Surging Hormones: Brain-Behavior Interactions During Puberty

The influence of social motivation on neural correlates of cognitive control in girls

Motivation influences cognitive control, particularly in childhood and adolescence. Previous work finds that the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential (ERP) linked to cognitive control following errors, is influenced by social motivation. However, it is unclear whether the influences of social motivation on the ERN extend to stimulus-locked neural correlates of cognitive control. This study reexamines how social motivation influences cognitive control in adolescence by exploring motivational influences on two stimulus-locked ERPs; the N2 and P3. Adolescent girls (8-17 years of age) completed a flanker task under two different conditions. In the social condition, girls were led to believe that they were evaluated by a peer during a flanker task. In the nonsocial condition, girls completed a flanker task while evaluated by a computer. Results revealed that all girls exhibited a larger P3 in social as compared to nonsocial contexts, whereas the N2 was not different between contexts. In addition, the largest P3 enhancements were observed among younger girls. These findings suggest that social motivation influences some ERP components related to cognitive control, and such influences change across development. Additionally, findings suggest the importance of including multiple ERPs when interpreting the functional significance of motivation on cognitive control.

Emerging child competencies and personality pathology: toward a Developmental Cascade model of BPD

The guiding principle of this synthesis is to organize research on predictors of BPD features within a developmentally specific framework (e.g. infancy, preschool, middle childhood, adolescence). In addition, studies are prioritized that have longitudinal and observational components. On the basis of current literature, a Developmental Cascade Model of BPD is offered in which specific difficulties during one developmental period contribute to specific difficulties in a succeeding period, resulting in increasingly broad areas of dysregulation over time. Furthermore, to address specificity, we contrast trajectories toward BPD with trajectories toward antisocial behavior, noting shared and divergent predictors. The review highlights the importance of locating research findings in relation to the competencies and challenges of particular developmental periods when modelling developmental trajectories toward BPD.

Adolescent Neurodevelopment and Vulnerability to Psychosis

Adolescence is characterized by significant changes in several domains, including brain structure and function, puberty, and social and environmental factors. Some of these changes serve to increase the likelihood of psychosis onset during this period, while others may buffer this risk. This review characterizes our current knowledge regarding the unique aspects of adolescence that may serve as risk factors for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In addition, we provide potential future directions for research into adolescent-specific developmental mechanisms that impart vulnerability to psychosis and the possibility of interventions that capitalize on adolescents' unique characteristics. Specifically, we explore the ways in which gray and white matter develop throughout adolescence in typically developing youth as well as in those with psychosis spectrum disorders. We also discuss current views on the function that social support and demands, as well as role expectations, play in risk for psychosis. We further highlight the importance of considering biological factors such as puberty and hormonal changes as areas of unique vulnerability for adolescents. Finally, we discuss cannabis use as a factor that may have a unique impact during adolescent neurodevelopment, and subsequently potentially impact psychosis onset. Throughout, we include discussion of resilience factors that may provide unique opportunities for intervention during this dynamic life stage.

Psychosocial and biological risk factors of anxiety disorders in adolescents: a TRAILS report

Anxiety disorders are a common problem in adolescent mental health. Previous studies have investigated only a limited number of risk factors for the development of anxiety disorders concurrently. By investigating multiple factors simultaneously, a more complete understanding of the etiology of anxiety disorders can be reached. Therefore, we assessed preadolescent socio-demographic, familial, psychosocial, and biological factors and their association with the onset of anxiety disorders in adolescence. This study was conducted among 1584 Dutch participants of the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS). Potential risk factors were assessed at baseline (age 10-12), and included socio-demographic (sex, socioeconomic status), familial (parental anxiety and depression), psychosocial (childhood adversity, temperament), and biological (body mass index, heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol) variables. Anxiety disorders were assessed at about age 19 years through the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed with onset of anxiety disorder as a dependent variable and the above-mentioned putative risk factors as predictors. Of the total sample, 25.7% had a lifetime diagnosis of anxiety disorder at age 19 years. Anxiety disorders were twice as prevalent in girls as in boys. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that being female (OR = 2.38, p < .01), parental depression and anxiety (OR = 1.34, p = .04), temperamental frustration (OR = 1.31, p = .02) and low effortful control (OR = 0.76, p = .01) independently predicted anxiety disorders. We found no associations between biological factors and anxiety disorder. After exclusion of adolescents with an onset of anxiety disorder before age 12 years, being female was the only significant predictor of anxiety disorder. Being female was the strongest predictor for the onset of anxiety disorder. Psychological and parental psychopathology factors increased the risk of diagnosis of anxiety, but to a lesser extent. Biological factors (heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol, and BMI), at least as measured in the present study, are unlikely to be useful tools for anxiety prevention and intervention strategies.

Pubertal recalibration of cortisol reactivity following early life parent-child separation

BACKGROUND

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis had been proved to calibrate to early-life adversity and puberty may reverse the calibration. This study examines the consequences of prolonged parent-child separation on HPA axis reactivity and the pubertal recalibration hypothesis.

METHODS

Totally of 144 participants aged 8.75 to 15.25 (mean age 12.50 years, SD: 1.32) were enrolled from rural areas of Chizhou city, Anhui Province of China in 2019. Data on parent-child separation was collected from parents. Self-reported Peterson Pubertal Development Scale was used to assess pubertal maturation and HPA axis stress reactivity was measured using the Trier Social Stress Test for Children.

RESULTS

For children at early stage of puberty, childhood parent-child separation experiences were associated with blunted HPA axis reactivity (B = -1.888, p = 0.034); while for those at later stage of puberty, HPA axis reactivity was similar between children experienced early childhood separation and those without separation (AUCi: B = -0.426, p = 0.878). In contrast, for children experienced persistent parent-child separation, blunted HPA axis reactivity was observed (all p < 0.05).

LIMITATIONS

Due to the cross-sectional nature of this study, conclusions about causality remain speculative.

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of parent-child separation on dysregulation of HPA axis acts in a time-dependent manner. This finding provides support for the pubertal recalibration hypothesis suggesting that a focus of improving environment in adolescence would help those individuals reared initially in non-supportive conditions.

