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Ishihara T, Nakajima T, Yamatsu K, Okita K, Sagawa M, Morita N. Relationship of participation in specific sports to academic performance in adolescents: A 2-year longitudinal study. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2020; 30:1471-1482. [PMID: 32350922 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Physical activity is considered a promising behavior to improve cognitive function and academic performance in adolescents. As evidence on the relationship of specific sports activity is not conclusive, this study aimed to determine the longitudinal relationships of different sports to academic performance in adolescents and evaluate the cardiorespiratory fitness mediation effect of these sports. We focused on the demands of complex motor skills and the differences between individual sports vs team sports. Four hundred and sixty-three 7th-grade students (227 girls and 236 boys) were followed up over 2 years. Data regarding participation in sports activities, types of sports activities, academic performance, and cardiorespiratory fitness were obtained at baseline and after a 2-year follow-up. Structural equation modeling revealed that participation in all sports activity was positively associated with improvement of academic performance from baseline to follow-up, and that these associations were mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness gains. Participation in sports activities that require more complex motor skills and individual sports activity was directly associated with an improvement of academic performance from baseline to follow-up. Furthermore, quitting sports activities was negatively associated with academic performance via a reversal in cardiorespiratory fitness gains. These findings indicate that participation in specific sports may have significant benefits for academic performance in adolescents. Although these relationships are presumably mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness, sports activities that require more complex motor skills and individual sports participation may be directly related to academic performance. Considering that quitting sports activities reversed these benefits, sustained participation in sports is important for academic success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Ishihara
- Tamagawa University Brain Science Institute, Tokyo, Japan.,Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Nakajima
- Department of Teachers Training, Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Koji Yamatsu
- Faculty of Education, Saga University, Saga, Japan
| | - Koichi Okita
- Department of Sport Education, Hokusho University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Masato Sagawa
- Department of Sports Cultural Studies, Hokkaido University of Education, Iwamizawa, Japan
| | - Noriteru Morita
- Department of Sports Cultural Studies, Hokkaido University of Education, Iwamizawa, Japan
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52
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Leshem R, De Fano A, Ben-Soussan TD. The Implications of Motor and Cognitive Inhibition for Hot and Cool Executive Functions: The Case of Quadrato Motor Training. Front Psychol 2020; 11:940. [PMID: 32508720 PMCID: PMC7250031 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enabling the ceasing of ongoing or prepotent responses and the controlling of interference, motor inhibition facilitates the development of executive functions (EFs) such as thought before action, decision-making, self-regulation of affect, motivation, and arousal. In the current paper, a characterization is offered of the relationship between motor inhibition and the executive functioning system, in the context of a proposed division into predominantly affective (hot) and cognitive (cool) components corresponding to neural trajectories originating in the prefrontal cortex. This division is central to understanding the effects of a specifically-structured sensorimotor movement training practice, known as Quadrato Motor Training (QMT), on hot and cool EFs. QMT's effects on crucial mechanisms of integrating different EF components are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Leshem
- Department of Criminology, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Antonio De Fano
- Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation, Assisi, Italy
| | - Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan
- Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation, Assisi, Italy
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53
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Sartori RF, Valentini NC, Fonseca RP. Executive function in children with and without developmental coordination disorder: A comparative study. Child Care Health Dev 2020; 46:294-302. [PMID: 31845379 DOI: 10.1111/cch.12734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children with motor impairments also show poor performance in some executive functions' components. However, there is no consensus on which specific executive subdomain is more impacted. AIM The objective of this study was to compare executive functions in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), at risk for DCD (r-DCD), and in typically developing (TD) children. METHODS AND PROCEDURES A sample of 397 children was assessed using the MABC-2. Two groups of children were identified; DCD (n = 63) and at r-DCD (n = 31). A third matched group of children with TD (n = 63) was formed. The MABC-2 checklist and the WASI tests were used as screening tools. Measures of executive function including verbal and nonverbal tasks for working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility were tested. Multivariate analysis of variance followed by analyses of variance and Bonferroni tests were used to verify group effects on executive functions. RESULTS A significant group effects were found for Working Memory, Λ = .78, F(4, 360) = 10.12, p ≤ .001, ηp2 = .12; Inhibitory Control, Λ = .59, F(16, 294) = 5.48, p ≤ .001, ηp2 = .23; and Cognitive Flexibility and Inhibitory Control, Λ = .60, F(22, 288) = 3.74, p ≤ .001, ηp2 = .22, with moderate effect sizes. The DCD group showed lower scores compared with the TD group on the visuospatial and verbal working memory; inhibitory control and in tasks of cognitive flexibility; the r-DCD group showed lower scores compared with the TD group for visuospatial working memory and for cognitive flexibility. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Poor performance in several measures of executive functions in children with DCD emphasized the need of motor/executive task-specific interventions. Furthermore, children at r-DCD showed low scores in several executive functions; therefore, preventive services should also be provided for this subclinical group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Flores Sartori
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.,Department of Physical Education, Serra Gaucha University, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Nadia Cristina Valentini
- Department of Physical Education, School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alfegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Rochele Paz Fonseca
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
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Effects of the Enriched Sports Activities-Program on Executive Functions in Italian Children. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2020; 5:jfmk5020026. [PMID: 33467242 PMCID: PMC7739327 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk5020026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical activity (PA) during childhood plays an important role in brain development. This role is played in both the structural domain, prefrontal cortex area, and in the functional domain, involving the higher cognitive functions, including the executive functions (EF). Working memory (WM), inhibition, and switching as fundamental EF were investigated in an Italian children sample before and after four months of an Enriched Sports Activities-Program (ESA-Program). EFs were assessed at pre-test and post-test using, respectively, the digit span test, the color word Stroop test, and the trail making test derived from Millisecond Software. The Italian sample was composed of 141 children aged 8.54 years. The intervention group (IG) was composed of 61 children and the control group (CG) of 80 children. Significant differences in WM (p < 0.05) were found in the IG following the ESA-Program intervention. Children's performance improved both in forward digit span (FDS1 mean difference = 0.26; p = 0.04; FDS2 mean difference = 0.21; p = 0.01) and backward digit span (BDS2 mean difference = 0.14; p = 0.02). No significant improvements were observed for inhibition and switching processes (p > 0.05). Since this finding suggests that brain functioning is sensitive to lifestyle factors, such as PA, an essential goal for ESA-Program is to emphasize the importance of PA to enhance cognitive skills in childhood and prevent sedentary life.
