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Pardridge WM. The Isolated Brain Microvessel: A Versatile Experimental Model of the Blood-Brain Barrier. Front Physiol 2020; 11:398. [PMID: 32457645 PMCID: PMC7221163 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A versatile experimental model for the investigation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), including the neuro-vascular unit, is the isolated brain microvessel preparation. Brain microvessels are primarily comprised of endothelial cells, but also include pericytes, pre-capillary arteriolar smooth muscle cells, astrocyte foot processes, and occasional nerve endings. These microvessels can be isolated from brain with a 3 h procedure, and the microvessels are free of brain parenchyma. Brain microvessels have been isolated from fresh animal brain, fresh human brain obtained at neurosurgery, as well as fresh or frozen autopsy human brain. Brain microvessels are the starting point for isolation of brain microvessel RNA, which then enables the production of BBB cDNA libraries and a genomics analysis of the brain microvasculature. Brain microvessels, combined with quantitative targeted absolute proteomics, allow for the quantitation of specific transporters or receptors expressed at the brain microvasculature. Brain microvessels, combined with specific antibodies and immune labeling of isolated capillaries, allow for the cellular location of proteins expressed within the neuro-vascular unit. Isolated brain microvessels can be used as an “in vitro” preparation of the BBB for the study of the kinetic parameters of BBB carrier-mediated transport (CMT) systems, or for the determination of dissociation constants of peptide binding to BBB receptor-mediated transport (RMT) systems expressed at either the animal or the human BBB. This review will discuss how the isolated brain microvessel model system has advanced our understanding of the organization and functional properties of the BBB, and highlight recent renewed interest in this 50 year old model of the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Pardridge
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Reay WR, Atkins JR, Quidé Y, Carr VJ, Green MJ, Cairns MJ. Polygenic disruption of retinoid signalling in schizophrenia and a severe cognitive deficit subtype. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:719-731. [PMID: 30532020 PMCID: PMC7156344 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-018-0305-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Retinoid metabolites of vitamin A are intrinsically linked to neural development, connectivity and plasticity, and have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. We hypothesised that a greater burden of common and rare genomic variation in genes involved with retinoid biogenesis and signalling could be associated with schizophrenia and its cognitive symptoms. Common variants associated with schizophrenia in the largest genome-wide association study were aggregated in retinoid genes and used to formulate a polygenic risk score (PRSRet) for each participant in the Australian Schizophrenia Research Bank. In support of our hypothesis, we found PRSRet to be significantly associated with the disorder. Cases with severe cognitive deficits, while not further differentiated by PRSRet, were enriched with rare variation in the retinoic acid receptor beta gene RARB, detected through whole-genome sequencing. RARB rare variant burden was also associated with reduced cerebellar volume in the cases with marked cognitive deficit, and with covariation in grey matter throughout the brain. An excess of rare variation was further observed in schizophrenia in retinoic acid response elements proximal to target genes, which we show are differentially expressed in the disorder in two RNA sequencing datasets. Our results suggest that genomic variation may disrupt retinoid signalling in schizophrenia, with particular significance for cases with severe cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Reay
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Joshua R Atkins
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Yann Quidé
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Vaughan J Carr
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Melissa J Green
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Murray J Cairns
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
- Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
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Reay WR, Cairns MJ. The role of the retinoids in schizophrenia: genomic and clinical perspectives. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:706-718. [PMID: 31666680 PMCID: PMC7156347 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0566-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Signalling by retinoid compounds is vital for embryonic development, with particular importance for neurogenesis in the human brain. Retinoids, metabolites of vitamin A, exert influence over the expression of thousands of transcripts genome wide, and thus, act as master regulators of many important biological processes. A significant body of evidence in the literature now supports dysregulation of the retinoid system as being involved in the aetiology of schizophrenia. This includes mechanistic insights from large-scale genomic, transcriptomic and, proteomic studies, which implicate disruption of disparate aspects of retinoid biology such as transport, metabolism, and signalling. As a result, retinoids may present a valuable clinical opportunity in schizophrenia via novel pharmacotherapies and dietary intervention. Further work, however, is required to expand on the largely observational data collected thus far and confirm causality. This review will highlight the fundamentals of retinoid biology and examine the evidence for retinoid dysregulation in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R. Reay
- 0000 0000 8831 109Xgrid.266842.cSchool of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW Australia ,grid.413648.cCentre for Brain and Mental Health Research, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW Australia
| | - Murray J. Cairns
- 0000 0000 8831 109Xgrid.266842.cSchool of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW Australia ,grid.413648.cCentre for Brain and Mental Health Research, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW Australia
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Ma X, Zhu P, Ding Y, Zhang H, Qiu Q, Dvornikov AV, Wang Z, Kim M, Wang Y, Lowerison M, Yu Y, Norton N, Herrmann J, Ekker SC, Hsiai TK, Lin X, Xu X. Retinoid X receptor alpha is a spatiotemporally predominant therapeutic target for anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaay2939. [PMID: 32064346 PMCID: PMC6989136 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay2939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
To uncover the genetic basis of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity (AIC), we recently established a genetic suppressor screening strategy in zebrafish. Here, we report the molecular and cellular nature of GBT0419, a salutary modifier mutant that affects retinoid x receptor alpha a (rxraa). We showed that endothelial, but not myocardial or epicardial, RXRA activation confers AIC protection. We then identified isotretinoin and bexarotene, two FDA-approved RXRA agonists, which exert cardioprotective effects. The therapeutic effects of these drugs only occur when administered during early, but not late, phase of AIC or as pretreatment. Mechanistically, these spatially- and temporally-predominant benefits of RXRA activation can be ascribed to repair of damaged endothelial cell-barrier via regulating tight-junction protein Zonula occludens-1. Together, our study provides the first in vivo genetic evidence supporting RXRA as the therapeutic target for AIC, and uncovers a previously unrecognized spatiotemporally-predominant mechanism that shall inform future translational efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Ma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Mayo Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ping Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Yonghe Ding
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Clinical Center for Gene Diagnosis and Therapy, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qi Qiu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Alexey V. Dvornikov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Zheng Wang
- Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Maengjo Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Yong Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Institute of Life Science, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | | | - Yue Yu
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Nadine Norton
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Joerg Herrmann
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Stephen C. Ekker
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Mayo Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Tzung K. Hsiai
- School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Xueying Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Xiaolei Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Center for Clinical and Translational Science, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
- Mayo Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the vertebrate central nervous system from harmful blood-borne, endogenous and exogenous substances to ensure proper neuronal function. The BBB describes a function that is established by endothelial cells of CNS vessels in conjunction with pericytes, astrocytes, neurons and microglia, together forming the neurovascular unit (NVU). Endothelial barrier function is crucially induced and maintained by the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and requires intact NVU for proper functionality. The BBB and the NVU are characterized by a specialized assortment of molecular specializations, providing the basis for tightening, transport and immune response functionality.The present chapter introduces state-of-the-art knowledge of BBB structure and function and highlights current research topics, aiming to understanding in more depth the cellular and molecular interactions at the NVU, determining functionality of the BBB in health and disease, and providing novel potential targets for therapeutic BBB modulation. Moreover, we highlight recent advances in understanding BBB and NVU heterogeneity within the CNS as well as their contribution to CNS physiology, such as neurovascular coupling, and pathophysiology, is discussed. Finally, we give an outlook onto new avenues of BBB research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Benz
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), University Hospital, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Stefan Liebner
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), University Hospital, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Excellence Cluster Cardio Pulmonary System (CPI), Partner Site Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany.
