tissue hypoperfusion due, in part, to cardiovascular and autonomic dysfunction. In many cases, the splanchnic circulation becomes vasoplegic. The celiac-superior mesenteric ganglion (CSMG) sympathetic neurons provide the main autonomic input to these vessels. We used the cecal ligation puncture (CLP) model, which closely mimics the hemodynamic and metabolic disturbances observed in septic patients, to examine the properties and modulation of Ca2+ channels by G protein-coupled receptors in acutely dissociated rat CSMG neurons. Voltage-clamp studies 48 hr post-sepsis revealed that the Ca2+ current density in CMSG neurons from septic rats was significantly lower than those isolated from sham control rats. This reduction coincided with a significant increase in membrane surface area and a negligible increase in Ca2+ current amplitude. Possible explanations for these findings include either cell swelling or neurite outgrowth enhancement of CSMG neurons from septic rats. Additionally, a significant rightward shift of the concentration-response relationship for the norepinephrine (NE)-mediated Ca2+ current inhibition was observed in CSMG neurons from septic rats. Testing for the presence of opioid receptor subtypes in CSMG neurons, showed that mu opioid receptors were present in ~70% of CSMG, while NOP opioid receptors were found in all CSMG neurons tested. The pharmacological profile for both opioid receptor subtypes was not significantly affected by sepsis. Further, the Ca2+ current modulation by propionate, an agonist for the free fatty acid receptors GPR41 and GPR43, was not altered by sepsis. Overall, our findings suggest that CSMG function is affected by sepsis via changes in cell size and α2-adrenergic receptor-mediated Ca2+ channel modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Farrag
- Department of Anesthesiology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Lacee J. Laufenberg
- Department of Surgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Jennifer L. Steiner
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Gregory E. Weller
- Department of Anesthesiology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Charles H. Lang
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
| | - Victor Ruiz-Velasco
- Department of Anesthesiology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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The role of short chain fatty acids in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis. Int J Obes (Lond) 2015; 39:1331-8. [PMID: 25971927 PMCID: PMC4564526 DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2015.84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 401] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the last 20 years there has been an increasing interest in the influence of the gastrointestinal tract on appetite regulation. Much of the focus has been on the neuronal and hormonal relationship between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. There is now mounting evidence that the colonic microbiota and their metabolic activity have a significant role in energy homeostasis. The supply of substrate to the colonic microbiota has a major impact on the microbial population and the metabolites they produce, particularly short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). SCFAs are produced when non-digestible carbohydrates, namely dietary fibres and resistant starch, undergo fermentation by the colonic microbiota. Both the consumption of fermentable carbohydrates and the administration of SCFAs have been reported to result in a wide range of health benefits including improvements in body composition, glucose homeostasis, blood lipid profiles and reduced body weight and colon cancer risk. However, published studies tend to report the effects that fermentable carbohydrates and SCFAs have on specific tissues and metabolic processes, and fail to explain how these local effects translate into systemic effects and the mitigation of disease risk. Moreover, studies tend to investigate SCFAs collectively and neglect to report the effects associated with individual SCFAs. Here, we bring together the recent evidence and suggest an overarching model for the effects of SCFAs on one of their beneficial aspects: appetite regulation and energy homeostasis.
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81
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review will summarize recent literature highlighting the roles of sensory Gpr receptors and their roles in renal function. RECENT FINDINGS Chemoreceptors play important roles in renal physiology wherein they modulate renal function in response to ligands from a variety of sources. SUMMARY As specialized chemical detectors, chemoreceptors in the kidney monitor the level of a variety of chemical ligands in the body and adjust renal function accordingly. In addition to olfactory receptors and taste receptors, G-protein coupled receptors of the orphan Gpr family are now being found to play a 'sensory' role in renal physiology. Identifying the physiological roles of these receptors and elucidating the cell biology underlying these signaling pathways can give us novel insights into renal function.