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van der Fels IMJ, Smith J, de Bruijn AGM, Bosker RJ, Königs M, Oosterlaan J, Visscher C, Hartman E. Relations between gross motor skills and executive functions, controlling for the role of information processing and lapses of attention in 8-10 year old children. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224219. [PMID: 31648263 PMCID: PMC6812776 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to systematically investigate the relation between gross motor skills and aspects of executive functioning (i.e. verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, response inhibition and interference control) in 8-10 year old children. Additionally, the role of information processing (speed and variability) and lapses of attention in the relation between gross motor skills and executive functions was investigated. Data of 732 Dutch children from grade 3 and 4 were analyzed (50.0% boys, 50.4% grade 3, age = 9.16 ± 0.64 years). Gross motor skills were assessed using three items of the Körper Koordinationstest für Kinder and one item of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. Executive functions were assessed using the Wechsler Digit Span task (verbal working memory), the Visuospatial Memory task (visuospatial working memory), the Stop Signal task (response inhibition) and a modified version of the Flanker task (interference control). Information processing and lapses of attention were obtained by applying an ex-Gaussian analysis on go trials of the Stop Signal task. Multilevel regression analysis showed that gross motor skills were significantly related to verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory and response inhibition, but not to interference control. Lapses of attention was a significant predictor for all executive functions, whereas processing speed was not. Variability in processing speed was only predictive for visuospatial working memory. After controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills were only significantly related to visuospatial working memory and response inhibition. The results suggest that after controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills are related to aspects of executive functions that are most directly involved in, and share common underlying processes with, gross motor skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene M. J. van der Fels
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joanne Smith
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anne G. M. de Bruijn
- University of Groningen, Groningen Institute for Educational Research, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Roel J. Bosker
- University of Groningen, Groningen Institute for Educational Research, Groningen, The Netherlands
- University of Groningen, Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Department of Educational Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marsh Königs
- Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Emma Neuroscience Group, Department of Pediatrics, Amsterdam Reproduction & Development, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jaap Oosterlaan
- Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Emma Neuroscience Group, Department of Pediatrics, Amsterdam Reproduction & Development, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Clinical Neuropsychology Section, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- VU University Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chris Visscher
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Hartman
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands
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Hillman CH, McAuley E, Erickson KI, Liu-Ambrose T, Kramer AF. On mindful and mindless physical activity and executive function: A response to Diamond and Ling (2016). Dev Cogn Neurosci 2019; 37:100529. [PMID: 30318345 PMCID: PMC6969305 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Arthur F Kramer
- Northeastern University, United States; University of Illinois, United States
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57
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Diamond A, Ling DS. Aerobic-Exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2019; 37:100572. [PMID: 29909061 PMCID: PMC6969311 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Adele Diamond
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Daphne S Ling
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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58
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Johnstone A, Hughes AR, Bonnar L, Booth JN, Reilly JJ. An active play intervention to improve physical activity and fundamental movement skills in children of low socio-economic status: feasibility cluster randomised controlled trial. Pilot Feasibility Stud 2019; 5:45. [PMID: 30915229 PMCID: PMC6417079 DOI: 10.1186/s40814-019-0427-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Active play is a novel approach to addressing low physical activity levels and fundamental movement skills (FMS) in childhood and new interventions must be developed and evaluated. Aim This study aimed to determine the feasibility of a 10-week school-based ‘active play’ intervention, and present preliminary findings on four outcomes: physical activity levels, FMS, inhibition, and maths fluency. Methods This was a feasibility cluster RCT in which eight schools (one primary three class per school) were paired and randomly allocated to either the 10-week intervention (n = 4) or waiting-list control (n = 4). The active play intervention consisted of a 1-h outdoor physical activity session per week, incorporating 30 min of facilitated games and 30 min of free play. Feasibility measures were gathered using appropriate methods and physical activity was measured using an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer, FMS were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), inhibition was measured using a Flanker Test and maths fluency was assessed using the One Minute Basic Number Facts Test. Results Sixty-six percent of eligible children (n = 137) agreed to participate in the research. No schools withdrew from the study and three participants were lost to follow-up. Compliance to the intervention was high—none of the participants missed more than two of the ten scheduled active play sessions. Data lost to follow-up were minimal; most were lost (14%) for school day physical activity. Active play sessions were shorter than planned on average by 10 min, and participants spent a mean of 39.4% (14.2) of the session time in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA). There was preliminary evidence of a small intervention effect on MVPA (d = 0.3), FMS score (d = 0.4), inhibition (fish trial: d = 0.1, arrow trial d = 0.1) and maths fluency (addition: d = 0.3, subtraction: d = 0.1). Conclusion The active play intervention was feasible and benefitted from a relatively high MVPA content; however, preliminary findings suggest the intervention had a small effect on the outcomes. Having more active play sessions per week and/or extending the duration of the intervention may increase the effects and these should be tested before a future definitive cluster RCT is undertaken. Trial registration This trial was registered on the International Standardised Randomised Controlled Trials Number register (ISRCTN) in August 2017 (ISRCTN11607781).
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Affiliation(s)
- Avril Johnstone
- 1Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland G1 1QE UK
| | - Adrienne R Hughes
- 1Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland G1 1QE UK
| | - Lizann Bonnar
- 2School of Psychological Sciences and Health, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland G1 1QE UK
| | - Josie N Booth
- 3Moray House School of Education and Sport, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH8 8AQ UK
| | - John J Reilly
- 1Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland G1 1QE UK
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59
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Ball NJ, Mercado E, Orduña I. Enriched Environments as a Potential Treatment for Developmental Disorders: A Critical Assessment. Front Psychol 2019; 10:466. [PMID: 30894830 PMCID: PMC6414413 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The beneficial effects of enriched environments have been established through a long history of research. Enrichment of the living conditions of captive animals in the form of larger cages, sensory stimulating objects, and opportunities for social interaction and physical exercise, has been shown to reduce emotional reactivity, ameliorate abnormal behaviors, and enhance cognitive functioning. Recently, environmental enrichment research has been extended to humans, in part due to growing interest in its potential therapeutic benefits for children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). This paper reviews the history of enriched environment research and the use of enriched environments as a developmental intervention in studies of both NDD animal models and children. We argue that while environmental enrichment may sometimes benefit children with NDDs, several methodological factors need to be more closely considered before the efficacy of this approach can be adequately evaluated, including: (i) operationally defining and standardizing enriched environment treatments across studies; (ii) use of control groups and better control over potentially confounding variables; and (iii) a comprehensive theoretical framework capable of predicting when and how environmental enrichment will alter the trajectory of NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie J Ball
- Neural and Cognitive Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Eduardo Mercado
- Neural and Cognitive Plasticity Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Itzel Orduña
- Department of School and Counseling Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States
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60
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Xue Y, Yang Y, Huang T. Effects of chronic exercise interventions on executive function among children and adolescents: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53:1397-1404. [PMID: 30737201 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To synthesise randomised controlled trials (RCTs) regarding the effects of chronic exercise interventions on different domain-specific executive functions (EFs) among children and adolescents. DESIGN Systematic review with meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES PsycINFO, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Academic Search Premier, Embase and Web of Science were searched. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES RCTs or cluster RCT design, which employ chronic exercise interventions and target healthy children (age 6-12 years) and adolescents (age 13-17 years). We defined chronic exercise as physical activity (PA) which consists of multiple exercise sessions per week and lasts for an extended period of time (typically over 6 weeks). RESULTS We included 19 studies, with a total of 5038 participants. The results showed that chronic exercise interventions improved overall EFs (standardised mean difference (SMD)=0.20, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.30, p<0.05) and inhibitory control (SMD=0.26, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.45, P<0.05). In meta regression, higher body mass index was associated with greater improvements in overall EFs performance (β=0.03, 95% CI 0.0002 to 0.06, p<0.05), whereas age and exercise duration were not. In subgroup analysis by intervention modality, sports and PA programme (SMD=0.21, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.31, p<0.05) and curricular PA (SMD=0.39, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.69, p<0.05) improved overall EFs performance, but integrated PA did not (SMD=0.02, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.09, p>0.05). Interventions with a session length < 90 minutes improved overall EFs performance (SMD=0.24, 95%CI 0.10 to 0.39, p=0.02), but session length ≥ 90 minutes did not (SMD=0.05, 95%CI -0.03 to 0.14). No other moderator was found to have an effect. CONCLUSIONS Despite small effect sizes, chronic exercise interventions, implemented in curricular or sports and PA programme settings, might be a promising way to promote multiple aspects of executive functions, especially inhibitory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xue
- Department of Physical Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - Yanxiang Yang
- Department of Physical Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Tao Huang
- Department of Physical Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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Ludyga S, Koutsandréou F, Reuter EM, Voelcker-Rehage C, Budde H. A Randomized Controlled Trial on the Effects of Aerobic and Coordinative Training on Neural Correlates of Inhibitory Control in Children. J Clin Med 2019; 8:E184. [PMID: 30720733 PMCID: PMC6406880 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas aerobic training has found to be beneficial for inhibitory control, less is known on the efficiency of other exercise types in children. The present study compared the effects of aerobic and coordinative training on behavioral and neurophysiological measures of inhibitory control. Forty-five children were randomly assigned (1:1:1 ratio) to groups performing aerobic training, coordinative training or assisted homework sessions over 10 weeks. Before and after intervention, all participants completed a Flanker task. The P300 component of event-related potentials elicited from the task was recorded via electroencephalography. Additionally, aerobic fitness and gross-motor skills were assessed using 20 m Shuttle Run and Heidelberg Gross-Motor Test, respectively. Statistical analyses revealed no time by group interactions for the P300 component (amplitude, latency), p = 0.976, η² = 0.007, and behavioral performance (reaction time, accuracy), p = 0.570, η² = 0.045. In contrast, there was a significant group-difference in pre- to post-test changes in aerobic fitness, p = 0.008, η² = 0.246, with greater improvements following aerobic and coordinative training compared to assisted homework sessions. In conclusion, no differences regarding the efficiency of aerobic and coordinative training for the enhancement of inhibitory control were found as both exercise programs failed to elicit changes in speed and accuracy of stimulus evaluation and the allocation of attentional resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ludyga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, 4052 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Flora Koutsandréou
- Faculty of Human Sciences, Medical School Hamburg, 20457 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Eva-Maria Reuter
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Claudia Voelcker-Rehage
- Institute of Human Movement Science and Health, Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany.
| | - Henning Budde
- Faculty of Human Sciences, Medical School Hamburg, 20457 Hamburg, Germany.
- Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, 44221 Kaunas, Lithuania.
- Physical Activity, Physical Education, Health and Sport Research Centre (PAPESH), Sports Science Department, School of Science and Engineering, Reykjavik University, IS-101 Reykjavik, Iceland.