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt, Germany.
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Schaffenrath J, Keller A. New Insights in the Complexity and Functionality of the Neurovascular Unit. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2020; 273:33-57. [PMID: 33582883 DOI: 10.1007/164_2020_424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The neurovascular unit (NVU) encompasses all brain cells and underlines that neurons, glia and brain vasculature are in intimate physical and functional association. Brain function is dependent on blood flow and local increases in blood flow in response to neural activity - functional hyperaemia takes place at the NVU. Although this is a vital function of the NVU, many studies have demonstrated that the NVU also performs other tasks. Blood vessels in the brain, which are composed of multiple cell types, are essential for correct brain development. They constitute the niche for brain stem cells, sense the environment and communicate changes to neural tissue, and control the immune quiescence of the CNS. In this brief chapter we will discuss new insights into the biology of NVU, which have further revealed the heterogeneity and complexity of the vascular tree and its neurovascular associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Schaffenrath
- Department of Neurosurgery, Clinical Neuroscience Center, Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zurich University Hospital, Zurich University, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annika Keller
- Department of Neurosurgery, Clinical Neuroscience Center, Zurich Neuroscience Center, Zurich University Hospital, Zurich University, Zurich, Switzerland.
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57
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Spampinato SF, Bortolotto V, Canonico PL, Sortino MA, Grilli M. Astrocyte-Derived Paracrine Signals: Relevance for Neurogenic Niche Regulation and Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1346. [PMID: 31824311 PMCID: PMC6881379 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are essential for proper regulation of the central nervous system (CNS). Importantly, these cells are highly secretory in nature. Indeed they can release hundreds of molecules which play pivotal physiological roles in nervous tissues and whose abnormal regulation has been associated with several CNS disorders. In agreement with these findings, recent studies have provided exciting insights into the key contribution of astrocyte-derived signals in the pleiotropic functions of these cells in brain health and diseases. In the future, deeper analysis of the astrocyte secretome is likely to further increase our current knowledge on the full potential of these cells and their secreted molecules not only as active participants in pathophysiological events, but as pharmacological targets or even as therapeutics for neurological and psychiatric diseases. Herein we will highlight recent findings in our and other laboratories on selected molecules that are actively secreted by astrocytes and contribute in two distinct functions with pathophysiological relevance for the astroglial population: i) regulation of neural stem cells (NSCs) and their progeny within adult neurogenic niches; ii) modulation of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Federica Spampinato
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Valeria Bortolotto
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Pier Luigi Canonico
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Maria Angela Sortino
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Mariagrazia Grilli
- Laboratory of Neuroplasticity, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
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58
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Praça C, Rosa SC, Sevin E, Cecchelli R, Dehouck MP, Ferreira LS. Derivation of Brain Capillary-like Endothelial Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Progenitor Cells. Stem Cell Reports 2019; 13:599-611. [PMID: 31495714 PMCID: PMC6829749 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2018] [Revised: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The derivation of human brain capillary endothelial cells is of utmost importance for drug discovery programs focusing on diseases of the central nervous system. Here, we describe a two-step differentiation protocol to derive brain capillary-like endothelial cells from human pluripotent stem cells. The cells were initially differentiated into endothelial progenitor cells followed by specification into a brain capillary-like endothelial cell phenotype using a protocol that combined the induction, in a time-dependent manner, of VEGF, Wnt3a, and retinoic acid signaling pathways and the use of fibronectin as the extracellular matrix. The brain capillary-like endothelial cells displayed a permeability to lucifer yellow of 1 × 10−3 cm/min, a transendothelial electrical resistance value of 60 Ω cm2 and were able to generate a continuous monolayer of cells expressing ZO-1 and CLAUDIN-5 but moderate expression of P-glycoprotein. Further maturation of these cells required coculture with pericytes. The study presented here opens a new approach for the study of soluble and non-soluble factors in the specification of endothelial progenitor cells into brain capillary-like endothelial cells. Derivation of BCLECs from iPSCs in chemically defined medium in two steps Specification of EPCs into BCLECs requires the activation of VEGF, Wnt3a, and RA Fibronectin seems a sufficient substrate for the specification of EPCs into BCLECs
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Praça
- Doctoral Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine (PDBEB), Portugal CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Susana C Rosa
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Emmanuel Sevin
- Faculté des Sciences Jean Perrin, Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | - Romeo Cecchelli
- Faculté des Sciences Jean Perrin, Université d'Artois, Lens, France
| | | | - Lino S Ferreira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Canfield SG, Stebbins MJ, Faubion MG, Gastfriend BD, Palecek SP, Shusta EV. An isogenic neurovascular unit model comprised of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived brain microvascular endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, and neurons. Fluids Barriers CNS 2019; 16:25. [PMID: 31387594 PMCID: PMC6685239 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-019-0145-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) astrocytes, neurons, and pericytes form the neurovascular unit (NVU). Interactions with NVU cells endow BMECs with extremely tight barriers via the expression of tight junction proteins, a host of active efflux and nutrient transporters, and reduced transcellular transport. To recreate the BMEC-enhancing functions of NVU cells, we combined BMECs, astrocytes, neurons, and brain pericyte-like cells. Methods BMECs, neurons, astrocytes, and brain like pericytes were differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and placed in a Transwell-type NVU model. BMECs were placed in co-culture with neurons, astrocytes, and/or pericytes alone or in varying combinations and critical barrier properties were monitored. Results Co-culture with pericytes followed by a mixture of neurons and astrocytes (1:3) induced the greatest barrier tightening in BMECs, supported by a significant increase in junctional localization of occludin. BMECs also expressed active P-glycoprotein (PGP) efflux transporters under baseline BMEC monoculture conditions and continued to express baseline active PGP efflux transporters regardless of co-culture conditions. Finally, brain-like pericyte co-culture significantly reduced the rate of non-specific transcytosis across BMECs. Conclusions Importantly, each cell type in the NVU model was differentiated from the same donor iPSC source, yielding an isogenic model that could prove enabling for enhanced personalized modeling of the NVU in human health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott G Canfield
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA. .,Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 620 Chestnut Street, Terre Haute, IN, 47809, USA.
| | - Matthew J Stebbins
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Madeline G Faubion
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Benjamin D Gastfriend
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Sean P Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Eric V Shusta
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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Ferreira L. What human blood-brain barrier models can tell us about BBB function and drug discovery? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:1113-1123. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1646722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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61
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Yamada S, Kanda Y. Retinoic acid promotes barrier functions in human iPSC-derived intestinal epithelial monolayers. J Pharmacol Sci 2019; 140:337-344. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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Abstract
In this issue of Developmental Cell, Anbalagan et al. demonstrate that pituicytes, a subtype of astroglia, drive endothelial cell permeability in the zebrafish embryo neurohypophysis. This occurs via secretion of Vegfa/Tgfβ3 permeability factors that promote formation of fenestrae and the repression of anti-inflammatory retinoic acid signaling that induces tight cell junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Leon Thomas
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 06 UMRS1127, Sorbonne Université, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, Paris, France; Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Anne Eichmann
- INSERM U970, Paris Cardiovascular Research Center, 56 Rue Leblanc, 75015 Paris, France; Cardiovascular Research Center and the Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510-3221, USA.