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82
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Villanueva-Millán MJ, Pérez-Matute P, Oteo JA. Gut microbiota: a key player in health and disease. A review focused on obesity. J Physiol Biochem 2015; 71:509-25. [PMID: 25749935 DOI: 10.1007/s13105-015-0390-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Gut microbiota, its evolutive dynamics and influence on host through its protective, trophic and metabolic actions, has a key role in health and opens unique opportunities for the identification of new markers of the physiopathological state of each individual. Alterations in gut microbiota composition have been associated with plenty disorders. Of interest, the vast number of studies demonstrates the role of microbiota in obesity, a serious public health problem that has reached epidemic proportions in many developed and middle-income countries. The economic and health costs of this condition and its comorbidities such as fatty liver, insulin resistance/diabetes, or cardiovascular events are considerable. Therefore, every strategy designed to reduce obesity would imply important savings. Targeting microbiota, in order to restore/modulate the microbiota composition with antibiotics, probiotics, prebiotics, or even fecal transplants, is considered as a promising strategy for the development of new solutions for the treatment of obesity. However, there is still lot to do in this field in order to identify the exact composition of microbiota in "health" and the specific mechanisms that regulate the host-microbiotal crosstalk. In addition, it is important to note that changes not only in the gut microbiota profile (abundance) but also in its metabolism and functions need to be taken into account in the context of contribution in the physiopathology of obesity and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Villanueva-Millán
- HIV and Associated Metabolic Alterations Unit, Infectious Diseases Department, Center for Biomedical Research of La Rioja (CIBIR), Piqueras 98, 26006, Logroño, La Rioja, Spain
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Loss of FFA2 and FFA3 increases insulin secretion and improves glucose tolerance in type 2 diabetes. Nat Med 2015; 21:173-7. [PMID: 25581519 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes is a major health problem worldwide, and one of its key features is the inability of elevated glucose to stimulate the release of sufficient amounts of insulin from pancreatic beta cells to maintain normal blood glucose levels. New therapeutic strategies to improve beta cell function are therefore believed to be beneficial. Here we demonstrate that the short-chain fatty acid receptors FFA2 (encoded by FFAR2) and FFA3 (encoded by FFAR3) are expressed in mouse and human pancreatic beta cells and mediate an inhibition of insulin secretion by coupling to Gi-type G proteins. We also provide evidence that mice with dietary-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, as compared to non-obese control mice, have increased local formation by pancreatic islets of acetate, an endogenous agonist of FFA2 and FFA3, as well as increased systemic levels. This elevation may contribute to the insufficient capacity of beta cells to respond to hyperglycemia in obese states. Indeed, we found that genetic deletion of both receptors, either on the whole-body level or specifically in pancreatic beta cells, leads to greater insulin secretion and a profound improvement of glucose tolerance when mice are on a high-fat diet compared to controls. On the other hand, deletion of Ffar2 and Ffar3 in intestinal cells did not alter glucose tolerance in diabetic animals, suggesting these receptors act in a cell-autonomous manner in beta cells to regulate insulin secretion. In summary, under diabetic conditions elevated acetate acts on FFA2 and FFA3 to inhibit proper glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, and we expect antagonists of FFA2 and FFA3 to improve insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes.
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84
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Sharon G, Garg N, Debelius J, Knight R, Dorrestein PC, Mazmanian SK. Specialized metabolites from the microbiome in health and disease. Cell Metab 2014; 20:719-730. [PMID: 25440054 PMCID: PMC4337795 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 387] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The microbiota, and the genes that comprise its microbiome, play key roles in human health. Host-microbe interactions affect immunity, metabolism, development, and behavior, and dysbiosis of gut bacteria contributes to disease. Despite advances in correlating changes in the microbiota with various conditions, specific mechanisms of host-microbiota signaling remain largely elusive. We discuss the synthesis of microbial metabolites, their absorption, and potential physiological effects on the host. We propose that the effects of specialized metabolites may explain present knowledge gaps in linking the gut microbiota to biological host mechanisms during initial colonization, and in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil Sharon
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Neha Garg
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Justine Debelius
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Rob Knight
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Sarkis K Mazmanian
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
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85
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Abstract
A large body of evidence suggests that the regulation of energy balance and glucose homeostasis by fermentable carbohydrates induces specific changes in the gut microbiota. Among the mechanisms, our research group and others have demonstrated that the gut microbiota fermentation (i.e., bacterial digestion of specific compounds) of specific prebiotics or other non-digestible carbohydrates is associated with the secretion of enteroendocrine peptides, such as the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY), produced by L-cells. In this review, we highlight past and recent results describing how dietary manipulation of the gut microbiota, using nutrients or specific microbes, can stimulate GLP-1 secretion in rodents and humans. Furthermore, the purpose of this review is to discuss the putative mechanisms by which specific bacterial metabolites, such as short chain fatty acids, trigger GLP-1 secretion through GPR41/43-dependent mechanisms. Moreover, we conclude by discussing the molecular advance showing that the endocannabinoid system or related bioactive lipids modulated by the gut microbiota may contribute to the regulation of glucose, lipid and energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Everard