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Sánchez-López M, Cavero-Redondo I, Álvarez-Bueno C, Ruiz-Hermosa A, Pozuelo-Carrascosa DP, Díez-Fernández A, Gutierrez-Díaz Del Campo D, Pardo-Guijarro MJ, Martínez-Vizcaíno V. Impact of a multicomponent physical activity intervention on cognitive performance: The MOVI-KIDS study. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2019; 29:766-775. [PMID: 30632640 DOI: 10.1111/sms.13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study examined the impact of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention (MOVI-KIDS) on improving cognition in schoolchildren. This paper also analyzed the mediator role of motor fitness between MOVI-KIDS and cognition. METHODS Propensity score analysis of data from a cluster randomized controlled trial (MOVI-KIDS study). This analysis including 240 5-7 years old children from nine schools in the provinces of Cuenca and Ciudad Real, Spain. MOVI-KIDS program consisted of: (a) three weekly after-school sessions of recreational non-competitive PA lasting 60 minutes during one academic year, (b) educational materials for parents and teachers, and (c) school playground modifications. Changes in cognition (logical reasoning, verbal factor, numerical factor, spatial factor, and general intelligence) were measured. A propensity score cross-cluster matching procedure and mediation analysis (Hayes's PROCESS macro) were conducted. RESULTS All cognitive variables pre-post mean changes were significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) in children from intervention schools than those from control schools (effect size ranged from 0.33 to 1.48). The effect of the intervention on the spatial factor and general intelligence was partially mediated by motor fitness (indirect effect = 0.92, 95% CI: 0.36; 1.65; and indirect effect = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.06; 2.62, respectively). CONCLUSIONS This study shows that a one-school-year multicomponent intervention consisting of a recreational non-competitive PA program, educational materials for parents and teachers, and school playground modifications improved the cognition of first-grade children. Further, our results suggest that the effect of the intervention on cognition was mediated by changes in motor fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mairena Sánchez-López
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain.,Faculty of Education, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Iván Cavero-Redondo
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Celia Álvarez-Bueno
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Abel Ruiz-Hermosa
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain.,Faculty of Education, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | | | - Ana Díez-Fernández
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain.,Faculty of Nursing, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain
| | | | - María Jesús Pardo-Guijarro
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain.,Faculty of Education, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Vicente Martínez-Vizcaíno
- Social and Health Care Research Center, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, Spain.,Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Battaglia G, Alesi M, Tabacchi G, Palma A, Bellafiore M. The Development of Motor and Pre-literacy Skills by a Physical Education Program in Preschool Children: A Non-randomized Pilot Trial. Front Psychol 2019; 9:2694. [PMID: 30687164 PMCID: PMC6333915 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is known in the literature that fundamental motor skill acquisition is strongly associated with the development of neuromotor, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects in childhood. Unfortunately, in Italy, the physical education teacher is not included in the school's core personnel, and it is very hard to find a specific physical education program (PEP) that could improve preschool children's motor and cognitive status. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the quotient of gross motor development (QGMD) and pre-literacy skills concerning visual analysis and spatial orientation abilities changed after 16 weeks of PEP (2 h/week) in preschool children. We conducted a school-based non-randomized pilot trial. It involved 119 preschool children, clustered in a control group [CG, n = 29, body mass index (BMI): 16.90 ± 3.16 Kg/m2] and an intervention group (IG, n = 90, BMI: 16.00 ± 1.75 kg/m2). Participants were assessed for literacy readiness, locomotor and object control skills before and after the experimental period. IG increased the locomotor, object-control skills and QGMD in response to PEP. As concerns the pre-literacy domain, no significant difference was found in visual analysis and spatial orientation skills between IG and CG groups. However, we detected improvements from baseline to post-test in IG children. In conclusion, this study contributes additional evidence suggesting how a PEP could affect not only motor skills, but also cognitive ones. Consistently with the growing research, interventions based on structured ludic-motor activities ensure health benefits for preschool children. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT01274117.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Battaglia
- Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Regional Sports School of CONI Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Marianna Alesi
- Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Garden Tabacchi
- Department of Sciences for Health Promotion and Mother Child Care “G. D’Alessandro”, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonio Palma
- Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Regional Sports School of CONI Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Marianna Bellafiore
- Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- Regional Sports School of CONI Sicilia, Palermo, Italy
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Tompsett C, Sanders R, Taylor C, Cobley S. Pedagogical Approaches to and Effects of Fundamental Movement Skill Interventions on Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2018; 47:1795-1819. [PMID: 28213755 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0697-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are assumed to be the basic prerequisite motor movements underpinning coordination of more integrated and advanced movement capabilities. FMS development and interventions have been associated with several beneficial health outcomes in individual studies. OBJECTIVE The primary aim of this review was to identify FMS intervention characteristics that could be optimised to attain beneficial outcomes in children and adolescents, while the secondary aim was to update the evidence as to the efficacy of FMS interventions on physiological, psychological and behavioural health outcomes. METHODS A systematic search [adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines] was conducted in seven databases. Studies were included if they conducted an FMS intervention and targeted at least one physiological, behavioural or psychological outcome in school-aged children (5-18 years). RESULTS Twenty-nine studies examining the effect of FMS interventions relative to controls were identified. Specialist-led interventions, taught in conjunction with at-home practice and parent involvement, appeared more efficacious in enhancing FMS proficiency than school physical education alone. Intervention environments encouraging psychological autonomy were likely to enhance perceived and actual competence in FMS alongside physical activity. FMS interventions had little influence on overweight/obesity reduction, strength or flexibility. In 93% of studies, evidence indicated interventions improved FMS motor proficiency. Favourable specific physiological, psychological and behavioural outcomes were also identified across a variety of interventions. CONCLUSION With reference to clinical and normative school-age populations, future studies should be directed toward determining validated standard FMS assessments to enable accurate effect estimates, permit intervention comparisons and improve the efficacy of FMS development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Tompsett
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Exercise and Sport Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia.
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Exercise and Sport Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia
| | - Caitlin Taylor
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Exercise and Sport Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia
| | - Stephen Cobley
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Exercise and Sport Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia
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Mavilidi MF, Ruiter M, Schmidt M, Okely AD, Loyens S, Chandler P, Paas F. A Narrative Review of School-Based Physical Activity for Enhancing Cognition and Learning: The Importance of Relevancy and Integration. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2079. [PMID: 30464752 PMCID: PMC6234858 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Engaging in regular physical activity can have substantial cognitive and academic benefits for children, and is generally promoted for its beneficial effects on children's physical and mental health. Although embodied cognition research has convincingly shown the integral relationship of the human body and mind, in schools physical activity and cognitive activity are typically treated as unrelated processes. Consequently, most physical activities used are neither sufficiently relevant for nor fully integrated into the learning tasks. In reviewing the literature regarding the integration of physical activity into education to promote cognition and learning, two main lines of research emerged: exercise and cognition research vs. embodied cognition research. In this narrative review, we describe these two separately evolved schools of thought, highlighting their differences and commonalities. In categorising the existing studies on a 2 × 2 matrix, concerning the two main categories of relevance for and integration into the learning task, it becomes clear where the different foci lie, and how both lines of research could profit from learning from each other. Finally, a new instructional model that integrates task-relevant physical activities into the cognitive/learning task is proposed to inform both further research and educational practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myrto Foteini Mavilidi
- Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
- Early Start Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Margina Ruiter
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mirko Schmidt
- Institute of Sport Science, Universität Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anthony D. Okely
- Early Start Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Sofie Loyens
- University College Roosevelt, Utrecht University, Middelburg, Netherlands
| | - Paul Chandler
- Early Start Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Fred Paas
- Early Start Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
- Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Agostini F, Minelli M, Mandolesi R. Outdoor Education in Italian Kindergartens: How Teachers Perceive Child Developmental Trajectories. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1911. [PMID: 30369896 PMCID: PMC6194191 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Outdoor Education (OE) refers to organized experiential education that takes place in the outdoor, characterized by action-centered and thematic learning processes. Literature shows how OE may have beneficial effects on different areas of child development, including cognitive abilities, social skills, and motor development. This relationship is not necessarily linear, but moderated by different variables. Until now, few studies have examined, using rigorous methods, the role of OE in children's development and studies of preschool aged children remain lacking. The current study aimed to explore teachers' perceptions of children's developmental trajectories over 2 school years, investigating whether teachers' perceptions differed between two kindergartens, one characterized by a consolidated OE approach and the other one characterized by a more traditional method of education. The sample was composed of 20 teachers, evaluating 93 children aged 3–5 (M = 46.95 months, SD = 6.73; 42 males): 13 teachers were from a traditional kindergarten (Traditional Group- TG) and evaluated 52 children; 7 teachers were from an OE kindergarten (Outdoor Group—OE) and observed 41 children. All the teachers completed the Kuno Beller Developmental Tables (Mantovani, 1995), in order to describe specific child developmental areas in 4 consecutive moments during 2 school years (T1-T2: January-May 2014; T3-T4: October 2014-May 2015). The 20 teachers also completed the “Outdoor Activities/Trips Diary,” an instrument created for this study to collect qualitative data on the characteristics of outdoor activities. Results showed that, in all the developmental areas, OE teachers perceived higher scores over time were found for the Outdoor Group compared to the Traditional one. Specifically, GLM ANOVAs Repeated Measures revealed a significant interaction of the 2 variables Time and Groups (p < 0.001): contrast analyses showed that OE children, compared to the TG children, were perceived by their teachers with higher levels in all developmental areas at T1 and T2, but not at T3 and T4. The findings suggest that the OE activites, compared to indoor ones and according to teachers' perceptions, offer greater opportunities to promote the child's development at different levels, especially when children are younger. Future studies are recommended analyzing possible moderating variables and long term effects of OE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Agostini
- Department of Psychology, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marianna Minelli
- Department of Psychology, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Roberta Mandolesi
- Department of Psychology, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Ludyga S, Pühse U, Gerber M, Herrmann C. Core executive functions are selectively related to different facets of motor competence in preadolescent children. Eur J Sport Sci 2018; 19:375-383. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1529826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ludyga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Uwe Pühse
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Markus Gerber
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Herrmann
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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When Children’s Perceived and Actual Motor Competence Mismatch: Sport Participation and Gender Differences. JOURNAL OF MOTOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1123/jmld.2016-0081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the (mis)match between children’s perceived and actual motor skill competence, the role played by sport practice and gender when children under- or overestimate their motor competence, and the biomechanical correlates of perceived competence and perceived–actual competence (mis)match. Ninety children aged 7.5±1.2 years performed the Tests of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), with a subsample of 44 children wearing inertial sensor devices for objective measurement of running and throwing, and completed the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Scores of perceived locomotor and object control competence were regressed on TGMD data. Underestimators (UE), realists (R), and overestimators (OE) were identified and it was assessed whether they differed in gender, amount of sport practice, and selected biomechanical parameters. Differences emerged with respect to gender, with most girls underestimating and most boys overestimating their object control competence, and with respect to sport participation, with OE of locomotor competence practicing a larger amount of sport than UE. Some kinematic parameters were associated with perceived competence without differences between UE, R, and OE. Results suggest: (a) the need for specific motivation strategies to ensure a skill-appropriate enhancement of perceived competence in girls; (b) the relevance of feeling skilled for sport practice; (c) the added value of biomechanical assessment to further our understanding of perceived motor competence.
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69
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Singh AS, Saliasi E, van den Berg V, Uijtdewilligen L, de Groot RHM, Jolles J, Andersen LB, Bailey R, Chang YK, Diamond A, Ericsson I, Etnier JL, Fedewa AL, Hillman CH, McMorris T, Pesce C, Pühse U, Tomporowski PD, Chinapaw MJM. Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: a novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel. Br J Sports Med 2018; 53:640-647. [PMID: 30061304 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To summarise the current evidence on the effects of physical activity (PA) interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children, and formulate research priorities and recommendations. DESIGN Systematic review (following PRISMA guidelines) with a methodological quality assessment and an international expert panel. We based the evaluation of the consistency of the scientific evidence on the findings reported in studies rated as of high methodological quality. DATA SOURCES PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Central, Web of Science, ERIC, and SPORTDiscus. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES PA-intervention studies in children with at least one cognitive or academic performance assessment. RESULTS Eleven (19%) of 58 included intervention studies received a high-quality rating for methodological quality: four assessed effects of PA interventions on cognitive performance, six assessed effects on academic performance, and one on both. All high-quality studies contrasted the effects of additional/adapted PA activities with regular curriculum activities. For cognitive performance 10 of 21 (48%) constructs analysed showed statistically significant beneficial intervention effects of PA, while for academic performance, 15 of 25 (60%) analyses found a significant beneficial effect of PA. Across all five studies assessing PA effects on mathematics, beneficial effects were reported in six out of seven (86%) outcomes. Experts put forward 46 research questions. The most pressing research priority cluster concerned the causality of the relationship between PA and cognitive/academic performance. The remaining clusters pertained to PA characteristics, moderators and mechanisms governing the 'PA-performance' relationship and miscellaneous topics. CONCLUSION There is currently inconclusive evidence for the beneficial effects of PA interventions on cognitive and overall academic performance in children. We conclude that there is strong evidence for beneficial effects of PA on maths performance.The expert panel confirmed that more 'high-quality' research is warranted. By prioritising the most important research questions and formulating recommendations we aim to guide researchers in generating high-quality evidence. Our recommendations focus on adequate control groups and sample size, the use of valid and reliable measurement instruments for physical activity and cognitive performance, measurement of compliance and data analysis. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER CRD42017082505.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amika S Singh
- Department of Public and Occupational Health and the Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Emi Saliasi
- Department of Public and Occupational Health and the Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vera van den Berg
- Department of Public and Occupational Health and the Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Renate H M de Groot
- Welten Institute - Research Centre for Learning, Teaching and Technology, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Jelle Jolles
- Centre for Brain & Learning, Faculty of Psychology and Education, LEARN! Institute, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lars B Andersen
- Department of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Sogndal, Norway
| | - Richard Bailey
- International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yu-Kai Chang
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Adele Diamond
- Program in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Ingegerd Ericsson
- Department of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Learning and Society, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Jennifer L Etnier
- Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA
| | - Alicia L Fedewa
- Department of Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Charles H Hillman
- Department of Psychology, Department of Physical Therapy, Movement, & Rehabilitation Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Terry McMorris
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Institute for Sport, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Caterina Pesce
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University Sport and Movement "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Uwe Pühse
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Mai J M Chinapaw
- Department of Public and Occupational Health and the Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Dose-response effects of years of self-reported physical activity on old females' motor and cognitive function. Braz J Phys Ther 2018; 23:48-55. [PMID: 29983340 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjpt.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a poor understanding of the dose-response relationship between years of physical activity and motor and cognitive function. We determined the dose-response effects of physical activity duration in years on motor and cognitive function and their relationship in healthy old females. OBJECTIVES To determine the dose-effects of physical activity duration in years on motor and cognitive function and their relationship in health aging adults. METHODS We conducted a retrospective observational study with 201 old (age 69 years; SD=5.9) and 12 young (mean age 21 years; SD=1.9) females, with sub-groups based on number of years of self-reported physical activity. Aerobic capacity, mobility, functional reach, standing balance, global cognition, episodic memory, executive function, and processing speed were assessed with performance-based tests. We analyzed sub-group differences quantitatively and qualitatively and performed regression and mediation analyses to determine predictors and mediators of physical activity effects. RESULTS Based on physical activity of minimal (0.3 y, n=29), short (2.4 y, n=77), moderate (6.2 y, n=36) and long (16.6 y, n=59) duration, physical activity for at least 2.4 years affords old adults benefits in body mass index with peak dose-effects present in aerobic capacity and mobility at 6.2 years without additional benefits after 16.6 years of physical activity. Physical activity for any duration had no effects on functional reach, balance, executive function, episodic memory, and processing speed. Although weakly mobility predicted global cognition and executive function. CONCLUSION Performing physical activity up to 6.2 years on average had favorable effects on body mass index, aerobic capacity and mobility. The data strengthen current recommendations for an active lifestyle in adulthood to prevent aging-related motor and cognitive decline.