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Development of Human in vitro Brain-blood Barrier Model from Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Endothelial Cells to Predict the in vivo Permeability of Drugs. Neurosci Bull 2019; 35:996-1010. [PMID: 31079318 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-019-00384-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) model is critical for enabling rapid screening of the BBB permeability of the drugs targeting on the central nervous system. Though many models have been developed, their reproducibility and renewability remain a challenge. Furthermore, drug transport data from many of the models do not correlate well with the data for in vivo BBB drug transport. Induced-pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology provides reproducible cell resources for in vitro BBB modeling. Here, we generated a human in vitro BBB model by differentiating the human iPSC (hiPSC) line GM25256 into brain endothelial-type cells. The model displayed BBB characteristics including tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin-5, and occludin) and endothelial markers (von Willebrand factor and Ulex), as well as high trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) (1560 Ω.cm2 ± 230 Ω.cm2) and γ-GTPase activity. Co-culture with primary rat astrocytes significantly increased the TEER of the model (2970 Ω.cm2 to 4185 Ω.cm2). RNAseq analysis confirmed the expression of key BBB-related genes in the hiPSC-derived endothelial cells in comparison with primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells, including P-glycoprotein (Pgp) and breast cancer resistant protein (BCRP). Drug transport assays for nine CNS compounds showed that the permeability of non-Pgp/BCRP and Pgp/BCRP substrates across the model was strongly correlated with rodent in situ brain perfusion data for these compounds (R2 = 0.982 and R2 = 0.9973, respectively), demonstrating the functionality of the drug transporters in the model. Thus, this model may be used to rapidly screen CNS compounds, to predict the in vivo BBB permeability of these compounds and to study the biology of the BBB.
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Pawlikowski B, Wragge J, Siegenthaler JA. Retinoic acid signaling in vascular development. Genesis 2019; 57:e23287. [PMID: 30801891 DOI: 10.1002/dvg.23287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Formation of the vasculature is an essential developmental process, delivering oxygen and nutrients to support cellular processes needed for tissue growth and maturation. Retinoic acid (RA) and its downstream signaling pathway is vital for normal pre- and post-natal development, playing key roles in the specification and formation of many organs and tissues. Here, we review the role of RA in blood and lymph vascular development, beginning with embryonic yolk sac vasculogenesis and remodeling and discussing RA's organ-specific roles in angiogenesis and vessel maturation. In particular, we highlight the multi-faceted role of RA signaling in CNS vascular development and acquisition of blood-brain barrier properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad Pawlikowski
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado-Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
| | - Jacob Wragge
- Department of Pediatrics-Section of Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, School of Medicine-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Julie A Siegenthaler
- Department of Pediatrics-Section of Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, School of Medicine-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
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Dual Roles of Astrocyte-Derived Factors in Regulation of Blood-Brain Barrier Function after Brain Damage. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20030571. [PMID: 30699952 PMCID: PMC6387062 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20030571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major functional barrier in the central nervous system (CNS), and inhibits the extravasation of intravascular contents and transports various essential nutrients between the blood and the brain. After brain damage by traumatic brain injury, cerebral ischemia and several other CNS disorders, the functions of the BBB are disrupted, resulting in severe secondary damage including brain edema and inflammatory injury. Therefore, BBB protection and recovery are considered novel therapeutic strategies for reducing brain damage. Emerging evidence suggests key roles of astrocyte-derived factors in BBB disruption and recovery after brain damage. The astrocyte-derived vascular permeability factors include vascular endothelial growth factors, matrix metalloproteinases, nitric oxide, glutamate and endothelin-1, which enhance BBB permeability leading to BBB disruption. By contrast, the astrocyte-derived protective factors include angiopoietin-1, sonic hedgehog, glial-derived neurotrophic factor, retinoic acid and insulin-like growth factor-1 and apolipoprotein E which attenuate BBB permeability resulting in recovery of BBB function. In this review, the roles of these astrocyte-derived factors in BBB function are summarized, and their significance as therapeutic targets for BBB protection and recovery after brain damage are discussed.
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Page S, Patel R, Raut S, Al-Ahmad A. Neurological diseases at the blood-brain barrier: Stemming new scientific paradigms using patient-derived induced pluripotent cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1866:165358. [PMID: 30593893 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a component of the neurovascular unit formed by specialized brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) surrounded by a specific basement membrane interacting with astrocytes, neurons, and pericytes. The BBB plays an essential function in the maintenance of brain homeostasis, by providing a physical and chemical barrier against pathogens and xenobiotics. Although the disruption of the BBB occurs with several neurological disorders, the scarcity of patient material source and lack of reliability of current in vitro models hindered our ability to model the BBB during such neurological conditions. The development of novel in vitro models based on patient-derived stem cells opened new venues in modeling the human BBB in vitro, by being more accurate than existing in vitro models, but also bringing such models closer to the in vivo setting. In addition, patient-derived models of the BBB opens the avenue to address the contribution of genetic factors commonly associated with certain neurological diseases on the BBB pathophysiology. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the BBB, the current development of stem cell-based models in the field, the current challenges and limitations of such models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyanne Page
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Ronak Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Snehal Raut
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America
| | - Abraham Al-Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, School of Pharmacy, Amarillo, TX, United States of America.