Structural Connectivity-Based Parcellation of the Dopaminergic Midbrain in Healthy Subjects and Schizophrenic Patients

Background and objectives: Functional deregulation of dopaminergic midbrain regions is a core feature of schizophrenia pathophysiology. Anatomical research on primates suggests that these regions may be subdivided into distinct, topographically organized functional territories according to their connectivity to the striatum. The aim of the present work was the reconstruction of dopaminergic midbrain subregions in healthy subjects and schizophrenic patients and the evaluation of their structural connectivity profiles. Materials and Methods: A hypothesis-driven connectivity-based parcellation derived from diffusion tractography was applied on 24 healthy subjects and 30 schizophrenic patients to identify distinct territories within the human dopaminergic midbrain in vivo and non-invasively. Results: We identified a tripartite subdivision of dopaminergic midbrain, including limbic, prefrontal and sensorimotor territories. No significant differences in structural features or connectivity were found between subjects and patients. Conclusions: The parcellation scheme proposed herein may help to achieve detailed characterization of structural and functional anomalies of the dopaminergic midbrain in schizophrenic patients.

Adolescent Participation in Research, Policies and Guidelines for Chronic Disease Prevention: A Scoping Review Protocol

Adolescents (10–24 years old) account for 23% of the global population. Physical inactivity, suboptimal dietary intake, overweight, and obesity during adolescence are risk factors associated with chronic disease development into adulthood. Research, policies, and guidelines that seek to prevent chronic disease risk factor development rarely engage adolescents in planning and decision-making processes. The aims of this review are to investigate (i) how adolescents currently participate in research, policy, and guidelines for reduction of chronic disease risk factors, and (ii) provide recommendations to optimize adolescent participation in future research, policy, and guideline decision making for chronic disease prevention. A systematic scoping review of the health peer-review research, policy, and guidelines, using Arksey and O’Malley’s six-stage framework, will be conducted. Participatory outcomes will be assessed based on the Lansdown-UNICEF conceptual framework for measuring adolescent participation. Classified as consultative, collaborative, or adolescent-led according to the degree of influence and power adolescents possess in the decision- making processes. Consultation with adolescents via digital surveys and focus groups will provide further information, perspective, and insight. Qualitative data will be analyzed by descriptive numerical summary and qualitative content analytical techniques. The title of this protocol is registered with Joanna Briggs Institute and Open Science Framework, doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/E3S64.

Current dietary advice and challenges for adolescents

BACKGROUND

The major risk factors driving the global burden of disease are diet related. Adolescence presents a window of opportunity for establishing healthy dietary trajectories. Yet around the world, adolescents experience many barriers that prevent them from consuming diets that would give them the foundation for long, healthy and productive adult lives.

SOURCES OF DATA

A narrative literature search of most relevant original, review and meta-analyses, restricted to English was conducted in Medline, Web of Science and PubMed up to December 2019 together with published papers known to the author concerning the current dietary advice and challenges for adolescent nutrition.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

Adolescence is a critical period of growth and development and adequate nutrition is essential. Sufficient population data indicate adolescents are not meeting dietary recommendations and are a vulnerable population group for malnutrition in all its forms.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

Despite extensive studies on dietary risk factors and the global burden of disease and population data demonstrating inadequate nutritional intake in adolescent populations, few effective interventions and policies have been scaled up to support adolescent nutrition.

GROWING POINTS

Improving the diets of adolescents, especially vulnerable adolescents from low- and middle-income countries and socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, has the potential to impact individuals, societies and economies.

AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

Future research should focus on vulnerable adolescent populations by addressing food environments, food insecurity and ensuring effective programmes and strategies are integrated within broader adolescent health strategies and implemented into government policies.

Youth's Negative Stereotypes of Teen Emotionality: Reciprocal Relations with Emotional Functioning in Hong Kong and Mainland China

In Western society, there has been a history of perceiving adolescence as a time of "storm and stress," during which youth may go through heightened negative experiences such as conflict with parents, disengagement from school, and emotional dysfunction. Despite increasing attention to positive youth development, such negative stereotypes of adolescence may be held by youth themselves, which undermine their behavioral and neural development. However, youth's stereotypes of teen emotionality in particular (i.e., beliefs that teens typically experience greater emotionality than younger children) and the role of such stereotypes in youth's emotional functioning have not been examined. This longitudinal study investigated the reciprocal relations between youth's negative stereotypes of teen emotionality and their emotional functioning (i.e., emotional expressivity and emotion regulation) in Hong Kong and Mainland China, two regions in China sharing Chinese cultural traditions but differing in the extent of exposure to Western influence (N = 1269; 55% girls; M age = 12.86 years). Although youth in Hong Kong saw the teen years as a time of heightened emotionality more than did their counterparts in Mainland China, such stereotypes predicted youth's greater emotional expressivity and less emotion regulation over the 7th grade in both regions. Moreover, in both regions, youth's negative expressivity reciprocally predicted their stronger stereotypes of teen emotionality over time. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the role of youth's stereotypes of teen emotionality in shaping their emotional expressivity and emotion regulation during early adolescence, and also the role of youth's negative expressivity in reinforcing their stereotypes. Moreover, these findings highlight the relevance of the Western-popularized perception of adolescence as a time of "storm and stress" in non-Western regions in a world of increasing globalization and societal change.

Leveraging Technology to Improve Health in Adolescence: A Developmental Science Perspective

As technologies continue to evolve at exponential rates, online platforms are becoming an increasingly salient social context for adolescents. Adolescents are often early adopters, savvy users, and innovators of technology use. This not only creates new vulnerabilities but also presents new opportunities for positive impact-particularly, the use of technology to promote healthy learning and adaptation during developmental windows of opportunity. For example, early adolescence appears to represent a developmental inflection point in health trajectories and in technology use in ways that may be strategically targeted for prevention and intervention. The field of adolescent health can capitalize on technology use during developmental windows of opportunity to promote well-being and behavior change in the following ways: (1) through a deeper understanding of the specific ways that developmental changes create new opportunities for motivation and engagement with technologies; (2) by leveraging these insights for more effective use of technology in intervention and prevention efforts; and (3) by combining developmental science-informed targeting with broader-reach technologic approaches to health behavior change at the population level (e.g., leveraging and changing social norms). Collaboration across disciplines-including developmental science, medicine, psychology, public health, and computer science-can create compelling innovations to use digital technology to promote health in adolescents.