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Johnstone A, Hughes AR, Martin A, Reilly JJ. Utilising active play interventions to promote physical activity and improve fundamental movement skills in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2018; 18:789. [PMID: 29940923 PMCID: PMC6019649 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-018-5687-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children's physical activity levels are low and efforts to improve their physical activity levels have proven difficult. Freely chosen and unstructured physical activity (active play) has the potential to be promoted in a variety of settings and potentially every day of the year in contrast to other physical activity domains, but active play interventions are an under-researched area. Therefore, the primary aim of this systematic review was to determine the effect of active play interventions on children's physical activity levels, particularly moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA), and fundamental movement skills (FMS). METHODS Studies were included if they were solely or predominantly active play randomised, or cluster randomised controlled trials that targeted children aged 3-12 years. They had to report on at least one of the following outcomes: objectively measured physical activity, FMS, cognition and weight status. During December 2016, four databases (PE Index, SPORTDiscus, Medline and ERIC) were searched for relevant titles. Duplicates and irrelevant titles and abstracts were removed. The included studies had their quality assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) tool. Suitable studies were combined in a meta-analysis using a random-effect model. A narrative synthesis was conducted for all outcomes. RESULTS Of the 4033 records, 91 studies were eligible for full text screening, of which 87 were removed, leaving four studies (representing five papers). The meta-analysis of two studies highlighted there was no significant effect of active play interventions on MVPA. However, the narrative synthesis suggested that active play interventions may increase total volume of physical activity. Only two studies examined the effect of active play interventions on children's FMS, one study examined effects on weight status and none examined effects on cognition. CONCLUSIONS Due to the small number of eligible studies and their heterogeneity, the review could not draw firm conclusions on the effect of active play interventions on children's physical activity levels. High-quality active play interventions, targeting different times of the day (school and after school) in different populations and settings, and with a wider range of outcomes, are required to determine the potential of active play.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avril Johnstone
- Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Adrienne R. Hughes
- Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - Anne Martin
- MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland
| | - John J. Reilly
- Physical Activity for Health Group, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland
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Chang YK, Chu CH, Chen FT, Hung TM, Etnier JL. Combined Effects of Physical Activity and Obesity on Cognitive Function: Independent, Overlapping, Moderator, and Mediator Models. Sports Med 2018; 47:449-468. [PMID: 27439944 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0589-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews studies on physical activity, obesity, and cognition to explore how physical activity and obesity may work independently or together in affecting cognitive function. In particular, we propose six hypotheses derived from four conceptual models to advance our understanding of the combined effects of physical activity and obesity on cognition. The four conceptual models are distinguished by the presumed temporal relationship and the presumed correlation between physical activity and obesity and include an independent model, an overlapping model, a moderator model, and a mediator model. Among the 16 studies testing the effects of physical activity and obesity on cognition in a combined approach, the moderator model, viewing either physical activity or obesity as the potential moderator, was most frequently examined (n = 10), mediator (n = 3) and independent (n = 2) models received relatively less attention, and only a single study used an overlapping model. Results were mixed when considering the moderator, independent, and mediator models. The single study that took an overlapping model approach found support for the model hypothesis. One relevant observation from this review is that the variance within the small extant literature with respect to the choice of conceptual model limits our ability to make assertive conclusions relative to the relations among the examined variables. Given the logic supporting a combined effect of physical activity and obesity on cognition, researchers are encouraged to consider the possible models of the relationship as they design studies to further address this research question.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Kai Chang
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, No. 250 Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China.
| | - Chien-Heng Chu
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, No. 250 Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Feng-Tzu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Athletics and Coaching Science, National Taiwan Sport University, No. 250 Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Tsung-Min Hung
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jennifer L Etnier
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, P.O. Box 26170, Greensboro, NC, 27402-6170, USA.
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Martin A, Booth JN, Laird Y, Sproule J, Reilly JJ, Saunders DH. Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 3:CD009728. [PMID: 29499084 PMCID: PMC5865125 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd009728.pub4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity is high. Lifestyle changes towards a healthy diet, increased physical activity and reduced sedentary activities are recommended to prevent and treat obesity. Evidence suggests that changing these health behaviours can benefit cognitive function and school achievement in children and adolescents in general. There are various theoretical mechanisms that suggest that children and adolescents with excessive body fat may benefit particularly from these interventions. OBJECTIVES To assess whether lifestyle interventions (in the areas of diet, physical activity, sedentary behaviour and behavioural therapy) improve school achievement, cognitive function (e.g. executive functions) and/or future success in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight, compared with standard care, waiting-list control, no treatment, or an attention placebo control group. SEARCH METHODS In February 2017, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and 15 other databases. We also searched two trials registries, reference lists, and handsearched one journal from inception. We also contacted researchers in the field to obtain unpublished data. SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of behavioural interventions for weight management in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. We excluded studies in children and adolescents with medical conditions known to affect weight status, school achievement and cognitive function. We also excluded self- and parent-reported outcomes. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Four review authors independently selected studies for inclusion. Two review authors extracted data, assessed quality and risks of bias, and evaluated the quality of the evidence using the GRADE approach. We contacted study authors to obtain additional information. We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Where the same outcome was assessed across different intervention types, we reported standardised effect sizes for findings from single-study and multiple-study analyses to allow comparison of intervention effects across intervention types. To ease interpretation of the effect size, we also reported the mean difference of effect sizes for single-study outcomes. MAIN RESULTS We included 18 studies (59 records) of 2384 children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Eight studies delivered physical activity interventions, seven studies combined physical activity programmes with healthy lifestyle education, and three studies delivered dietary interventions. We included five RCTs and 13 cluster-RCTs. The studies took place in 10 different countries. Two were carried out in children attending preschool, 11 were conducted in primary/elementary school-aged children, four studies were aimed at adolescents attending secondary/high school and one study included primary/elementary and secondary/high school-aged children. The number of studies included for each outcome was low, with up to only three studies per outcome. The quality of evidence ranged from high to very low and 17 studies had a high risk of bias for at least one item. None of the studies reported data on additional educational support needs and adverse events.Compared to standard practice, analyses of physical activity-only interventions suggested high-quality evidence for improved mean cognitive executive function scores. The mean difference (MD) was 5.00 scale points higher in an after-school exercise group compared to standard practice (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.68 to 9.32; scale mean 100, standard deviation 15; 116 children, 1 study). There was no statistically significant beneficial effect in favour of the intervention for mathematics, reading, or inhibition control. The standardised mean difference (SMD) for mathematics was 0.49 (95% CI -0.04 to 1.01; 2 studies, 255 children, moderate-quality evidence) and for reading was 0.10 (95% CI -0.30 to 0.49; 2 studies, 308 children, moderate-quality evidence). The MD for inhibition control was -1.55 scale points (95% CI -5.85 to 2.75; scale range 0 to 100; SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.58 to 0.28; 1 study, 84 children, very low-quality evidence). No data were available for average achievement across subjects taught at school.There was no evidence of a beneficial effect of physical activity interventions combined with healthy lifestyle education on average achievement across subjects taught at school, mathematics achievement, reading achievement or inhibition control. The MD for average achievement across subjects taught at school was 6.37 points lower in the intervention group compared to standard practice (95% CI -36.83 to 24.09; scale mean 500, scale SD 70; SMD -0.18, 95% CI -0.93 to 0.58; 1 study, 31 children, low-quality evidence). The effect estimate for mathematics achievement was SMD 0.02 (95% CI -0.19 to 0.22; 3 studies, 384 children, very low-quality evidence), for reading achievement SMD 0.00 (95% CI -0.24 to 0.24; 2 studies, 284 children, low-quality evidence), and for inhibition control SMD -0.67 (95% CI -1.50 to 0.16; 2 studies, 110 children, very low-quality evidence). No data were available for the effect of combined physical activity and healthy lifestyle education on cognitive executive functions.There was a moderate difference in the average achievement across subjects taught at school favouring interventions targeting the improvement of the school food environment compared to standard practice in adolescents with obesity (SMD 0.46, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.66; 2 studies, 382 adolescents, low-quality evidence), but not with overweight. Replacing packed school lunch with a nutrient-rich diet in addition to nutrition education did not improve mathematics (MD -2.18, 95% CI -5.83 to 1.47; scale range 0 to 69; SMD -0.26, 95% CI -0.72 to 0.20; 1 study, 76 children, low-quality evidence) and reading achievement (MD 1.17, 95% CI -4.40 to 6.73; scale range 0 to 108; SMD 0.13, 95% CI -0.35 to 0.61; 1 study, 67 children, low-quality evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Despite the large number of childhood and adolescent obesity treatment trials, we were only able to partially assess the impact of obesity treatment interventions on school achievement and cognitive abilities. School and community-based physical activity interventions as part of an obesity prevention or treatment programme can benefit executive functions of children with obesity or overweight specifically. Similarly, school-based dietary interventions may benefit general school achievement in children with obesity. These findings might assist health and education practitioners to make decisions related to promoting physical activity and healthy eating in schools. Future obesity treatment and prevention studies in clinical, school and community settings should consider assessing academic and cognitive as well as physical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Martin
- University of EdinburghCentre for Population Health SciencesMedical School, Teviot PlaceEdinburghUKEH8 9AG
- University of GlasgowMRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit200 Renfield StreetGlasgowUKG2 3QB
| | - Josephine N Booth
- The University of EdinburghInstitute for Education, Community and SocietyMoray House School of EducationRoom 2.17, St John's LandEdinburghUKEH8 8AQ
| | - Yvonne Laird
- University of EdinburghScottish Collaboration for Public Health Research and Policy (SCPHRP)20 West Richmond StreetEdinburghUKEH8 9DX
| | - John Sproule
- Institute for Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences (SPEHS), University of EdinburghMoray House School of EducationHolyrood RoadEdinburghEH8 8AQUK
| | - John J Reilly
- University of StrathclydePhysical Activity for Health Group, School of Psychological Sciences and Health50 George StreetGlasgowUKG1 1QE
| | - David H Saunders