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In Vitro Cell Models of the Human Blood-Brain Barrier: Demonstrating the Beneficial Influence of Shear Stress on Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cell Phenotype. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8946-1_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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68
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Chakraborty A, Kamermans A, van het Hof B, Castricum K, Aanhane E, van Horssen J, Thijssen VL, Scheltens P, Teunissen CE, Fontijn RD, van der Flier WM, de Vries HE. Angiopoietin like-4 as a novel vascular mediator in capillary cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Brain 2018; 141:3377-3388. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ananya Chakraborty
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Alwin Kamermans
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Bert van het Hof
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Kitty Castricum
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands
| | - Ed Aanhane
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands
| | - Jack van Horssen
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Victor L Thijssen
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Scheltens
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Alzheimer Center and Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Neurochemistry Lab and Biobank, Department of Clinical Chemistry, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud D Fontijn
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Wiesje M van der Flier
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Radiation Oncology, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
| | - Helga E de Vries
- Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, The Netherlands
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Anbalagan S, Gordon L, Blechman J, Matsuoka RL, Rajamannar P, Wircer E, Biran J, Reuveny A, Leshkowitz D, Stainier DYR, Levkowitz G. Pituicyte Cues Regulate the Development of Permeable Neuro-Vascular Interfaces. Dev Cell 2018; 47:711-726.e5. [PMID: 30449506 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal system (HNS) regulates homeostasis through the passage of neurohormones and blood-borne proteins via permeable blood capillaries that lack the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Why neurohypophyseal capillaries become permeable while the neighboring vasculature of the brain forms BBB remains unclear. We show that pituicytes, the resident astroglial cells of the neurohypophysis, express genes that are associated with BBB breakdown during neuroinflammation. Pituicyte-enriched factors provide a local microenvironment that instructs a permeable neurovascular conduit. Thus, genetic and pharmacological perturbations of Vegfa and Tgfβ3 affected HNS vascular morphogenesis and permeability and impaired the expression of the fenestral marker plvap. The anti-inflammatory agent dexamethasone decreased HNS permeability and downregulated the pituicyte-specific cyp26b gene, encoding a retinoic acid catabolic enzyme. Inhibition of Cyp26b activity led to upregulation of tight junction protein Claudin-5 and decreased permeability. We conclude that pituicyte-derived factors regulate the "decision" of endothelial cells to adopt a permeable endothelial fate instead of forming a BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savani Anbalagan
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ludmila Gordon
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Janna Blechman
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ryota L Matsuoka
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Preethi Rajamannar
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Einav Wircer
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Jakob Biran
- Department of Poultry and Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon Letziyon 7528809, Israel
| | - Adriana Reuveny
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Dena Leshkowitz
- Bioinformatics Unit, LSCF Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Didier Y R Stainier
- Department of Developmental Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Gil Levkowitz
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, PO Box 26, Rehovot 7610001, Israel.
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Sharif Y, Jumah F, Coplan L, Krosser A, Sharif K, Tubbs RS. Blood brain barrier: A review of its anatomy and physiology in health and disease. Clin Anat 2018; 31:812-823. [PMID: 29637627 DOI: 10.1002/ca.23083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is the principal regulator of transport of molecules and cells into and out of the central nervous system (CNS). It comprises endothelial cells, pericytes, immune cells, astrocytes, and basement membrane, collectively known as the neurovascular unit. The development of the barrier involves many complex pathways from all the progenitors of the neurovascular unit, but the timing of its formation is not entirely known. The coordinated activities of all the components of the neurovascular unit and other tissues ensure that materials required for growth and maintenance are allowed into the CNS while extraneous ones are excluded. This review summarizes current knowledge of the anatomy, development, and physiology of the BBB, and alterations that occur in disease conditions. Clin. Anat. 31:812-823, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousra Sharif
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Fareed Jumah
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Louis Coplan
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Alec Krosser
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Kassem Sharif
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - R Shane Tubbs
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George's University, Grenada.,Seattle Science Foundation, Seattle, Washington
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Sun L, Zhang Y, Liu E, Ma Q, Anatol M, Han H, Yan J. The roles of astrocyte in the brain pathologies following ischemic stroke. Brain Inj 2018; 33:712-716. [PMID: 30335519 DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2018.1531311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Aim: In this work, we systematically explored the physiological functions of astrocytes and their roles following ischemic stroke, additionally, the potential therapy strategy targeting the astrocytes was also discussed. Methods: This work searched the PubMed database (including MEDLINE) until 14 Feb 2018, and furthermore, the studies were identified through cross-referencing and by consulting the experts in this field. Results: This study indicated that the astrocytes can not only play harmful roles following ischemic stroke through release of inflammatory factors and formation of glial scar but also have protective effects through quenching glutamate excitotoxicity and maintaining the clearance function of glymphatic system in brain. Conclusion: Owing to their important roles in physiological functions of brain and in the pathological conditions following ischemic stroke, the astrocytes might be a potential but promising therapeutic target for treating the ischemic stroke in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Sun
- a Department of Anatomy and Histology, School of Basic Medical Sciences , Peking University , Beijing , China
| | - Yixuan Zhang
- a Department of Anatomy and Histology, School of Basic Medical Sciences , Peking University , Beijing , China
| | - E Liu
- a Department of Anatomy and Histology, School of Basic Medical Sciences , Peking University , Beijing , China
| | - Qingyi Ma
- b Center for Perinatal Biology, School of Medicine , Loma Linda University , Loma Linda , USA
| | - Manaenko Anatol
- c Departments of Neurology , University of Erlangen-Nuremberg , Erlangen , Germany
| | - Hongbin Han
- d Beijing Key Lab of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technology , Beijing , China
| | - Junhao Yan
- a Department of Anatomy and Histology, School of Basic Medical Sciences , Peking University , Beijing , China.,d Beijing Key Lab of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technology , Beijing , China
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72
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Saili KS, Zurlinden TJ, Schwab AJ, Silvin A, Baker NC, Hunter ES, Ginhoux F, Knudsen TB. Blood-brain barrier development: Systems modeling and predictive toxicology. Birth Defects Res 2018; 109:1680-1710. [PMID: 29251840 DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as a gateway for passage of drugs, chemicals, nutrients, metabolites, and hormones between vascular and neural compartments in the brain. Here, we review BBB development with regard to the microphysiology of the neurovascular unit (NVU) and the impact of BBB disruption on brain development. Our focus is on modeling these complex systems. Extant in silico models are available as tools to predict the probability of drug/chemical passage across the BBB; in vitro platforms for high-throughput screening and high-content imaging provide novel data streams for profiling chemical-biological interactions; and engineered human cell-based microphysiological systems provide empirical models with which to investigate the dynamics of NVU function. Computational models are needed that bring together kinetic and dynamic aspects of NVU function across gestation and under various physiological and toxicological scenarios. This integration will inform adverse outcome pathways to reduce uncertainty in translating in vitro data and in silico models for use in risk assessments that aim to protect neurodevelopmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerine S Saili
- National Center for Computational Toxicology (NCCT); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
| | - Todd J Zurlinden
- National Center for Computational Toxicology (NCCT); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
| | - Andrew J Schwab
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
| | - Aymeric Silvin
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138648, Singapore
| | - Nancy C Baker
- Leidos, contractor to NCCT, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
| | - E Sidney Hunter
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 138648, Singapore
| | - Thomas B Knudsen
- National Center for Computational Toxicology (NCCT); U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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73