Emerging child competencies and personality pathology: toward a Developmental Cascade model of BPD

The guiding principle of this synthesis is to organize research on predictors of BPD features within a developmentally specific framework (e.g. infancy, preschool, middle childhood, adolescence). In addition, studies are prioritized that have longitudinal and observational components. On the basis of current literature, a Developmental Cascade Model of BPD is offered in which specific difficulties during one developmental period contribute to specific difficulties in a succeeding period, resulting in increasingly broad areas of dysregulation over time. Furthermore, to address specificity, we contrast trajectories toward BPD with trajectories toward antisocial behavior, noting shared and divergent predictors. The review highlights the importance of locating research findings in relation to the competencies and challenges of particular developmental periods when modelling developmental trajectories toward BPD.

Interactions of OXTR rs53576 and emotional trauma on hippocampal volumes and perceived social support in adolescent girls

Oxytocin (OXT) is a neuropeptide involved in social behaviour and is sensitive to environmental influences to alter individual vulnerability or resilience to stress resulting in both negative and positive outcomes. The effects of the OXT receptor (OXTR) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs53576 on hippocampal and amygdala structure and functions in adults are differentially associated with susceptibility to adversity and social behaviours, but this evidence is lacking in healthy adolescents. Adolescence is a developmental period characterised by neurobiological and psychosocial changes resulting in higher susceptibility to mood disorders, particularly among girls. As the brain is highly plastic at this stage, to understand psychosocial and emotional development, clarity of the interactions between rs53576 and adversity on hippocampal and amygdala volumes and social behaviours is needed. In this study, we investigated the interactions between rs53576 and emotional trauma (ET) exposure on hippocampal and amygdala volumes of adolescent girls, and associations with parenting style, perceived social support and bullying behaviour. Based on an unbiased and corrected analytical approach, we found smaller left hippocampal volumes in higher (hET) compared to minimally (mET) exposed AA homozygotes, but no differences in G allele carriers nor in the amygdala. Within the mET AA group, larger volumes were associated with peer perceived social support, but in their hET counterparts, smaller volumes were associated with familial perceived social support. This evidence supports an important role for the hippocampus in social behaviours but extends current knowledge to suggest that hippocampal social behavioural features are contextually dependent on rs53576.

"They Think It's Helpful, but It's Not": a Qualitative Analysis of the Experience of Social Support Provided by Peers in Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Adherence in type 1 diabetes has previously been found to be improved with effective social support. However, research has so far been unable to elucidate the effect of social support from peers in adolescents with type 1 diabetes, with studies concluding they may be both positively and negatively related to self-care and glycaemic control. The present study explores the experience of social support from peers in adolescents with type 1 diabetes using a qualitative methodology to address this lack of consensus in the literature, using the research question: "what is the meaning and experience of social support from peers in adolescents with type 1 diabetes?"

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews using the Diabetes Social Support Interview schedule were employed. Twelve participants aged 15-18 were recruited from paediatric outpatient services. Transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Two overarching themes were noted within transcripts; A Sense of Normality and "They Think It's Helpful, But It's Not". Overall, participants reported a desire for global support from peers and explored how and why diabetes-specific support behaviours were more likely to be interpreted as harassing.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that diabetes-specific support may not always be advantageous in aiding adolescents to reach and maintain optimal self-care. In addition, participants emphasise the acceptability of advice provided by peers with type 1 diabetes, making peer support and mentoring programmes an excellent candidate for future research.

The relationship between pubertal hormones and brain plasticity: Implications for cognitive training in adolescence

Adolescence may mark a sensitive period for the development of higher-order cognition through enhanced plasticity of cortical circuits. At the same time, animal research indicates that pubertal hormones may represent one key mechanism for closing sensitive periods in the associative neocortex, thereby resulting in decreased plasticity of cortical circuits in adolescence. In the present review, we set out to solve some of the existing ambiguity and examine how hormonal changes associated with pubertal onset may modulate plasticity in higher-order cognition during adolescence. We build on existing age-comparative cognitive training studies to explore how the potential for change in neural resources and behavioral repertoire differs across age groups. We review animal and human brain imaging studies, which demonstrate a link between brain development, neurochemical mechanisms of plasticity, and pubertal hormones. Overall, the existent literature indicates that pubertal hormones play a pivotal role in regulating the mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity during adolescence. However, the extent to which hormonal changes associated with pubertal onset increase or decrease brain plasticity may depend on the specific cognitive domain, the sex, and associated brain networks. We discuss implications for future research and suggest that systematical longitudinal assessments of pubertal change together with cognitive training interventions may be a fruitful way toward a better understanding of adolescent plasticity. As the age of pubertal onset is decreasing across developed societies, this may also have important educational and clinical implications, especially with respect to the effects that earlier puberty has on learning.

Pubertal testosterone correlates with adolescent impatience and dorsal striatal activity

Recent self-report and behavioral studies have demonstrated that pubertal testosterone is related to an increase in risky and impulsive behavior. Yet, the mechanisms underlying such a relationship are poorly understood. Findings from both human and rodent studies point towards distinct striatal pathways including the ventral and dorsal striatum as key target regions for pubertal hormones. In this study we investigated task-related impatience of boys between 10 and 15 years of age (N = 75), using an intertemporal choice task combined with measures of functional magnetic resonance imaging and hormonal assessment. Increased levels of testosterone were associated with a greater response bias towards choosing the smaller sooner option. Furthermore, our results show that testosterone specifically modulates the dorsal, not ventral, striatal pathway. These results provide novel insights into our understanding of adolescent impulsive and risky behaviors and how pubertal hormones are related to neural processes.