- University of EdinburghPhysical Activity for Health Research Centre (PAHRC)St Leonards LandHolyrood RoadEdinburghMidlothianUKEH8 8AQ
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Chronic effects of exercise implemented during school-break time on neurophysiological indices of inhibitory control in adolescents. Trends Neurosci Educ 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Aadland KN, Aadland E, Andersen JR, Lervåg A, Moe VF, Resaland GK, Ommundsen Y. Executive Function, Behavioral Self-Regulation, and School Related Well-Being Did Not Mediate the Effect of School-Based Physical Activity on Academic Performance in Numeracy in 10-Year-Old Children. The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) Study. Front Psychol 2018; 9:245. [PMID: 29541050 PMCID: PMC5835798 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Inconsistent findings exist for the effect of school-based physical activity interventions on academic performance. The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) study revealed a favorable intervention effect of school-based physical activity on academic performance in numeracy in a subsample of 10-year-old elementary schoolchildren performing poorer at baseline in numeracy. Aiming to explain this finding, we investigated the mediating effects of executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and school related well-being in the relation between the physical activity intervention and child's performance in numeracy. An ANCOVA model with latent variable structural equation modeling was estimated using data from 360 children (the lower third in academic performance in numeracy at baseline). The model consisted of the three latent factors as mediators; executive function, behavioral self-regulation, and school related well-being. We found no mediating effects of executive function, behavioral self-regulation or school related well-being in the relationship between the ASK intervention and academic performance in numeracy (p ≥ 0.256). Our results suggest that the effect of the intervention on performance in numeracy in the present sample is not explained by change in executive function, behavioral self-regulation, or school related well-being. We suggest this finding mainly could be explained by the lack of effect of the intervention on the mediators, which might be due to an insufficient dose of physical activity. Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov registry, trial registration number: NCT02132494.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine N. Aadland
- Faculty of Education, Arts and Sports, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Eivind Aadland
- Faculty of Education, Arts and Sports, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - John R. Andersen
- Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Arne Lervåg
- Faculty of Education, Arts and Sports, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Education, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vegard F. Moe
- Faculty of Education, Arts and Sports, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Geir K. Resaland
- Faculty of Education, Arts and Sports, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Yngvar Ommundsen
- Department of Coaching and Psychology, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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Martin A, Booth JN, Laird Y, Sproule J, Reilly JJ, Saunders DH. Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 1:CD009728. [PMID: 29376563 PMCID: PMC6491168 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd009728.pub3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The global prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity is high. Lifestyle changes towards a healthy diet, increased physical activity and reduced sedentary activities are recommended to prevent and treat obesity. Evidence suggests that changing these health behaviours can benefit cognitive function and school achievement in children and adolescents in general. There are various theoretical mechanisms that suggest that children and adolescents with excessive body fat may benefit particularly from these interventions. OBJECTIVES To assess whether lifestyle interventions (in the areas of diet, physical activity, sedentary behaviour and behavioural therapy) improve school achievement, cognitive function (e.g. executive functions) and/or future success in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight, compared with standard care, waiting-list control, no treatment, or an attention placebo control group. SEARCH METHODS In February 2017, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and 15 other databases. We also searched two trials registries, reference lists, and handsearched one journal from inception. We also contacted researchers in the field to obtain unpublished data. SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of behavioural interventions for weight management in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. We excluded studies in children and adolescents with medical conditions known to affect weight status, school achievement and cognitive function. We also excluded self- and parent-reported outcomes. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Four review authors independently selected studies for inclusion. Two review authors extracted data, assessed quality and risks of bias, and evaluated the quality of the evidence using the GRADE approach. We contacted study authors to obtain additional information. We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. Where the same outcome was assessed across different intervention types, we reported standardised effect sizes for findings from single-study and multiple-study analyses to allow comparison of intervention effects across intervention types. To ease interpretation of the effect size, we also reported the mean difference of effect sizes for single-study outcomes. MAIN RESULTS We included 18 studies (59 records) of 2384 children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Eight studies delivered physical activity interventions, seven studies combined physical activity programmes with healthy lifestyle education, and three studies delivered dietary interventions. We included five RCTs and 13 cluster-RCTs. The studies took place in 10 different countries. Two were carried out in children attending preschool, 11 were conducted in primary/elementary school-aged children, four studies were aimed at adolescents attending secondary/high school and one study included primary/elementary and secondary/high school-aged children. The number of studies included for each outcome was low, with up to only three studies per outcome. The quality of evidence ranged from high to very low and 17 studies had a high risk of bias for at least one item. None of the studies reported data on additional educational support needs and adverse events.Compared to standard practice, analyses of physical activity-only interventions suggested high-quality evidence for improved mean cognitive executive function scores. The mean difference (MD) was 5.00 scale points higher in an after-school exercise group compared to standard practice (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.68 to 9.32; scale mean 100, standard deviation 15; 116 children, 1 study). There was no statistically significant beneficial effect in favour of the intervention for mathematics, reading, or inhibition control. The standardised mean difference (SMD) for mathematics was 0.49 (95% CI -0.04 to 1.01; 2 studies, 255 children, moderate-quality evidence) and for reading was 0.10 (95% CI -0.30 to 0.49; 2 studies, 308 children, moderate-quality evidence). The MD for inhibition control was -1.55 scale points (95% CI -5.85 to 2.75; scale range 0 to 100; SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.58 to 0.28; 1 study, 84 children, very low-quality evidence). No data were available for average achievement across subjects taught at school.There was no evidence of a beneficial effect of physical activity interventions combined with healthy lifestyle education on average achievement across subjects taught at school, mathematics achievement, reading achievement or inhibition control. The MD for average achievement across subjects taught at school was 6.37 points lower in the intervention group compared to standard practice (95% CI -36.83 to 24.09; scale mean 500, scale SD 70; SMD -0.18, 95% CI -0.93 to 0.58; 1 study, 31 children, low-quality evidence). The effect estimate for mathematics achievement was SMD 0.02 (95% CI -0.19 to 0.22; 3 studies, 384 children, very low-quality evidence), for reading achievement SMD 0.00 (95% CI -0.24 to 0.24; 2 studies, 284 children, low-quality evidence), and for inhibition control SMD -0.67 (95% CI -1.50 to 0.16; 2 studies, 110 children, very low-quality evidence). No data were available for the effect of combined physical activity and healthy lifestyle education on cognitive executive functions.There was a moderate difference in the average achievement across subjects taught at school favouring interventions targeting the improvement of the school food environment compared to standard practice in adolescents with obesity (SMD 0.46, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.66; 2 studies, 382 adolescents, low-quality evidence), but not with overweight. Replacing packed school lunch with a nutrient-rich diet in addition to nutrition education did not improve mathematics (MD -2.18, 95% CI -5.83 to 1.47; scale range 0 to 69; SMD -0.26, 95% CI -0.72 to 0.20; 1 study, 76 children, low-quality evidence) and reading achievement (MD 1.17, 95% CI -4.40 to 6.73; scale range 0 to 108; SMD 0.13, 95% CI -0.35 to 0.61; 1 study, 67 children, low-quality evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Despite the large number of childhood and adolescent obesity treatment trials, we were only able to partially assess the impact of obesity treatment interventions on school achievement and cognitive abilities. School and community-based physical activity interventions as part of an obesity prevention or treatment programme can benefit executive functions of children with obesity or overweight specifically. Similarly, school-based dietary interventions may benefit general school achievement in children with obesity. These findings might assist health and education practitioners to make decisions related to promoting physical activity and healthy eating in schools. Future obesity treatment and prevention studies in clinical, school and community settings should consider assessing academic and cognitive as well as physical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Josephine N Booth
- The University of EdinburghInstitute for Education, Community and SocietyMoray House School of EducationRoom 2.17, St John's LandEdinburghUKEH8 8AQ
| | - Yvonne Laird
- University of EdinburghScottish Collaboration for Public Health Research and Policy (SCPHRP)20 West Richmond StreetEdinburghUKEH8 9DX
| | - John Sproule
- Institute for Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences (SPEHS), University of EdinburghMoray House School of EducationHolyrood RoadEdinburghUK
| | - John J Reilly
- University of StrathclydePhysical Activity for Health Group, School of Psychological Sciences and Health50 George StreetGlasgowUKG1 1QE
| | - David H Saunders
- University of EdinburghPhysical Activity for Health Research Centre (PAHRC)St Leonards LandHolyrood RoadEDINBURGHUKEH8 8AQ
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HSIEH SHUSHIH, LIN CHIHCHIEN, CHANG YUKAI, HUANG CHUNGJU, HUNG TSUNGMIN. Effects of Childhood Gymnastics Program on Spatial Working Memory. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2017; 49:2537-2547. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Álvarez-Bueno C, Pesce C, Cavero-Redondo I, Sánchez-López M, Martínez-Hortelano JA, Martínez-Vizcaíno V. The Effect of Physical Activity Interventions on Children's Cognition and Metacognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 56:729-738. [PMID: 28838577 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective was twofold: to assess the effect of physical activity (PA) interventions on children's and adolescents' cognition and metacognition; and to determine the characteristics of individuals and PA programs that enhance the development of cognitive and metacognitive functions. METHOD We systematically searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, and PsycINFO databases from their inception to October 16, 2016. Intervention studies aimed at examining the exercise-cognition interaction at a developmental age were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled effect size (ES) values and their corresponding 95% CIs. Subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the effect of participants' and PA programs' characteristics. RESULTS A total of 36 studies were included in this systematic review and meta-analysis. Pooled ES estimations were as follows: nonexecutive cognitive functions 0.23 (95% CI = 0.09-0.37); core executive functions 0.20 (95% CI = 0.10-0.30), including working memory (0.14 [95% CI = 0.00-0.27]), selective attention-inhibition (0.26 [95% CI = 0.10-0.41]), and cognitive flexibility (0.11 [95% CI = -0.10 to 0.32]); and metacognition 0.23 (95% CI = 0.13-0.32), including higher-level executive functions (0.19 [95% CI = 0.06-0.31]) and cognitive life skills (0.30 [95% CI = 0.15-0.45]). CONCLUSION PA benefits several domains of cognition and metacognition in youth. Curricular physical education interventions and programs aimed at increasing daily PA seem to be the most effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Álvarez-Bueno
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Caterina Pesce
- Human and Health Sciences, Italian University Sport and Movement "Foro Italico," Rome, Italy
| | - Iván Cavero-Redondo
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Mairena Sánchez-López
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain; Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Education, Ciudad Real, Spain.