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Pollock LM, Xie J, Bell BA, Anand-Apte B. Retinoic acid signaling is essential for maintenance of the blood-retinal barrier. FASEB J 2018; 32:5674-5684. [PMID: 29874129 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201701469r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The predominant function of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) is to maintain retinal homeostasis by regulating the influx and efflux between the blood and retina. Breakdown of the BRB occurs in a number of ocular diseases that result in vision loss. Understanding the molecular and cellular pathways involved in the development and maintenance of the BRB is critical to developing therapeutics for these conditions. To visualize the BRB in vivo, we used the transgenic Tg(l-fabp:DBP-EGFP:flk1:mCherry) zebrafish model that expresses vitamin D binding protein (a member of the albumin gene family) tagged to green fluorescent protein. Retinoic acid (RA) plays a number of important roles in vertebrate development and has been shown to play a protective role during inflammation-induced blood-brain barrier disruption. The role of RA in BRB development and maintenance remains unknown. To disrupt RA signaling, Tg(l-fabp:DBP-EGFP:flk1:mCherry) zebrafish were treated with N, N-diethylaminobenzaldehyde and 4-[(1 E)-2-[5,6-dihydro-5,5-dimethyl-8-(2-phenylethynyl)-2-naphthalenyl]ethenyl]benzoic acid, which are antagonists of retinal dehydrogenase and the RA receptor, respectively. Treatment with either compound resulted in BRB disruption and reduced visual acuity, whereas cotreatment with all- trans RA effectively rescued BRB integrity. Additionally, transgenic overexpression of Cyp26a1, which catalyzes RA degradation, resulted in breakdown of the BRB. Our results demonstrate that RA signaling is critical for maintenance of the BRB and could play a role in diseases such as diabetic macular edema.-Pollock, L. M., Xie, J., Bell, B. A., Anand-Apte, B. Retinoic acid signaling is essential for maintenance of the blood-retinal barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana M Pollock
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Jing Xie
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Brent A Bell
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Bela Anand-Apte
- Department of Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.,Department of Ophthalmology, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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74
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All-Trans Retinoic Acid Ameliorates the Early Experimental Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rats by Inhibiting the Loss of the Blood-Brain Barrier via the JNK/P38MAPK Signaling Pathway. Neurochem Res 2018; 43:1283-1296. [PMID: 29802528 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-018-2545-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) influences the outcomes of cerebral ischemic reperfusion (CIR) injury, but the mechanism remains unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of ATRA on loss of the blood brain barrier (BBB) following CIR and to explore the possible mechanisms. Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion was performed on male SD rats to construct an in vivo CIR model. Neurological deficits, BBB permeability, brain edema, MRI and JNK/P38 MAPK proteins were detected at 24 h following CIR. We demonstrated that ATRA pretreatment could alleviate CIR-induced neurological deficits, increase of BBB permeability, infarct volume, degradation of tight junction proteins, inhibit MMP-9 protein expression and activity. ATRA treatment also reduced the p-P38 and p-JNK protein level. However the protective effect of ATRA on CIR could be reversed by administration of retinoic acid alpha receptor antagonist Ro41-5253. SP600125 and SB203580, which is the JNK/P38 pathway inhibitors has the same protective effect as ATRA. These results indicated that ATRA may inhibit the JNK/P38 MAPK pathway to alleviate BBB disruption and improve CIR outcomes.
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75
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 8029-- #] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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76
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 8029-- -] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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77
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 1-- gadu] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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78
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r and 1880=1880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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79
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 1-- -] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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80
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 8029-- awyx] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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81
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 1-- #] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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82
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Gastfriend BD, Palecek SP, Shusta EV. Modeling the blood-brain barrier: Beyond the endothelial cells. CURRENT OPINION IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2018; 5:6-12. [PMID: 29915815 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobme.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulates the transport of ions, nutrients, and metabolites to help maintain proper brain function. This restrictive interface formed by brain microvascular endothelial cells excludes the majority of small and large molecule drugs from entering the brain, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction is a signature of many neurological diseases. Thus, in vitro models of the BBB based on brain endothelial cells have been developed to facilitate screening drugs for BBB permeability. However, while brain endothelial cells form the main interface, they work in concert with other brain-resident cells such as neural progenitor cells, pericytes, astrocytes, and neurons to form the neurovascular unit (NVU). Importantly, non-endothelial cells of the NVU play key roles in eliciting BBB phenotypes and in regulating the dynamic responses of the BBB to brain activity and disease. As a result, emerging in vitro BBB models have incorporated these NVU cell types in addition to endothelial cells. These multicellular BBB or NVU models have found increasing application not only in drug screening, but also in studying complex cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying BBB biology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Gastfriend
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1415 Engineering Drive, Madison WI, 53706
| | - Sean P Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1415 Engineering Drive, Madison WI, 53706
| | - Eric V Shusta
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1415 Engineering Drive, Madison WI, 53706
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83
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Khosravi-Largani M, Pourvali-Talatappeh P, Rousta AM, Karimi-Kivi M, Noroozi E, Mahjoob A, Asaadi Y, Shahmohammadi A, Sadeghi S, Shakeri S, Ghiyasvand K, Tavakoli-Yaraki M. A review on potential roles of vitamins in incidence, progression, and improvement of multiple sclerosis. eNeurologicalSci 2018; 10:37-44. [PMID: 29736427 PMCID: PMC5934114 DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2018.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease, with unknown etiology. Vitamins, as important micronutrients playing different roles in body, seem to be important in MS pathogenesis. In vitro, in vivo and human studies, supports the protective role of some vitamins in MS occurrence or progression. Current study reviews recent insights and reports about the importance of vitamins in MS incidence or progression. In accordance, the importance of all water and fat-soluble vitamins in MS pathogenesis based on observational studies in human population and their role in the function of immune system as well as possible therapeutic opportunities are discussed in depth throughout this review.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Elahe Noroozi
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Mahjoob
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yasaman Asaadi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Sarina Sadeghi
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shiva Shakeri
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Kimiya Ghiyasvand
- School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Tavakoli-Yaraki
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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84
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood-brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 103:839-853. [PMID: 29431873 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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85
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Stebbins MJ, Lippmann ES, Faubion MG, Daneman R, Palecek SP, Shusta EV. Activation of RARα, RARγ, or RXRα Increases Barrier Tightness in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Brain Endothelial Cells. Biotechnol J 2018; 13:10.1002/biot.201700093. [PMID: 28960887 PMCID: PMC5796863 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201700093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is critical to central nervous system (CNS) health. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) are often used as in vitro BBB models for studying BBB dysfunction and therapeutic screening applications. Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) can be differentiated to cells having key BMEC barrier and transporter properties, offering a renewable, scalable source of human BMECs. hPSC-derived BMECs have previously been shown to respond to all-trans retinoic acid (RA), and the goal of this study was to identify the stages at which differentiating human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) respond to activation of RA receptors (RARs) to impart BBB phenotypes. Here the authors identified that RA application to iPSC-derived BMECs at days 6-8 of differentiation led to a substantial elevation in transendothelial electrical resistance and induction of VE-cadherin expression. Specific RAR agonists identified RARα, RARγ, and RXRα as receptors capable of inducing barrier phenotypes. Moreover, RAR/RXRα costimulation elevated VE-cadherin expression and improved barrier fidelity to levels that recapitulated the effects of RA. This study elucidates the roles of RA signaling in iPSC-derived BMEC differentiation, and identifies directed agonist approaches that can improve BMEC fidelity for drug screening studies while also distinguishing potential nuclear receptor targets to explore in BBB dysfunction and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Stebbins