Polygenic Influences on Pubertal Timing and Tempo and Depressive Symptoms in Boys and Girls

This study used polygenic scoring (PGS) to test whether puberty-related genes were correlated with depressive symptoms, and whether there were indirect effects through pubertal maturation. The sample included 8,795 adolescents from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (measures of puberty drawn ages 8-17 years; of depressive symptoms at age 16.5 years). The PGS (derived from a genome-wide meta-analysis of later age at menarche) predicted boys' and girls' later pubertal timing, boys' slower gonadal development, and girls' faster breast development. Earlier perceived breast development timing predicted more depressive symptoms in girls. Findings support shared genetic underpinnings for boys' and girls' puberty, contributing to multiple pubertal phenotypes with differences in how these genetic variants affect boys' and girls' development.

Combining oxytocin and cognitive bias modification training in a randomized controlled trial: Effects on trust in maternal support

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Research on the social effects of intranasal oxytocin in children is scarce. Oxytocin has been proposed to have clearer beneficial effects when added to social learning paradigms. The current study tested this proposition in middle childhood by assessing effects of cognitive bias modification (CBM) training and oxytocin on trust in maternal support.

METHODS

Children (N = 100, 8-12 years) were randomly assigned to one of two training conditions: CBM training aimed at increasing trust or neutral placebo training. Within each training condition, half the participants received oxytocin and half a placebo. Main and interaction effects were assessed on measures of trust-related interpretation bias and trust. We explored whether child characteristics moderated intervention effects.

RESULTS

Children in the CBM training were faster to interpret maternal behaviour securely versus insecurely. Effects did not generalize to interpretation bias measures or trust. There were no main or interaction effects of oxytocin. Exploratory moderation analyses indicated that combining CBM training with oxytocin had less positive effects on trust for children with more internalizing problems.

LIMITATIONS

As this was the first study combining CBM and oxytocin, replication of the results is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study combined a social learning paradigm with oxytocin in children. CBM training was effective at an automatic level of processing. Oxytocin did not enhance CBM effects or independently exert effects. Research in larger samples specifying when oxytocin might have beneficial effects is necessary before oxytocin can be used as intervention option in children.

Sleep problems and suicide risk in youth: A systematic review, developmental framework, and implications for hospital treatment

OBJECTIVE

Sleep problems are transdiagnostic symptoms that confer significant risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) in adults. However, less is known about the sleep-STB association in adolescence-a developmental period when rates of STBs increase drastically, and sleep problems may be particularly pernicious. This article provides a systematic review of research on the sleep-STB association in youth, an overview of changes in sleep regulation during adolescence that may make sleep problems particularly detrimental for youth, and a discussion of the clinical implications of the sleep-STB association for hospitalized youth.

METHOD

The systematic review included all longitudinal studies in which sleep problems were examined as prospective predictors of STBs in adolescents (aged 10-24 years). The search was conducted on December 1, 2017 using PsychINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science databases.

RESULTS

Ten studies qualified for inclusion in this review. Of these, seven studies found at least one type of sleep problem significantly predicted a STB outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Although findings are mixed, growing research suggests that sleep problems may be a unique risk factor for STBs in youth. Sleep problems may be particularly important intervention target because they are easily assessed across healthcare settings and are amenable to treatment.

Influence of Gonadotropin Hormone Releasing Hormone Agonists on Interhemispheric Functional Connectivity in Girls With Idiopathic Central Precocious Puberty

Purpose: The pubertal growth suppressive effects of gonadotropin hormone releasing hormone agonists (GnRHa) are well-known, although it remains unclear if long-term GnRHa treatment influences the brain function of treated children. The present study investigated the differences in the homotopic resting-state functional connectivity patterns in girls with idiopathic central precocious puberty (ICPP) with and without GnRHa treatment using voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity (VMHC).

Methods: Eighteen girls with ICPP who underwent 12 months of GnRHa treatment, 40 treatment-naïve girls with ICPP, and 19 age-matched girls with premature thelarche underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging using a 3T MRI. VMHC method was performed to explore the differences in the resting-state interhemispheric functional connectivity. The levels of serum pubertal hormones, including luteinizing hormone (LH), follicular-stimulating hormone, and estradiol, were assessed. Correlation analyses among the results of clinical laboratory examinations, neuropsychological scales, and VMHC values of different brain regions were performed with the data of the GnRHa treated group.

Results: Significant decreases in VMHC of the lingual, calcarine, superior temporal, and middle frontal gyri were identified in the untreated group, compared with the control group. Medicated patients showed decreased VMHC in the superior temporal gyrus, when compared with the controls. Compared to the unmedicated group, the medicated group showed a significant increase in VMHC in the calcarine and middle occipital gyrus. Moreover, a positive correlation was observed between basal LH levels and VMHC of the middle occipital gyrus in medicated patients.

Conclusions: These findings indicate that long-term treatment with GnRHa was associated with increased interhemispheric functional connectivity within several areas responsible for memory and visual process in patients with ICPP. Higher interhemispheric functional connectivity in the middle occipital gyrus was related to higher basal LH production in the girls who underwent treatment. The present study adds to the growing body of research associated with the effects of GnRHa on brain function.

Sex differences and brain development during puberty and adolescence

Sex differences in behavior, and whether these behavioral differences are related to sex differences in brain development, has been a longstanding topic of debate. Presumably, sex differences can provide critically important leads for explaining the etiology of various illnesses that show (i) large sex differences in prevalence and (ii) have an origin before or during adolescence. The general aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of scientific studies on sex differences in normative brain and behavioral development across puberty and adolescence, including the (sex) hormone-driven transition phase of puberty. Moreover, we describe the literature on brain and behavioral development in gender dysphoria, a severe and persistent incongruence between the self-identified gender and the assigned sex at birth. From the literature it becomes clear there is evidence for a specific link between pubertal maturation and developmental changes in arousal, motivation, and emotion. However, this link is rather similar between boys and girls. Moreover, although there is substantial evidence for sex differences in mean brain structure, these have not always been linked to sex differences in behavior, cognition, or psychopathology. Furthermore, there is little evidence for sex differences in brain development and thus, studies so far have been unable to explain sex differences in cognition. Suggestions for future research and methodologic considerations are provided.