| | | | - Vicente Martínez-Vizcaíno
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain; Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Talca, Chile
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79
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Moreau D, Kirk IJ, Waldie KE. High-intensity training enhances executive function in children in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. eLife 2017; 6:25062. [PMID: 28825973 PMCID: PMC5566451 DOI: 10.7554/elife.25062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Exercise-induced cognitive improvements have traditionally been observed following aerobic exercise interventions; that is, sustained sessions of moderate intensity. Here, we tested the effect of a 6 week high-intensity training (HIT) regimen on measures of cognitive control and working memory in a multicenter, randomized (1:1 allocation), placebo-controlled trial. Methods: 318 children aged 7-13 years were randomly assigned to a HIT or an active control group matched for enjoyment and motivation. In the primary analysis, we compared improvements on six cognitive tasks representing two cognitive constructs (N = 305). Secondary outcomes included genetic data and physiological measurements. Results: The 6-week HIT regimen resulted in improvements on measures of cognitive control [BFM = 3.38, g = 0.31 (0.09, 0.54)] and working memory [BFM = 5233.68, g = 0.54 (0.31, 0.77)], moderated by BDNF genotype, with met66 carriers showing larger gains post-exercise than val66 homozygotes. Conclusions: This study suggests a promising alternative to enhance cognition, via short and potent exercise regimens. Funding: Funded by Centre for Brain Research. Clinical trial number: NCT03255499. Exercise has beneficial effects on the body and brain. People who perform well on tests of cardiovascular fitness also do well on tests of learning, memory and other cognitive skills. So far, studies have suggested that moderate intensity aerobic exercise that lasts for 30 to 40 minutes produces the greatest improvements in these brain abilities. Recently, short high-intensity workouts that combine cardiovascular exercise and strength training have become popular. Studies have shown that these brief bouts of strenuous exercise improve physical health, but do these benefits extend to the brain? It would also be helpful to know if the effect that exercise has on the brain depends on an individual’s genetic makeup or physical health. This might help to match people to the type of exercise that will work best for them. Now, Moreau et al. show that just 10 minutes of high-intensity exercise a day over six weeks can boost the cognitive abilities of children. In the experiments, over 300 children between 7 and 13 years of age were randomly assigned to one of two groups: one that performed the high-intensity exercises, or a ‘control’ group that took part in less active activities – such as quizzes and playing computer games – over the same time period. The children who took part in the high-intensity training showed greater improvements in cognitive skills than the children in the control group. Specifically, the high-intensity exercise boosted working memory and left the children better able to focus on specific tasks, two skills that are important for academic success. Moreau et al. further found that the high-intensity exercises had the most benefit for the children who needed it most – those with poor cardiovascular health and those with gene variants that are linked to poorer cognitive skills. This suggests that genetic differences do alter the effects of exercise on the brain, but also shows that targeted exercise programs can offer everyone a chance to thrive. Moreau et al. suggest that exercise need not be time consuming to boost brain health; the key is to pack more intense exercise in shorter time periods. Further work could build on these findings to produce effective exercise routines that could ultimately form part of school curriculums, as well as proving useful to anyone who wishes to improve their cognitive skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Moreau
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ian J Kirk
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Karen E Waldie
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Schmidt M, Egger F, Benzing V, Jäger K, Conzelmann A, Roebers CM, Pesce C. Disentangling the relationship between children's motor ability, executive function and academic achievement. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0182845. [PMID: 28817625 PMCID: PMC5560562 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Even though positive relations between children's motor ability and their academic achievement are frequently reported, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. Executive function has indeed been proposed, but hardly tested as a potential mediator. The aim of the present study was therefore to examine the mediating role of executive function in the relationship between motor ability and academic achievement, also investigating the individual contribution of specific motor abilities to the hypothesized mediated linkage to academic achievement. At intervals of ten weeks, 236 children aged between 10 and 12 years were tested in terms of their motor ability (t1: cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, motor coordination), core executive functions (t2: updating, inhibition, shifting), and academic achievement (t3: mathematics, reading, spelling). Structural equation modelling revealed executive function to be a mediator in the relation between motor ability and academic achievement, represented by a significant indirect effect. In separate analyses, each of the three motor abilities were positively related to children's academic achievement. However, only in the case of children's motor coordination, the mediation by executive function accounted for a significance percentage of variance of academic achievement data. The results provide evidence in support of models that conceive executive function as a mechanism explaining the relationship that links children's physical activity-related outcomes to academic achievement and strengthen the advocacy for quality physical activity not merely focused on health-related physical fitness outcomes, but also on motor skill development and learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Schmidt
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Fabienne Egger
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Valentin Benzing
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Katja Jäger
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Achim Conzelmann
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Caterina Pesce
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University "Foro Italico" of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Aadland KN, Ommundsen Y, Aadland E, Brønnick KS, Lervåg A, Resaland GK, Moe VF. Executive Functions Do Not Mediate Prospective Relations between Indices of Physical Activity and Academic Performance: The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) Study. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1088. [PMID: 28706500 PMCID: PMC5489630 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in cognitive function induced by physical activity have been proposed as a mechanism for the link between physical activity and academic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate if executive function mediated the prospective relations between indices of physical activity and academic performance in a sample of 10-year-old Norwegian children. The study included 1,129 children participating in the Active Smarter Kids (ASK) trial, followed over 7 months. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with a latent variable of executive function (measuring inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) was used in the analyses. Predictors were objectively measured physical activity, time spent sedentary, aerobic fitness, and motor skills. Outcomes were performance on national tests of numeracy, reading, and English (as a second language). Generally, indices of physical activity did not predict executive function and academic performance. A modest mediation effect of executive function was observed for the relation between motor skills and academic performance. Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov registry, trial registration number: NCT02132494.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine N. Aadland
- Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied SciencesBergen, Norway
| | - Yngvar Ommundsen
- Department of Coaching and Psychology, Norwegian School of Sport SciencesOslo, Norway
| | - Eivind Aadland
- Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied SciencesBergen, Norway
| | - Kolbjørn S. Brønnick
- Network for Medical Sciences, University of StavangerStavanger, Norway
- TIPS-Centre for Clinical Research in Psychosis, Stavanger University HospitalStavanger, Norway
| | - Arne Lervåg
- Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied SciencesBergen, Norway
- Department of Education, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of OsloOslo, Norway
| | - Geir K. Resaland
- Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied SciencesBergen, Norway
| | - Vegard F. Moe
- Faculty of Teacher Education and Sport, Western Norway University of Applied SciencesBergen, Norway
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82
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Isaacs D. Let children be children. J Paediatr Child Health 2017; 53:99-100. [PMID: 28194893 DOI: 10.1111/jpc.13474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Isaacs
- Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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83