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States of America
| | - Ethan S. Lippmann
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States of America
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States of America
| | - Madeline G. Faubion
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States of America
| | - Richard Daneman
- Departments of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States of America
| | - Sean P. Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States of America
| | - Eric V. Shusta
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States of America
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86
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Bosworth AM, Faley SL, Bellan LM, Lippmann ES. Modeling Neurovascular Disorders and Therapeutic Outcomes with Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018; 5:87. [PMID: 29441348 PMCID: PMC5797533 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2017.00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurovascular unit (NVU) is composed of neurons, astrocytes, pericytes, and endothelial cells that form the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The NVU regulates material exchange between the bloodstream and the brain parenchyma, and its dysfunction is a primary or secondary cause of many cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative disorders. As such, there are substantial research thrusts in academia and industry toward building NVU models that mimic endogenous organization and function, which could be used to better understand disease mechanisms and assess drug efficacy. Human pluripotent stem cells, which can self-renew indefinitely and differentiate to almost any cell type in the body, are attractive for these models because they can provide a limitless source of individual cells from the NVU. In addition, human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) offer the opportunity to build NVU models with an explicit genetic background and in the context of disease susceptibility. Herein, we review how iPSCs are being used to model neurovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, with particular focus on contributions of the BBB, and discuss existing technologies and emerging opportunities to merge these iPSC progenies with biomaterials platforms to create complex NVU systems that recreate the in vivo microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison M Bosworth
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Shannon L Faley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Leon M Bellan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Ethan S Lippmann
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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87
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Endothelial cells and lymphatics at the interface between the immune and central nervous systems: implications for multiple sclerosis. Curr Opin Neurol 2018; 30:222-230. [PMID: 28323646 DOI: 10.1097/wco.0000000000000454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The central nervous system (CNS) has a unique relationship with the immune system. This review highlights the distinct roles of lymphatic vessels and endothelial cells in the interface between CNS and immune cells and invites to revisit the concept of CNS immune privilege. RECENT FINDINGS T cells can follow several routes to penetrate the CNS parenchyma but may also benefit, together with antigen-loaded presenting cells, from the newly described lymphatic network to exit the CNS. CNS endothelial cells (EC) critically positioned at the interface between circulating immune cells and the CNS regulate the multistep cascade for immune cell trafficking into the CNS. They can also be considered as semiprofessional antigen-presenting cells through their ability to present antigens to T cells and to regulate their activation through co-stimulatory and inhibitory molecules. SUMMARY The lymphatic network linking the CNS to draining lymph nodes may contribute to the inflammatory reaction occurring in multiple sclerosis (MS). The abundance and strategic positioning of endothelial cells at the blood-brain barrier level most likely endow them with an important role in controlling local adaptive immune responses, rendering them potential therapeutic targets in neuro-inflammatory such as MS.
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88
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Gkikas D, Tsampoula M, Politis PK. Nuclear receptors in neural stem/progenitor cell homeostasis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2017; 74:4097-4120. [PMID: 28638936 PMCID: PMC11107725 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2571-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the central nervous system, embryonic and adult neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs) generate the enormous variety and huge numbers of neuronal and glial cells that provide structural and functional support in the brain and spinal cord. Over the last decades, nuclear receptors and their natural ligands have emerged as critical regulators of NSC homeostasis during embryonic development and adult life. Furthermore, substantial progress has been achieved towards elucidating the molecular mechanisms of nuclear receptors action in proliferative and differentiation capacities of NSCs. Aberrant expression or function of nuclear receptors in NSCs also contributes to the pathogenesis of various nervous system diseases. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the regulatory roles of steroid, non-steroid, and orphan nuclear receptors in NSC fate decisions. These studies establish nuclear receptors as key therapeutic targets in brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Gkikas
- Center for Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, 4 Soranou Efesiou Str, 115 27, Athens, Greece
| | - Matina Tsampoula
- Center for Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, 4 Soranou Efesiou Str, 115 27, Athens, Greece
| | - Panagiotis K Politis
- Center for Basic Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, 4 Soranou Efesiou Str, 115 27, Athens, Greece.
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89
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Qian T, Maguire SE, Canfield SG, Bao X, Olson WR, Shusta EV, Palecek SP. Directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells to blood-brain barrier endothelial cells. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1701679. [PMID: 29134197 PMCID: PMC5677350 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1701679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is composed of specialized endothelial cells that are critical to neurological health. A key tool for understanding human BBB development and its role in neurological disease is a reliable and scalable source of functional brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs). Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) can theoretically generate unlimited quantities of any cell lineage in vitro, including BMECs, for disease modeling, drug screening, and cell-based therapies. We demonstrate a facile, chemically defined method to differentiate hPSCs to BMECs in a developmentally relevant progression via small-molecule activation of key signaling pathways. hPSCs are first induced to mesoderm commitment by activating canonical Wnt signaling. Next, these mesoderm precursors progress to endothelial progenitors, and treatment with retinoic acid leads to acquisition of BBB-specific markers and phenotypes. hPSC-derived BMECs generated via this protocol exhibit endothelial properties, including tube formation and low-density lipoprotein uptake, as well as efflux transporter activities characteristic of BMECs. Notably, these cells exhibit high transendothelial electrical resistance above 3000 ohm·cm2. These hPSC-derived BMECs serve as a robust human in vitro BBB model that can be used to study brain disease and inform therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongcheng Qian
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Shaenah E. Maguire
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Scott G. Canfield
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Xiaoping Bao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - William R. Olson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Eric V. Shusta
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Sean P. Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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90
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Spadoni I, Fornasa G, Rescigno M. Organ-specific protection mediated by cooperation between vascular and epithelial barriers. Nat Rev Immunol 2017; 17:761-773. [PMID: 28869253 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2017.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Immune privilege is a complex process that protects organs from immune-mediated attack and damage. It is accomplished by a series of cellular barriers that both control immune cell entry and promote the development of tolerogenic immune cells. In this Review, we describe the vascular endothelial and epithelial barriers in organs that are commonly considered to be immune privileged, such as the brain and the eye. We compare these classical barriers with barriers in the intestine, which share features with barriers of immune-privileged organs, such as the capacity to induce tolerance and to protect from external insults. We suggest that when intestinal barriers break down, disruption of other barriers at distant sites can ensue, and this may underlie the development of various neurological, metabolic and intestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Spadoni
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Fornasa
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, 20139 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Rescigno