- WELBIO (Walloon Excellence in Life sciences and BIOtechnology), Metabolism and Nutrition research group, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Av. E. Mounier, 73, Box B1.73.11, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
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86
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Role of free fatty acid receptors in the regulation of energy metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1841:1292-300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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87
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Salazar N, Dewulf EM, Neyrinck AM, Bindels LB, Cani PD, Mahillon J, de Vos WM, Thissen JP, Gueimonde M, de Los Reyes-Gavilán CG, Delzenne NM. Inulin-type fructans modulate intestinal Bifidobacterium species populations and decrease fecal short-chain fatty acids in obese women. Clin Nutr 2014; 34:501-7. [PMID: 24969566 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2014.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Inulin-type fructans (ITF) prebiotics promote changes in the composition and activity of the gut microbiota. The aim of this study was to determine variations on fecal short chain fatty acids (SCFA) concentration in obese women treated with ITF and to explore associations between Bifidobacterium species, SCFA and host biological markers of metabolism. METHODS Samples were obtained in a randomized, double blind, parallel, placebo-controlled trial, with 30 obese women randomly assigned to groups that received either 16 g/day ITF (n = 15) or maltodextrin (n = 15) for 3 months. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of Bifidobacterium spp. was performed in feces by PCR-DGGE and q-PCR, and SCFA profile was analyzed by gas chromatography. Spearman correlation analysis was performed between the different variables analyzed. RESULTS The species Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum and Bifidobacterium adolescentis were significantly increased at the end of the treatment in the prebiotic group (p < 0.01) with being B. longum negatively correlated with serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endotoxin (p < 0.01). Total SCFA, acetate and propionate, that positively correlated with BMI, fasting insulinemia and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) (p < 0.05), were significantly lower in prebiotic than in placebo group after the treatment period. CONCLUSIONS ITF consumption selectively modulates Bifidobacterium spp. and decreases fecal SCFA concentration in obese women. ITF could lessen metabolic risk factors associated with higher fecal SCFA concentration in obese individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Salazar
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Evelyne M Dewulf
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Audrey M Neyrinck
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laure B Bindels
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Patrice D Cani
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jacques Mahillon
- Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Willem M de Vos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Bacteriology & Immunology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jean-Paul Thissen
- Pole of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Nutrition, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Miguel Gueimonde
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPLA-CSIC), Villaviciosa, Asturias, Spain
| | - Clara G de Los Reyes-Gavilán
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPLA-CSIC), Villaviciosa, Asturias, Spain
| | - Nathalie M Delzenne
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.
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88
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Hudson BD, Christiansen E, Murdoch H, Jenkins L, Hansen AH, Madsen O, Ulven T, Milligan G. Complex Pharmacology of Novel Allosteric Free Fatty Acid 3 Receptor Ligands. Mol Pharmacol 2014; 86:200-10. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.114.093294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Selkrig J, Wong P, Zhang X, Pettersson S. Metabolic tinkering by the gut microbiome: Implications for brain development and function. Gut Microbes 2014; 5:369-80. [PMID: 24685620 PMCID: PMC4153776 DOI: 10.4161/gmic.28681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain development is an energy demanding process that relies heavily upon diet derived nutrients. Gut microbiota enhance the host's ability to extract otherwise inaccessible energy from the diet via fermentation of complex oligosaccharides in the colon. This nutrient yield is estimated to contribute up to 10% of the host's daily caloric requirement in humans and fluctuates in response to environmental variations. Research over the past decade has demonstrated a surprising role for the gut microbiome in normal brain development and function. In this review we postulate that perturbations in the gut microbial-derived nutrient supply, driven by environmental variation, profoundly impacts upon normal brain development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Selkrig
- School of Biological Sciences; Nanyang Technological University; Singapore, Singapore,Lee Kong Chain School of Medicine; Nanyang Technological University; Singapore, Singapore
| | - Peiyan Wong
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders; Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School Singapore; Singapore, Singapore,Behavioural Phenotyping Core Facility; Duke-NUS; Duke University Medical Center; Durham, NC USA
| | - Xiaodong Zhang
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders; Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School Singapore; Singapore, Singapore,Department of Physiology; National University of Singapore; Singapore, Singapore,Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences; Duke University Medical Center; Durham, NC USA