Social cognition

Social cognition refers to a complex set of mental abilities underlying social stimulus perception, processing, interpretation, and response. Together, these abilities support the development of adequate social competence and adaptation. Social cognition has a protracted development through infancy to adulthood. Given the preponderance of social dysfunctions across neurologic conditions, social cognition is now recognized as a core domain of functioning that warrants clinical attention. This chapter provides an overview of the construct of social cognition, defines some of the most clinically significant sociocognitive abilities (face processing, facial expression processing, joint attention, theory of mind, empathy, and moral processing), and introduces the neural networks and frameworks associated with these abilities. Broad principles for understanding the development of social cognition are presented, and a summary of normative developmental milestones of clinically relevant sociocognitive abilities is proposed. General guidelines for sound social cognition assessment in children and adolescents are summarized.

Effects of hypogonadism on brain development during adolescence in girls with Turner syndrome

Gonadal steroids play an important role in brain development, particularly during puberty. Girls with Turner syndrome (TS), a genetic disorder characterized by the absence of all or part of the second X chromosome, mostly present a loss of ovarian function and estrogen deficiency, as well as neuroanatomical abnormalities. However, few studies have attempted to isolate the indirect effects of hormones from the direct genetic effects of X chromosome insufficiency. Brain structural (i.e., gray matter [GM] morphology and white matter [WM] connectivity) and functional phenotypes (i.e., resting-state functional measures) were investigated in 23 adolescent girls with TS using multimodal MRI to assess the role of hypogonadism in brain development in TS. Specifically, all girls with TS were divided into a hormonally subnormal group and an abnormal subgroup according to their serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels, with the karyotypes approximately matched between the two groups. Statistical analyses revealed significant effects of the "group-by-age" interaction on GM volume around the left medial orbitofrontal cortex and WM diffusion parameters around the bilateral corticospinal tract, anterior thalamic radiation, left superior longitudinal fasciculus, and cingulum bundle, but no significant "group-by-age" or group differences were observed in resting-state functional measures. Based on these findings, estrogen deficiency has a nontrivial impact on the development of the brain structure during adolescence in girls with TS. Our present study provides novel insights into the mechanism by which hypogonadism influences brain development during adolescence in girls with TS, and highlights the important role of estrogen replacement therapy in treating TS.

Influence of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis reactivation and corresponding surging sex hormones on the amplitude of low-frequency oscillations in early pubertal girls: A resting state fMRI study

BACKGROUND

There has been a myriad of neuroimaging studies that have suggested that pubertal stages and sex steroid fluctuations contribute to pubertal brain maturation. Investigations on the influence of hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis reactivation and the correlated elevated sex hormones on brain maturation have not unraveled these interactions to date. Here, we aimed to explore the impact of the reactivated HPG axis on spontaneous brain activity changes, by analyzing the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) in developing girls aged 8-11 years old.

METHODS

The gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test was used to determine the HPG axis status and categorize subjects into two groups (HPG+ or HPG- group). Intelligence quotient (IQ) and the parent-rated Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were used to evaluate cognitive and behavioral performance. Two-sample t-tests were used to compare intergroup differences, the relations between brain areas' activities, age and hormonal levels were conducted by Pearson or Spearman correlation analyses.

RESULTS

Compared with the HPG- group, the HPG+ group showed decreased ALFF values in the left superior temporal gyrus (STG) but increased ALFF values in the right superior frontal gyrus (SFG). In addition, in the HPG+ group, prolactin (PRL) levels were positively correlated with ALFF values in the right SFG, and there was significant negative correlation between ALFF values in the left STG and CBCL activities scores.

LIMITATIONS

Due to the cross-sectional design of the present study, further study is needed to determine the relationships between age, reawakening of the HPG axis and related sex hormones and spontaneous brain activity change.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggested that the reactivated HPG axis and elevated PRL level could affect changes in brain activity and this effect may be the neuroendocrine basis of mood, cognition, and social behavior changes in early pubertal girls.

Age as a Moderator of Social Skills Intervention Response Among Korean Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Few studies have investigated the effect of age on treatment effectiveness of evidence-based social skills training in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) adolescents. This study evaluated the effectiveness of Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS^®) in different ages of ASD adolescents. A total of 110 ASD adolescents aged 11-19 years were divided into early, middle, and late adolescence groups, and the changes in outcome measures following intervention were compared among the three groups. We found that the improvements in social competence after PEERS^® were significant, but the treatment effects were not significantly different among the three age groups. The findings suggest that PEERS^® is beneficial for ASD adolescents regardless of patient age and adolescence stage.

Pubertal recalibration of cortisol reactivity following early life stress: a cross-sectional analysis

BACKGROUND

Children adopted from orphanages or other such institutions tend to display blunted reactivity to stressors - even years after arriving in their generally supportive and highly resourced postadoption homes. Puberty, a proposed sensitive period for environmental influences on stress-mediating systems, may provide an opportunity for postinstitutionalized children to recalibrate stress response systems in accordance with their now more supportive living situations.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study examined the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA)-axis reactivity of 280 children ages 7 through 14 years; 122 children were adopted from institutions in 14 countries between the ages of 6 months and 5 years, after spending an average of 95% of their lives in institutional care, and 158 children of similarly high socioeconomic status in their biological families served as the nonadopted comparison group. All of the children were assessed by nurses for Tanner stage and, on a different day, completed the Trier Social Stress Test for Children.

RESULTS

Using a linear mixed-effects model and seven measures of salivary cortisol, results indicated that early-pubertal postinstitutionalized children showed blunted HPA axis reactivity compared to nonadopted children, but mid/late-pubertal postinstitutionalized children displayed higher reactivity similar to the nonadopted comparison children.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first evidence of possible pubertal recalibration of HPA axis reactivity to a psychosocial stressor in postinstitutionalized children, which provides a promising avenue for future research regarding the protective factors of the postadoption environment and subsequent physiological, behavioral, and psychopathological outcomes.