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, 20139 Milan, Italy.,Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy
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91
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Boivin FJ, Schmidt-Ott KM. Transcriptional mechanisms coordinating tight junction assembly during epithelial differentiation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2017. [PMID: 28636799 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial tissues form a selective barrier via direct cell-cell interactions to separate and establish concentration gradients between the different compartments of the body. Proper function and formation of this barrier rely on the establishment of distinct intercellular junction complexes. These complexes include tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. The tight junction is by far the most diverse junctional complex in the epithelial barrier. Its composition varies greatly across different epithelial tissues to confer various barrier properties. Thus, epithelial cells rely on tightly regulated transcriptional mechanisms to ensure proper formation of the epithelial barrier and to achieve tight junction diversity. Here, we review different transcriptional mechanisms utilized during embryogenesis and disease development to promote tight junction assembly and maintenance of intercellular barrier integrity. We focus particularly on the Grainyhead-like transcription factors and ligand-activated nuclear hormone receptors, two central families of proteins in epithelialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix J Boivin
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Kai M Schmidt-Ott
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Nephrology, Charité Medical University, Berlin, Germany
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92
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β-Catenin Is Required for Endothelial Cyp1b1 Regulation Influencing Metabolic Barrier Function. J Neurosci 2017; 36:8921-35. [PMID: 27559173 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0148-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is crucial for blood-brain barrier (BBB) formation in brain endothelial cells. Although glucose transporter 1, claudin-3, and plasmalemma vesicular-associated protein have been identified as Wnt/β-catenin targets in brain endothelial cells, further downstream targets relevant to BBB formation and function are incompletely explored. By Affymetrix expression analysis, we show that the cytochrome P450 enzyme Cyp1b1 was significantly decreased in β-catenin-deficient mouse endothelial cells, whereas its close homolog Cyp1a1 was upregulated in an aryl hydrocarbon receptor-dependent manner, hence indicating that β-catenin is indispensable for Cyp1b1 but not for Cyp1a1 expression. Functionally, Cyp1b1 could generate retinoic acid from retinol leading to cell-autonomous induction of the barrier-related ATP-binding cassette transporter P-glycoprotein. Cyp1b1 could also generate 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid from arachidonic acid, decreasing endothelial barrier function in vitro In mice in vivo pharmacological inhibition of Cyp1b1 increased BBB permeability for small molecular tracers, and Cyp1b1 was downregulated in glioma vessels in which BBB function is lost. Hence, we propose Cyp1b1 as a target of β-catenin indirectly influencing BBB properties via its metabolic activity, and as a potential target for modulating barrier function in endothelial cells. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Wnt/β-catenin signaling is crucial for blood-brain barrier (BBB) development and maintenance; however, its role in regulating metabolic characteristics of endothelial cells is unclear. We provide evidence that β-catenin influences endothelial metabolism by transcriptionally regulating the cytochrome P450 enzyme Cyp1b1 Furthermore, expression of its close homolog Cyp1a1 was inhibited by β-catenin. Functionally, Cyp1b1 generated retinoic acid as well as 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid that regulated P-glycoprotein and junction proteins, respectively, thereby modulating BBB properties. Inhibition of Cyp1b1 in vivo increased BBB permeability being in line with its downregulation in glioma endothelia, potentially implicating Cyp1b1 in other brain pathologies. In conclusion, Wnt/β-catenin signaling regulates endothelial metabolic barrier function through Cyp1b1 transcription.
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93
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Diverse Functions of Retinoic Acid in Brain Vascular Development. J Neurosci 2017; 36:7786-801. [PMID: 27445154 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3952-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED As neural structures grow in size and increase metabolic demand, the CNS vasculature undergoes extensive growth, remodeling, and maturation. Signals from neural tissue act on endothelial cells to stimulate blood vessel ingression, vessel patterning, and acquisition of mature brain vascular traits, most notably the blood-brain barrier. Using mouse genetic and in vitro approaches, we identified retinoic acid (RA) as an important regulator of brain vascular development via non-cell-autonomous and cell-autonomous regulation of endothelial WNT signaling. Our analysis of globally RA-deficient embryos (Rdh10 mutants) points to an important, non-cell-autonomous function for RA in the development of the vasculature in the neocortex. We demonstrate that Rdh10 mutants have severe defects in cerebrovascular development and that this phenotype correlates with near absence of endothelial WNT signaling, specifically in the cerebrovasculature, and substantially elevated expression of WNT inhibitors in the neocortex. We show that RA can suppress the expression of WNT inhibitors in neocortical progenitors. Analysis of vasculature in non-neocortical brain regions suggested that RA may have a separate, cell-autonomous function in brain endothelial cells to inhibit WNT signaling. Using both gain and loss of RA signaling approaches, we show that RA signaling in brain endothelial cells can inhibit WNT-β-catenin transcriptional activity and that this is required to moderate the expression of WNT target Sox17. From this, a model emerges in which RA acts upstream of the WNT pathway via non-cell-autonomous and cell-autonomous mechanisms to ensure the formation of an adequate and stable brain vascular plexus. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Work presented here provides novel insight into important yet little understood aspects of brain vascular development, implicating for the first time a factor upstream of endothelial WNT signaling. We show that RA is permissive for cerebrovascular growth via suppression of WNT inhibitor expression in the neocortex. RA also functions cell-autonomously in brain endothelial cells to modulate WNT signaling and its downstream target, Sox17. The significance of this is although endothelial WNT signaling is required for neurovascular development, too much endothelial WNT signaling, as well as overexpression of its target Sox17, are detrimental. Therefore, RA may act as a "brake" on endothelial WNT signaling and Sox17 to ensure normal brain vascular development.
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94
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Lauschke K, Frederiksen L, Hall VJ. Paving the Way Toward Complex Blood-Brain Barrier Models Using Pluripotent Stem Cells. Stem Cells Dev 2017; 26:857-874. [PMID: 28398169 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2017.0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A tissue with great need to be modeled in vitro is the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is a tight barrier that covers all blood vessels in the brain and separates the brain microenvironment from the blood system. It consists of three cell types [neurovascular unit (NVU)] that contribute to the unique tightness and selective permeability of the BBB and has been shown to be disrupted in many diseases and brain disorders, such as vascular dementia, stroke, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. Given the progress that pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have made in the past two decades, it is now possible to produce many cell types from the BBB and even partially recapitulate this complex tissue in vitro. In this review, we summarize the most recent developments in PSC differentiation and modeling of the BBB. We also suggest how patient-specific human-induced PSCs could be used to model BBB dysfunction in the future. Lastly, we provide perspectives on how to improve production of the BBB in vitro, for example by improving pericyte differentiation protocols and by better modeling the NVU in the dish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Lauschke
- 1 National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- 2 Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lise Frederiksen
- 3 Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , København N, Denmark
| | - Vanessa Jane Hall
- 4 Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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95
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Bonney S, Siegenthaler JA. Differential Effects of Retinoic Acid Concentrations in Regulating Blood-Brain Barrier Properties. eNeuro 2017; 4:ENEURO.0378-16.2017. [PMID: 28560318 PMCID: PMC5446490 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0378-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a multifaceted property of the brain vasculature that protects the brain and maintains homeostasis by tightly regulating the flux of ions, molecules, and cells across the vasculature. Blood vessels in the brain are formed by endothelial cells that acquire barrier properties, such as tight and adherens junctions, soon after the brain vasculature is formed. Endothelial WNT signaling is crucial to induce these BBB properties by regulating their expression and stabilization. Recent studies have implicated retinoic acid (RA) signaling in BBB development and shown that pharmacological concentrations of RA (≥5 µm) can induce BBB properties in cultured brain endothelial cells. However, a recent study demonstrated that RA inhibits endothelial WNT signaling during brain development, suggesting that RA does not promote BBB properties. We therefore investigated whether RA plays a physiological role in BBB development. We found that BBB function and junctional protein expression was unaffected in mouse mutants that have a reduced capacity to synthesize RA (Rdh10 mutants). Furthermore, embryos exposed to a RA-enriched diet did not enhance BBB protein expression. Together, our data indicate that RA is not capable of inducing, nor is it required for, BBB protein expression in vivo. Like other studies, we found that pharmacological concentrations of RA induce BBB genes in cultured murine brain endothelial cells, and this may involve activation of the LXR/RXR signaling pathway. Our data do not support a role for RA in BBB development, but confirm reports that pharmacological RA is a robust tool to induce BBB properties in culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Bonney