| | - Sven Pettersson
- Lee Kong Chain School of Medicine; Nanyang Technological University; Singapore, Singapore,Department of Microbiology, Tumor, and Cell Biology (MTC); Karolinska Institute; Stockholm, Sweden,Correspondence to: Sven Pettersson,
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90
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Enns JE, Hanke D, Park A, Zahradka P, Taylor CG. Diets high in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease fatty acid synthase protein levels in adipose tissue but do not alter other markers of adipose function and inflammation in diet-induced obese rats. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2014; 90:77-84. [PMID: 24411719 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2013.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids from different fat sources (High Oleic Canola, Canola, Canola-Flaxseed (3:1 blend), Safflower, or Soybean Oil, or a Lard-based diet) on adipose tissue function and markers of inflammation in Obese Prone rats fed high-fat (55% energy) diets for 12 weeks. Adipose tissue fatty acid composition reflected the dietary fatty acid profiles. Protein levels of fatty acid synthase, but not mRNA levels, were lower in adipose tissue of all groups compared to the Lard group. Adiponectin and fatty acid receptors GPR41 and GPR43 protein levels were also altered, but other metabolic and inflammatory mediators in adipose tissue and serum were unchanged among groups. Overall, rats fed vegetable oil- or lard-based high-fat diets appear to be largely resistant to major phenotypic changes when the dietary fat composition is altered, providing little support for the importance of specific fatty acid profiles in the context of a high-fat diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Enns
- Department of Physiology, University of Manitoba, Canada; Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Research Centre, R2019 - 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R2H 2A6
| | - Danielle Hanke
- Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Canada; Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Research Centre, R2019 - 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R2H 2A6
| | - Angela Park
- Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Research Centre, R2019 - 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R2H 2A6
| | - Peter Zahradka
- Department of Physiology, University of Manitoba, Canada; Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Canada; Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Research Centre, R2019 - 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R2H 2A6
| | - Carla G Taylor
- Department of Physiology, University of Manitoba, Canada; Department of Human Nutritional Sciences, University of Manitoba, Canada; Canadian Centre for Agri-Food Research in Health and Medicine, St. Boniface Research Centre, R2019 - 351 Tache Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R2H 2A6.
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91
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Inoue D, Tsujimoto G, Kimura I. Regulation of Energy Homeostasis by GPR41. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2014; 5:81. [PMID: 24904531 PMCID: PMC4033597 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2014.00081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Imbalances in energy regulation lead to metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes. Diet plays an essential role in the maintenance of body energy homeostasis by acting not only as energy source but also as a signaling modality. Excess energy increases energy expenditure, leading to a consumption of it. In addition to glucose, mammals utilize short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are produced by colonic bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber, as a metabolic fuel. The roles of SCFAs in energy regulation have remained unclear, although the roles of glucose are well-studied. Recently, a G-protein-coupled receptor deorphanizing strategy successfully identified GPR41 (also called free fatty acid receptor 3 or FFAR3) as a receptor for SCFAs. GPR41 is expressed in adipose tissue, gut, and the peripheral nervous system, and it is involved in SCFA-dependent energy regulation. In this mini-review, we focus on the role of GPR41 in host energy regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Inoue
- Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto, Japan
- *Correspondence: Daisuke Inoue, Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 46-29, Simoadachi-cho Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan e-mail: ; Ikuo Kimura, Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-8-1, Harumi-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-0057, Japan e-mail:
| | - Gozoh Tsujimoto
- Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Fuchu-shi, Japan
- *Correspondence: Daisuke Inoue, Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 46-29, Simoadachi-cho Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan e-mail: ; Ikuo Kimura, Department of Applied Biological Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-8-1, Harumi-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo 183-0057, Japan e-mail:
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92
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Kimura I, Ozawa K, Inoue D, Imamura T, Kimura K, Maeda T, Terasawa K, Kashihara D, Hirano K, Tani T, Takahashi T, Miyauchi S, Shioi G, Inoue H, Tsujimoto G. The gut microbiota suppresses insulin-mediated fat accumulation via the short-chain fatty acid receptor GPR43. Nat Commun 2013; 4:1829. [PMID: 23652017 PMCID: PMC3674247 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 980] [Impact Index Per Article: 89.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota affects nutrient acquisition and energy regulation of the host, and can influence the development of obesity, insulin resistance, and diabetes. During feeding, gut microbes produce short-chain fatty acids, which are important energy sources for the host. Here we show that the short-chain fatty acid receptor GPR43 links the metabolic activity of the gut microbiota with host body energy homoeostasis. We demonstrate that GPR43-deficient mice are obese on a normal diet, whereas mice overexpressing GPR43 specifically in adipose tissue remain lean even when fed a high-fat diet. Raised under germ-free conditions or after treatment with antibiotics, both types of mice have a normal phenotype. We further show that short-chain fatty acid-mediated activation of GPR43 suppresses insulin signalling in adipocytes, which inhibits fat accumulation in adipose tissue and promotes the metabolism of unincorporated lipids and glucose in other tissues. These findings establish GPR43 as a sensor for excessive dietary energy, thereby controlling body energy utilization while maintaining metabolic homoeostasis. The gut microbiota produces metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which can influence the development of obesity. Here Kimura et al. show that SCFAs act via the receptor GPR43, which acts as a sensor for excessive dietary energy and controls body energy utilization as well as metabolic homoeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikuo Kimura