Annual Research Review: Developmental computational psychiatry

Most psychiatric disorders emerge during childhood and adolescence. This is also a period that coincides with the brain undergoing substantial growth and reorganisation. However, it remains unclear how a heightened vulnerability to psychiatric disorder relates to this brain maturation. Here, we propose 'developmental computational psychiatry' as a framework for linking brain maturation to cognitive development. We argue that through modelling some of the brain's fundamental cognitive computations, and relating them to brain development, we can bridge the gap between brain and cognitive development. This in turn can lead to a richer understanding of the ontogeny of psychiatric disorders. We illustrate this perspective with examples from reinforcement learning and dopamine function. Specifically, we show how computational modelling deepens an understanding of how cognitive processes, such as reward learning, effort learning, and social learning might go awry in psychiatric disorders. Finally, we sketch the promises and limitations of a developmental computational psychiatry.

Pubertal influences on neural activation during risky decision-making in youth with ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders

OBJECTIVE

Risk-taking during adolescence is a leading cause of mortality; Neuroscience research examining pubertal effects on decision-making is needed to better inform interventions, particularly among youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) and disruptive behavior disorders (DBD), who are particularly prone to risky decision-making. We examined effects of pubertal development on risky decision-making and neural activation during decision-making among youth with ADHD/DBDs.

METHOD

Forty-six 11-12-year-olds (29.4% girls; 54.9% white; Tanner M(SD) = 2.08(1.32)) who met DSM-5 criteria for ADHD/DBD completed the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART) during fMRI scanning. We examined effects of Tanner stage, sex, and age on risky decision-making (mean wager at which individuals stopped balloon inflation) and neural activation in the middle frontal gyrus and the ventral striatum during the choice and outcome phases of decision-making.

RESULTS

Those in earlier pubertal stages made riskier decisions during the BART compared to those in later Tanner stages (β=-0.62, p =  .02). Later pubertal stage was associated with greater activation in the left middle frontal gyrus (β=0.61, p = .03) during the choice phase and in the right ventral striatum in response to rewards (β=0.59, p = .03).

CONCLUSION

Youth with ADHD/DBD in later stages of puberty, regardless of age, show greater ventral striatal activation in response to rewards.

Interdisciplinary Work Is Essential for Research on Puberty: Complexity and Dynamism in Action

Puberty is associated with changes in behavior and psychosocial well-being, and is important in lifelong health. We present five different facets regarding interdisciplinary research that are important to puberty. A short history of philosophical issues instrumental in promoting early interdisciplinary research is first presented. We discuss then what is hard and what is easy about interdisciplinary research, the purpose of which is to alert scientists to challenges and opportunities for interdisciplinary research on puberty. Readers then are introduced to advances and obstacles in interdisciplinary research on development. Recommendations for tailoring graduate education toward interdisciplinarity are introduced. Finally, issues related to publication, education of scientists, and policy makers are described. The report concludes with a discussion of funding and policy issues.

Allostatic load and disordered white matter microstructure in overweight adults

Overweight and stress are both related to brain structural abnormalities. The allostatic load model states that frequent disruption of homeostasis is inherently linked to oxidative stress and inflammatory responses that in turn can damage the brain. However, the effects of the allostatic load on the central nervous system remain largely unknown. The current study aimed to assess the relationship between the allostatic load and the composition of whole-brain white matter tracts in overweight subjects. Additionally, we have also tested for grey matter changes regarding allostatic load increase. Thirty-one overweight-to-obese adults and 21 lean controls participated in the study. Our results showed that overweight participants presented higher allostatic load indexes. Such increases correlated with lower fractional anisotropy in the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculi and the right anterior corona radiata, as well as with grey matter reductions in the left precentral gyrus, the left lateral occipital gyrus, and the right pars opercularis. These results suggest that an otherwise healthy overweight status is linked to long-term biological changes potentially harmful to the brain.

Novel insights from the Yellow Light Game: Safe and risky decisions differentially impact adolescent outcome-related brain function

Changes across the span of adolescence in the adolescent reward system are thought to increase the tendency to take risks. While developmental differences in decision and outcome-related reward processes have been studied extensively, existing paradigms have largely neglected to measure how different types of decisions modulate reward-related outcome processes. We modified an existing decision-making paradigm (the Stoplight Task; Chein et al., 2011) to create a flexible laboratory measure of decision-making and outcome processing, including the ability to assess modulatory effects of safe versus risky decisions on reward-related outcome processes: the Yellow Light Game (YLG). We administered the YLG in the MRI scanner to 81 adolescents, ages 11-17 years, recruited from the community. Results showed that nucleus accumbens activation was enhanced for (1) risky > safe decisions, (2) positive > negative outcomes, and (3) outcomes following safe decisions compared to outcomes following risky decisions, regardless of whether these outcomes were positive or negative. Outcomes following risky decisions (compared to outcomes following safe decisions) were associated with enhanced activity in cortical midline structures. Furthermore, while there were no developmental differences in risk-taking behavior, more pubertally mature adolescents showed enhanced nucleus accumbens activation during positive > negative outcomes. These findings suggest that outcome processing is modulated by the types of decisions made by adolescents and highlight the importance of investigating processes involved in safe as well as risky decisions to better understand the adolescent tendency to take risks.

Strategies to Engage Adolescents in Digital Health Interventions for Obesity Prevention and Management

Obesity is one of the greatest health challenges facing today’s adolescents. Dietary interventions are the foundation of obesity prevention and management. As adolescents are digital frontrunners and early adopters of technology, digital health interventions appear the most practical modality for dietary behavior change interventions. Despite the rapid growth in digital health interventions, effective engagement with adolescents remains a pertinent issue. Key strategies for effective engagement include co-designing interventions with adolescents, personalization of interventions, and just-in-time adaptation using data from wearable devices. The aim of this paper is to appraise these strategies, which may be used to improve effective engagement and thereby improve the dietary behaviors of adolescents now and in the future.

Age-specific effects of structural and functional connectivity in prefrontal-amygdala circuitry in women with bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a serious mental illness. Several studies have shown that brain structure and function changes and the development of BD are associated with age and sex differences. Therefore, we hypothesized that the functional and structural neural circuitry of BD patients would differ according to age. The amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC) are play a key role in the emotional and cognitive processing of patients with BD. In this study, we used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to examine the structural and functional connectivity within amygdala-PFC neural circuitry in women with BD at different ages.