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Developmental Biology School of Medicine Aurora, University of Colorado, CO 80045
| | - Julie A Siegenthaler
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Developmental Biology School of Medicine Aurora, University of Colorado, CO 80045
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96
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Haddad-Tóvolli R, Dragano NRV, Ramalho AFS, Velloso LA. Development and Function of the Blood-Brain Barrier in the Context of Metabolic Control. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:224. [PMID: 28484368 PMCID: PMC5399017 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Under physiological conditions, the brain consumes over 20% of the whole body energy supply. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) allows dynamic interactions between blood capillaries and the neuronal network in order to provide an adequate control of molecules that are transported in and out of the brain. Alterations in the BBB structure and function affecting brain accessibility to nutrients and exit of toxins are found in a number of diseases, which in turn may disturb brain function and nutrient signaling. In this review we explore the major advances obtained in the understanding of the BBB development and how its structure impacts on function. Furthermore, we focus on the particularities of the barrier permeability in the hypothalamus, its role in metabolic control and the potential impact of hypothalamic BBB abnormities in metabolic related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Haddad-Tóvolli
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling and Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of CampinasCampinas, Brazil
| | | | | | - Licio A. Velloso
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling and Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of CampinasCampinas, Brazil
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Canfield SG, Stebbins MJ, Morales BS, Asai SW, Vatine GD, Svendsen CN, Palecek SP, Shusta EV. An isogenic blood-brain barrier model comprising brain endothelial cells, astrocytes, and neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. J Neurochem 2017; 140:874-888. [PMID: 27935037 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is critical in maintaining a physical and metabolic barrier between the blood and the brain. The BBB consists of brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) that line the brain vasculature and combine with astrocytes, neurons and pericytes to form the neurovascular unit. We hypothesized that astrocytes and neurons generated from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) could induce BBB phenotypes in iPSC-derived BMECs, creating a robust multicellular human BBB model. To this end, iPSCs were used to form neural progenitor-like EZ-spheres, which were in turn differentiated to neurons and astrocytes, enabling facile neural cell generation. The iPSC-derived astrocytes and neurons induced barrier tightening in primary rat BMECs indicating their BBB inductive capacity. When co-cultured with human iPSC-derived BMECs, the iPSC-derived neurons and astrocytes significantly elevated trans-endothelial electrical resistance, reduced passive permeability, and improved tight junction continuity in the BMEC cell population, while p-glycoprotein efflux transporter activity was unchanged. A physiologically relevant neural cell mixture of one neuron: three astrocytes yielded optimal BMEC induction properties. Finally, an isogenic multicellular BBB model was successfully demonstrated employing BMECs, astrocytes, and neurons from the same donor iPSC source. It is anticipated that such an isogenic facsimile of the human BBB could have applications in furthering understanding the cellular interplay of the neurovascular unit in both healthy and diseased humans. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 843.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott G Canfield
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Matthew J Stebbins
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Bethsymarie Soto Morales
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Shusaku W Asai
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Gad D Vatine
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Clive N Svendsen
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Board of Governors Regenerative Medicine Institute, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Sean P Palecek
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Eric V Shusta
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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98
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Al-Kurdi B. Hierarchical transcriptional profile of urothelial cells development and differentiation. Differentiation 2017; 95:10-20. [PMID: 28135607 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Revised: 10/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The urothelial lining of the lower urinary tract is the most efficient permeability barrier in animals, exhibiting a highly differentiated phenotype and a remarkable regenerative capacity upon wounding. During development and possibly during repair, cells undergo a sequence of hierarchical transcriptional events that mark the transition of these cells from the least differentiated urothelial phenotype characteristic of the basal cell layer, to the most differentiated cellular phenotype characteristic of the superficial cell layer. Unraveling normal urothelial differentiation program is essential to uncover the underlying causes of many congenital abnormalities and for the development of an appropriate differentiation niche for stem cells, for future use in urinary tract tissue engineering and organ reconstruction. Kruppel like factor-5 appears to be at the top of the hierarchy activating several downstream transcription factors, the most prominent of which is peroxisome proliferator activator receptor-γ. Eventually those lead to the activation of transcription factors that directly regulate the expression of uroplakin proteins along with other proteins that mediate the permeability function of the urothelium. In this review, we discuss the most recent findings in the area of urothelial cellular differentiation and transcriptional regulation, aiming for a comprehensive overview that aids in a refined understanding of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ban Al-Kurdi
- Cell Therapy Center, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan.
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99
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New Insights Into the Roles of Retinoic Acid Signaling in Nervous System Development and the Establishment of Neurotransmitter Systems. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 330:1-84. [PMID: 28215529 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Secreted chiefly from the underlying mesoderm, the morphogen retinoic acid (RA) is well known to contribute to the specification, patterning, and differentiation of neural progenitors in the developing vertebrate nervous system. Furthermore, RA influences the subtype identity and neurotransmitter phenotype of subsets of maturing neurons, although relatively little is known about how these functions are mediated. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the roles played by RA signaling during the formation of the central and peripheral nervous systems of vertebrates and highlights its effects on the differentiation of several neurotransmitter systems. In addition, the evolutionary history of the RA signaling system is discussed, revealing both conserved properties and alternate modes of RA action. It is proposed that comparative approaches should be employed systematically to expand our knowledge of the context-dependent cellular mechanisms controlled by the multifunctional signaling molecule RA.
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100
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Mantle JL, Min L, Lee KH. Minimum Transendothelial Electrical Resistance Thresholds for the Study of Small and Large Molecule Drug Transport in a Human in Vitro Blood-Brain Barrier Model. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:4191-4198. [PMID: 27934481 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A human cell-based in vitro model that can accurately predict drug penetration into the brain as well as metrics to assess these in vitro models are valuable for the development of new therapeutics. Here, human induced pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are differentiated into a polarized monolayer that express blood-brain barrier (BBB)-specific proteins and have transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) values greater than 2500 Ω·cm2. By assessing the permeabilities of several known drugs, a benchmarking system to evaluate brain permeability of drugs was established. Furthermore, relationships between TEER and permeability to both small and large molecules were established, demonstrating that different minimum TEER thresholds must be achieved to study the brain transport of these two classes of drugs. This work demonstrates that this hPSC-derived BBB model exhibits an in vivo-like phenotype, and the benchmarks established here are useful for assessing functionality of other in vitro BBB models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Mantle
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware , 15 Innovation Way, Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
| | - Lie Min
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware , 15 Innovation Way, Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
| | - Kelvin H Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware , 15 Innovation Way, Newark, Delaware 19711, United States
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