- Department of Pharmacogenomics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
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93
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Ito M, Adachi-Akahane S. Inter-organ communication in the regulation of lipid metabolism: focusing on the network between the liver, intestine, and heart. J Pharmacol Sci 2013; 123:312-7. [PMID: 24304723 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.13r09cp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that lipid metabolism is regulated through the orchestration of multiple organs. Gut microbiota influences the metabolism of the liver through the production of fatty acids and phosphatidylcholine as well as the modulation of bile acid profile. Microbiota also affects the cardiovascular system through the production of metabolites from nutrients. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs comprised of around 22 nucleotides in length. MiRNAs are released into blood flow from organs and interfere with the gene expression of target organs. MiRNAs are involved in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis including lipoprotein production and cardiovascular functions. Fatty acids are also circulating and distributed to each organ by fatty acid transporting proteins. Fatty acids can act as a ligand of G protein-coupled receptors, such as GPR41 and GPR43, and nuclear receptor PPARα, which bear crucial roles in the regulation of energy expenditure. Therefore the inter-organ communication plays important roles in the systematic regulation of lipid metabolism. Studies on the inter-organ network system will contribute to the development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for metabolic diseases. This review discusses how lipid metabolism is regulated by the inter-organ communication, focusing on the network axis between the liver, intestine, and heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Ito
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Toho University, Japan
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94
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Brestoff JR, Artis D. Commensal bacteria at the interface of host metabolism and the immune system. Nat Immunol 2013; 14:676-84. [PMID: 23778795 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 641] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian gastrointestinal tract, the site of digestion and nutrient absorption, harbors trillions of beneficial commensal microbes from all three domains of life. Commensal bacteria, in particular, are key participants in the digestion of food, and are responsible for the extraction and synthesis of nutrients and other metabolites that are essential for the maintenance of mammalian health. Many of these nutrients and metabolites derived from commensal bacteria have been implicated in the development, homeostasis and function of the immune system, suggesting that commensal bacteria may influence host immunity via nutrient- and metabolite-dependent mechanisms. Here we review the current knowledge of how commensal bacteria regulate the production and bioavailability of immunomodulatory, diet-dependent nutrients and metabolites and discuss how these commensal bacteria-derived products may regulate the development and function of the mammalian immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Brestoff
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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95
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Offermanns S. Free fatty acid (FFA) and hydroxy carboxylic acid (HCA) receptors. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2013; 54:407-34. [PMID: 24160702 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011613-135945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids (FFAs), as well as hydroxy carboxylic acids (HCAs) such as lactate and ketone bodies, are carriers of metabolic energy, precursors of biological mediators, and components of biological structures. However, they are also able to exert cellular effects through G protein-coupled receptors named FFA1-FFA4 and HCA1-HCA3. Work during the past decade has shown that these receptors are widely expressed in the human body and regulate the metabolic, endocrine, immune and other systems to maintain homeostasis under changing dietary conditions. The development of genetic mouse models and the generation of synthetic ligands of individual FFA and HCA receptors have been instrumental in identifying cellular and biological functions of these receptors. These studies have produced strong evidence that several FFA and HCA receptors can be targets for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany and Medical Faculty, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany;
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96