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Beck MM, Lind RR, Geertsen SS, Ritz C, Lundbye-Jensen J, Wienecke J. Motor-Enriched Learning Activities Can Improve Mathematical Performance in Preadolescent Children. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:645. [PMID: 28066215 PMCID: PMC5179540 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: An emerging field of research indicates that physical activity can benefit cognitive functions and academic achievements in children. However, less is known about how academic achievements can benefit from specific types of motor activities (e.g., fine and gross) integrated into learning activities. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether fine or gross motor activity integrated into math lessons (i.e., motor-enrichment) could improve children's mathematical performance. Methods: A 6-week within school cluster-randomized intervention study investigated the effects of motor-enriched mathematical teaching in Danish preadolescent children (n = 165, age = 7.5 ± 0.02 years). Three groups were included: a control group (CON), which received non-motor enriched conventional mathematical teaching, a fine motor math group (FMM) and a gross motor math group (GMM), which received mathematical teaching enriched with fine and gross motor activity, respectively. The children were tested before (T0), immediately after (T1) and 8 weeks after the intervention (T2). A standardized mathematical test (50 tasks) was used to evaluate mathematical performance. Furthermore, it was investigated whether motor-enriched math was accompanied by different effects in low and normal math performers. Additionally, the study investigated the potential contribution of cognitive functions and motor skills on mathematical performance. Results: All groups improved their mathematical performance from T0 to T1. However, from T0 to T1, the improvement was significantly greater in GMM compared to FMM (1.87 ± 0.71 correct answers) (p = 0.02). At T2 no significant differences in mathematical performance were observed. A subgroup analysis revealed that normal math-performers benefitted from GMM compared to both CON 1.78 ± 0.73 correct answers (p = 0.04) and FMM 2.14 ± 0.72 correct answers (p = 0.008). These effects were not observed in low math-performers. The effects were partly accounted for by visuo-spatial short-term memory and gross motor skills. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that motor enriched learning activities can improve mathematical performance. In normal math performers GMM led to larger improvements than FMM and CON. This was not the case for the low math performers. Future studies should further elucidate the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the observed behavioral effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel M. Beck
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rune R. Lind
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Svend S. Geertsen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian Ritz
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper Lundbye-Jensen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jacob Wienecke
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark
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84
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Vazou S, Pesce C, Lakes K, Smiley-Oyen A. More than one road leads to Rome: A narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 17:153-178. [PMID: 31289454 PMCID: PMC6615761 DOI: 10.1080/1612197x.2016.1223423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of research indicates that physical activity (PA) positively impacts cognitive function in youth. However, not all forms of PA benefit cognition equally. The purpose of this review was to determine the effect of different types of chronic PA interventions on cognition in children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases and examination of the reference lists of relevant studies resulted in the identification of 28 studies. Seven categories of PA were identified, based on all possible combinations of three types of PA (aerobic, motor skill, cognitively engaging), and four comparison groups (no treatment, academic, traditional physical education, aerobic). Effect sizes were calculated based on means and SDs at the post-test using Hedge's g formula, which includes a correction for small sample bias. Each study was only entered once in each intervention-comparator category. Full data were provided from 21 studies (28 effect sizes; n=2042 intervention; n=2002 comparison group). Overall, chronic PA interventions had a significant small-to-moderate effect on cognition (0.46). Moderate significant positive effects were identified when PA interventions were compared to no treatment (0.86) or academic content (0.57). A non-significant effect was noted when PA interventions were compared to traditional physical education (0.09) or aerobic group (0.80). However, high heterogeneity in pooled effect sizes suggests that important differences in the qualitative characteristics of the PA intervention and comparison interventions may exist. Effect sizes based on comparisons between different types of PA interventions and comparison groups are discussed in order to identify possible directions for future investigations. We conclude that chronic PA interventions have a positive impact on cognitive function in youth, but more systematic research is needed in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridoula Vazou
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, 237 Forker Building, Ames, IA 50011, , ,
| | - Caterina Pesce
- Department of Health Sciences, Italian University Sport and Movement, Piazza Lauro De Bosis, 15, I - 00135 Rome, Telephone number: 0039 06 36733366, Fax number: 0039 06 36733362,
| | - Kimberley Lakes
- Pediatric Exercise and Genomics Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine 101 Academy, Suite 150, Irvine, CA 92617, Direct Line: (949) 824-3009,
| | - Ann Smiley-Oyen
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, 239 Forker Building, Ames, IA 50011, Phone number: 515 294 8261,
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Santos SDL, Memmert D, Sampaio J, Leite N. The Spawns of Creative Behavior in Team Sports: A Creativity Developmental Framework. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1282. [PMID: 27617000 PMCID: PMC4999444 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing creativity in team sports players is becoming an increasing focus in sports sciences. The Creativity Developmental Framework is presented to provide an updated science based background. This Framework describes five incremental creative stages (beginner, explorer, illuminati, creator, and rise) and combines them into multidisciplinary approaches embodied in creative assumptions. In the first training stages, the emphasis is placed on the enrollment in diversification, deliberate play and physical literacy approaches grounded in nonlinear pedagogies. These approaches allow more freedom to discover different movement patterns increasing the likelihood of emerging novel, adaptive and functional solutions. In the later stages, the progressive specialization in sports and the differential learning commitment are extremely important to push the limits of the creative progress at higher levels of performance by increasing the range of skills configurations. Notwithstanding, during all developmental stages the teaching games for understanding, a game-centered approach, linked with the constraints-led approach play an important role to boost the tactical creative behavior. Both perspectives might encourage players to explore all actions possibilities (improving divergent thinking) and prevents the standardization in their actions. Overall, considering the aforementioned practice conditions the Creativity Developmental Framework scrutinizes the main directions that lead to a long-term improvement of the creative behavior in team sports. Nevertheless, this framework should be seen as a work in progress to be later used as the paramount reference in creativity training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara D L Santos
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CreativeLab Research Community, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel Memmert
- Institute of Cognitive and Team/Racket Sport Research, German Sport University Cologne Cologne, Germany
| | - Jaime Sampaio
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CreativeLab Research Community, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Nuno Leite
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development, CreativeLab Research Community, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal
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86
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Álvarez-Bueno C, Pesce C, Cavero-Redondo I, Sánchez-López M, Pardo-Guijarro MJ, Martínez-Vizcaíno V. Association of physical activity with cognition, metacognition and academic performance in children and adolescents: a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2016; 6:e011065. [PMID: 27354073 PMCID: PMC4932287 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Schools provide a relevant context for improving children's and adolescents' physical and mental health by increasing physical activity during school hours and/or beyond. The interest in the relationship between physical activity programmes and cognition during development has recently increased, with evidence suggesting a positive association. We present a protocol of systematic reviews and meta-analysis of intervention studies that, by determining the effects of chronic physical exercise on children's and adolescents' cognitive and metacognitive functions, cognitive life skills, academic behaviours and achievement, aims to ensure procedural objectivity and transparency, and maximise the extraction of relevant information to inform policy development. METHODS This protocol is guided by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) and by the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook. Databases to be utilised for a thorough selection of the pertinent literature are MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Web of Science, PsycINFO and ERIC. Selection is proposed to encompass an international and a national publication level, with inclusion of experimental studies written in English or in Spanish, respectively. Also, relevant references included in the selected studies will be considered suitable for review as supplemental sources.We present an integrated approach to the methodological quality assessment of the selected studies, including the Jadad Scale for the assessment of the quality of randomised controlled trials and the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies for pre-post studies and non-randomised controlled trials. The pre-post interventions mean differences will be the primary indicator of the intervention outcome. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS A subgroup analysis is proposed based on cognitive functions and their neural correlates, metacognitive functions and cognitive life skills, academic achievement areas and academic behaviours. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER PROSPERO CRD42015029913.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Álvarez-Bueno
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Caterina Pesce
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Italian University Sport and Movement "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Iván Cavero-Redondo
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Mairena Sánchez-López
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Education, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - María Jesús Pardo-Guijarro
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, School of Education, Cuenca, Spain
| | - Vicente Martínez-Vizcaíno
- Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Health and Social Research Center, Cuenca, Spain Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile
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