METHODS

Forty-nine female patients with BD who were aged 13-25 years and 60 age-matched healthy control (HC) individuals, as well as 43 female patients with BD who were aged 26-45 years and 60 age-matched HC individuals underwent resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging to examine the structural and functional connectivity within the amygdala-PFC neural circuitry.

RESULTS

We found abnormalities in the amygdala-PFC functional connectivity in patients aged 13-25 years and significantly different fractional anisotropy (FA) values in patients aged 26-45 compared with the age-matched HCs. The significance of these findings was indicated by corrected p values of less than 0.05 (uncorrected p values less than 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings in this cross-sectional study suggested that abnormalities in the functional connectivity of the amygdala-PFC neural circuitry are related to the pathophysiology of BD in women aged 13-25 years, while changes in the structural integrity of this neural circuitry are associated with the pathophysiology of BD in women aged 26-45 years. Therefore, functional and structural brain alterations may occur at different ages in female patients with BD.

Childhood language skills and adolescent self-esteem in preterm survivors

Fifty-seven percent of children with poor language skills are affected by socio-emotional problems. Despite the importance of language skills to interpersonal functioning and school performance, relatively little is known about how they affect self-esteem in adolescence. Data on youth at high risk for language problems (e.g. those born extremely low birth weight (ELBW; <1000 grams)) are even more scarce. This prospective study examined associations between language skills at age 8 and self-esteem during adolescence (12-16 years) in individuals born at ELBW ( N = 138) or normal birth weight (NBW; >2500 grams) ( N = 111). Participants' language skills were assessed using the Verbal Scale of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised and the Token Test at age 8. In adolescence, participants completed the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. Birth weight status was found to moderate associations between childhood language and adolescent global self-esteem (Token Test ( p = .006), Verbal Intelligence Quotient ( p = .033)) such that better language skills were associated with higher self-esteem in adolescent ELBW survivors, but not in NBW participants. Language skills may play a protective role in the development and maintenance of self-esteem in ELBW youth and could be an important target for optimizing their functioning, particularly before transitioning to the critical adolescent period.

Prenatal and pubertal testosterone affect brain lateralization

After decades of research, the influence of prenatal testosterone on brain lateralization is still elusive, whereas the influence of pubertal testosterone on functional brain lateralization has not been investigated, although there is increasing evidence that testosterone affects the brain in puberty. We performed a longitudinal study, investigating the relationship between prenatal testosterone concentrations in amniotic fluid, pubertal testosterone concentrations in saliva, and brain lateralization (measured with functional Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (fTCD)) of the Mental Rotation, Chimeric Faces and Word Generation tasks. Thirty boys and 30 girls participated in this study at the age of 15 years. For boys, we found a significant interaction effect between prenatal and pubertal testosterone on lateralization of Mental Rotation and Chimeric Faces. In the boys with low prenatal testosterone levels, pubertal testosterone was positively related to the strength of lateralization in the right hemisphere, while in the boys with high prenatal testosterone levels, pubertal testosterone was negatively related to the strength of lateralization. For Word Generation, pubertal testosterone was negatively related to the strength of lateralization in the left hemisphere in boys. For girls, we did not find any significant effects, possibly because their pubertal testosterone levels were in many cases below quantification limit. To conclude, prenatal and pubertal testosterone affect lateralization in a task-specific way. Our findings cannot be explained by simple models of prenatal testosterone affecting brain lateralization in a similar way for all tasks. We discuss alternative models involving age dependent effects of testosterone, with a role for androgen receptor distribution and efficiency.

Why Interventions to Influence Adolescent Behavior Often Fail but Could Succeed

We provide a developmental perspective on two related issues: (a) why traditional preventative school-based interventions work reasonably well for children but less so for middle adolescents and (b) why some alternative approaches to interventions show promise for middle adolescents. We propose the hypothesis that traditional interventions fail when they do not align with adolescents' enhanced desire to feel respected and be accorded status; however, interventions that do align with this desire can motivate internalized, positive behavior change. We review examples of promising interventions that (a) directly harness the desire for status and respect, (b) provide adolescents with more respectful treatment from adults, or (c) lessen the negative influence of threats to status and respect. These examples are in the domains of unhealthy snacking, middle school discipline, and high school aggression. Discussion centers on implications for basic developmental science and for improvements to youth policy and practice.

Family conflict is associated with longitudinal changes in insular-striatal functional connectivity during adolescent risk taking under maternal influence

Maternal presence has marked effects on adolescent neurocognition during risk taking, influencing teenagers to make safer decisions. However, it is currently unknown whether maternal buffering changes over the course of adolescence itself, and whether its effects are robust to individual differences in family relationship quality. In the current longitudinal study, 23 adolescents completed a risk-taking task under maternal presence during an fMRI scan before and after the transition to high school. Behavioral results reveal that adolescent risk taking increased under maternal presence across a one-year period. At the neural level, we found that adolescents reporting higher family conflict showed longitudinal increases in functional coupling between the anterior insula (AI) and ventral striatum (VS) when making safe decisions in the presence of their mother, which was associated with increased real-world risk taking. These findings show that individual differences in family relationship quality undermine effective development of AI-VS connectivity resulting in increased risk taking.

Diurnal Cortisol Interacts With Stressful Events to Prospectively Predict Depressive Symptoms in Adolescent Girls

PURPOSE

The aim of present study was to test the diathesis-stress model of depression using baseline cortisol, prospective assessment of depression symptoms, and stressful life events.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 527 adolescent girls aged 13.5-15.5 years without major depressive disorder. At baseline, saliva samples were collected at waking, 30 minutes after waking, and 8 p.m. on 3 consecutive days. Diurnal cortisol was indexed by cortisol awakening response (CAR) and area under the curve with respect to ground (AUCg). Stressful events during the preceding interval and current depressive symptoms were assessed 18 months following baseline.