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Liou AP, Paziuk M, Luevano JM, Machineni S, Turnbaugh PJ, Kaplan LM. Conserved shifts in the gut microbiota due to gastric bypass reduce host weight and adiposity. Sci Transl Med 2013; 5:178ra41. [PMID: 23536013 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3005687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 685] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) results in rapid weight loss, reduced adiposity, and improved glucose metabolism. These effects are not simply attributable to decreased caloric intake or absorption, but the mechanisms linking rearrangement of the gastrointestinal tract to these metabolic outcomes are largely unknown. Studies in humans and rats have shown that RYGB restructures the gut microbiota, prompting the hypothesis that some of the effects of RYGB are caused by altered host-microbial interactions. To test this hypothesis, we used a mouse model of RYGB that recapitulates many of the metabolic outcomes in humans. 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of murine fecal samples collected after RYGB surgery, sham surgery, or sham surgery coupled to caloric restriction revealed that alterations to the gut microbiota after RYGB are conserved among humans, rats, and mice, resulting in a rapid and sustained increase in the relative abundance of Gammaproteobacteria (Escherichia) and Verrucomicrobia (Akkermansia). These changes were independent of weight change and caloric restriction, were detectable throughout the length of the gastrointestinal tract, and were most evident in the distal gut, downstream of the surgical manipulation site. Transfer of the gut microbiota from RYGB-treated mice to nonoperated, germ-free mice resulted in weight loss and decreased fat mass in the recipient animals relative to recipients of microbiota induced by sham surgery, potentially due to altered microbial production of short-chain fatty acids. These findings provide the first empirical support for the claim that changes in the gut microbiota contribute to reduced host weight and adiposity after RYGB surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice P Liou
- Obesity, Metabolism & Nutrition Institute and Gastrointestinal Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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97
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Hudson BD, Murdoch H, Milligan G. Minireview: The effects of species ortholog and SNP variation on receptors for free fatty acids. Mol Endocrinol 2013; 27:1177-87. [PMID: 23686113 PMCID: PMC3951919 DOI: 10.1210/me.2013-1085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is widely assumed that species orthologs of hormone-responsive G protein-coupled receptors will be activated by the same endogenously produced ligand(s), variation in potency, particularly in cases in which more than 1 receptor responds to the same hormone, can result in challenges in defining the contribution of individual receptors in different species. This can create considerably greater issues when using synthetic chemical ligands and, in some cases, may result in a complete lack of efficacy of such a ligand when used in animal models of pathophysiology. In man, the concept that distinct responses of individuals to medicines may reflect differences in the ability of such drugs to bind to or activate single nucleotide polymorphism variants of receptors is more established as a concept but, in many cases, clear links between such variants that are associated with disease phenotypes and substantial differences in receptor ligand pharmacology have been more difficult to obtain. Herein we consider each of these issues for the group of free fatty acid receptors, FFA1-FFA4, defined to be activated by free fatty acids of varying chain length, which, based on their production by 1 tissue or location and action in distinct locations, have been suggested to possess characteristics of hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Hudson
- Molecular Pharmacology Group, Institute of Molecular, Cell, and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, United Kingdom
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98
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Stolarczyk E, Vong C, Perucha E, Jackson I, Cawthorne M, Wargent E, Powell N, Canavan J, Lord G, Howard J. Improved insulin sensitivity despite increased visceral adiposity in mice deficient for the immune cell transcription factor T-bet. Cell Metab 2013; 17:520-33. [PMID: 23562076 PMCID: PMC3685808 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Low-grade inflammation in fat is associated with insulin resistance, although the mechanisms are unclear. We report that mice deficient in the immune cell transcription factor T-bet have lower energy expenditure and increased visceral fat compared with wild-type mice, yet paradoxically are more insulin sensitive. This striking phenotype, present in young T-bet(-/-) mice, persisted with high-fat diet and increasing host age and was associated with altered immune cell numbers and cytokine secretion specifically in visceral adipose tissue. However, the favorable metabolic phenotype observed in T-bet-deficient hosts was lost in T-bet(-/-) mice also lacking adaptive immunity (T-bet(-/-)xRag2(-/-)), demonstrating that T-bet expression in the adaptive rather than the innate immune system impacts host glucose homeostasis. Indeed, adoptive transfer of T-bet-deficient, but not wild-type, CD4(+) T cells to Rag2(-/-) mice improved insulin sensitivity. Our results reveal a role for T-bet in metabolic physiology and obesity-associated insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Stolarczyk
- Division of Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Chi Teng Vong
- Division of Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Esperanza Perucha
- Department of Experimental Immunobiology, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Ian Jackson
- Department of Experimental Immunobiology, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | | | | | - Nick Powell
- Department of Experimental Immunobiology, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
- Centre for Immunology and Infectious Disease, Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Bart’s and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London E1 2AT, UK
| | - James B. Canavan
- Department of Experimental Immunobiology, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
- Centre for Immunology and Infectious Disease, Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Bart’s and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London E1 2AT, UK
| | - Graham M. Lord
- Department of Experimental Immunobiology, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Jane K. Howard
- Division of Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, King’s College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
- Corresponding author
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