RESULTS

Stressful events and the interaction of CAR or AUCg with stressful events predicted depressive symptoms at 18 months, even after controlling for baseline depressive symptoms. Specifically, in the face of high levels of stress, baseline blunted CAR or smaller AUCg were associated with future depressive symptoms. This was more apparent for CAR than AUCg. The effect was reversed at low levels of stress, with heightened CAR associated with more severe depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Blunted CAR and less daily cortisol output at baseline appear to accentuate the depressogenic effects of stressful events after 18 months, consistent with the diathesis-stress model of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in depression.

The effect of social rank feedback on risk taking and associated reward processes in adolescent girls

The onset of adolescence is associated with an increased tendency to engage in risky behaviors and a developmental shift toward peers that contributes to increased prioritization for learning about and achieving social status. There is relatively little understanding about the specific links between these adolescent-typical phenomena, particularly regarding their neural underpinnings. Based on existing models that suggest the role of puberty in promoting adolescent status-seeking and risk-taking tendencies, we investigated the relation of pubertal hormones with behavioral and neural responses to status-relevant social information in the context of risk taking. We used a probabilistic decision task in which 11- to 13-year-old girls chose to take a risk, or not, while receiving either social rank or monetary performance feedback. While feedback type did not differentially influence risk-taking behavior, whole-brain imaging results showed that activation in the anterior insula was increased for risk taking in the social rank feedback condition compared to the monetary feedback condition. This heightened activation was more pronounced in girls with higher estradiol levels. These findings suggest that brain processes involved in adolescent risky decisions may be influenced by the desire for social-status enhancement and provide preliminary evidence for the role of pubertal hormones in enhancing this adolescent-typical social sensitivity.

Age, sex, and gonadal hormones differently influence anxiety- and depression-related behavior during puberty in mice

Anxiety and depression symptoms increase dramatically during adolescence, with girls showing a steeper increase than boys after puberty onset. The timing of the onset of this sex bias led us to hypothesize that ovarian hormones contribute to depression and anxiety during puberty. In humans, it is difficult to disentangle direct effects of gonadal hormones from social and environmental factors that interact with pubertal development to influence mental health. To test the role of gonadal hormones in anxiety- and depression-related behavior during puberty, we manipulated gonadal hormones in mice while controlling social and environmental factors. Similar to humans, we find that mice show an increase in depression-related behavior from pre-pubertal to late-pubertal ages, but this increase is not dependent on gonadal hormones and does not differ between sexes. Anxiety-related behavior, however, is more complex during puberty, with differences that depend on sex, age, behavioral test, and hormonal status. Briefly, males castrated before puberty show greater anxiety-related behavior during late puberty compared to intact males, while pubertal females are unaffected by ovariectomy or hormone injections in all assays except the marble burying test. Despite this sex-specific effect of pubertal hormones on anxiety-related behavior, we find no sex differences in intact young adults, suggesting that males and females use separate mechanisms to converge on a similar behavioral phenotype. Our results are consistent with anxiolytic effects of testicular hormones during puberty in males but are not consistent with a causal role for ovarian hormones in increasing anxiety- and depression-related behavior during puberty in females.

Within-person changes in salivary testosterone and physical characteristics of puberty predict boys' daily affect

Recent investigations highlighted the role of within-person pubertal changes for adolescents' behavior. Yet, little is known about effects on adolescents' daily affect, particularly regarding the hormonal changes underlying physical changes during puberty. In a study with 148 boys aged 10 to 20years, we tested whether within-person physical and hormonal changes over eight months predicted everyday affect fluctuations, measured with experience sampling. As expected, greater within-person changes in testosterone (but not in dehydroepiandrosterone) were associated with higher affect fluctuations in daily life. Additionally, greater physical changes predicted higher affect fluctuations for individuals in the beginning of puberty. The findings demonstrate the relevance of physical and hormonal changes in boys' affective (in)stability.

Prefrontal mechanisms of comorbidity from a transdiagnostic and ontogenic perspective

Accumulating behavioral and genetic research suggests that most forms of psychopathology share common genetic and neural vulnerabilities and are manifestations of a relatively few core underlying processes. These findings support the view that comorbidity mostly arises, not from true co-occurrence of distinct disorders, but from the behavioral expression of shared vulnerability processes across the life span. The purpose of this review is to examine the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in the shared vulnerability mechanisms underlying the clinical phenomena of comorbidity from a transdiagnostic and ontogenic perspective. In adopting this perspective, we suggest complex transactions between neurobiologically rooted vulnerabilities inherent in PFC circuitry and environmental factors (e.g., parenting, peers, stress, and substance use) across development converge on three key PFC-mediated processes: executive functioning, emotion regulation, and reward processing. We propose that individual differences and impairments in these PFC-mediated functions provide intermediate mechanisms for transdiagnostic symptoms and underlie behavioral tendencies that evoke and interact with environmental risk factors to further potentiate vulnerability.

Social status strategy in early adolescent girls: Testosterone and value-based decision making

There has been strong interest, spanning several disciplines, in understanding adolescence as a developmental period of increased risk-taking behavior. Our goals focus on one line of investigation within this larger developmental risk framework. Specifically, we examined levels of pubertal hormones in girls in relation to their willingness to take greater financial risks to gain social status. To this end, we tested the hypothesis that higher levels of testosterone during the ages of pubertal maturation are associated with a greater willingness to sacrifice money for social admiration. Sixty-three girls ages 10-14 (M_age=12.74) participated in laboratory measures and completed at-home saliva sample collection. The Pubertal Development Scale (PDS) and basal hormone levels (testosterone, estradiol, DHEA) measured pubertal maturation. We made use of a developmentally appropriate version of an Auction Task in which adolescents could take financial risks in order to gain socially motivated outcomes (social status). PDS and testosterone were each associated with overall levels of financial risk taking over the course of the Auction Task. In hierarchical models, PDS and testosterone were predictors of the slope of overbidding over the course of the task. Results provide evidence for the role of testosterone and pubertal maturation in girls' motivations to engage in costly decision making in order to gain social status. Findings contribute to our understanding of the developmental underpinnings of some interesting aspects of adolescent risk behavior.