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Pey P, Pearce RKB, Kalaitzakis ME, Griffin WST, Gentleman SM. Phenotypic profile of alternative activation marker CD163 is different in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2014; 2:21. [PMID: 24528486 PMCID: PMC3940003 DOI: 10.1186/2051-5960-2-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Microglial activation is a pathological feature common to both Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases (AD and PD). The classical activation involves release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species. This is necessary for maintenance of tissue homeostasis and host defense, but can cause bystander damage when the activation is sustained and uncontrolled. In recent years the heterogeneous nature of microglial activation states in neurodegenerative diseases has become clear and the focus has shifted to alternative activation states that promote tissue maintenance and repair. We studied the distribution of CD163, a membrane-bound scavenger receptor found on perivascular macrophages. CD163 has an immunoregulatory function, and has been found in the parenchyma in other inflammatory diseases e.g. HIV-encephalitis and multiple sclerosis. In this study, we used immunohistochemistry to compare CD163 immunoreactivity in 31 AD cases, 27 PD cases, and 16 control cases. Associations of microglia with pathological hallmarks of AD and PD were investigated using double immunofluorescence. Results Parenchymal microglia were found to be immunoreactive for CD163 in all of the AD cases, and to a lesser extent in PD cases. There was prominent staining of CD163 immunoreactive microglia in the frontal and occipital cortices of AD cases, and in the brainstem of PD cases. Many of them were associated with Aß plaques in both diseases, and double staining with CD68 demonstrates their phagocytic capability. Leakage of fibrinogen was observed around compromised blood vessels, raising the possibility these microglia might have originated from the periphery. Conclusions Increase in microglia’s CD163 immunoreactivity was more significant in AD than PD, and association of CD163 immunoreactive microglia with Aβ plaques indicate microglia’s attraction towards extracellular protein pathology, i.e. extracellular aggregates of Aβ as compared to intracellular Lewy Bodies in PD. Double staining with CD163 and CD68 might point towards their natural inclination to phagocytose plaques. Fibrinogen leakage and compromise of the blood brain barrier raise the possibility that these are not resident microglia, but systemic macrophages infiltrating the brain.
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102
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Côté CH, Bouchard P, van Rooijen N, Marsolais D, Duchesne E. Monocyte depletion increases local proliferation of macrophage subsets after skeletal muscle injury. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2013; 14:359. [PMID: 24354415 PMCID: PMC3878260 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2474-14-359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sequential accumulation of M1 and M2 macrophages is critical for skeletal muscle recovery after an acute injury. While M1 accumulation is believed to rely on monocyte infiltration, the mechanisms of M2 accumulation remain controversial, but could involve an infiltrating precursor. Yet, strong depletion of monocytes only partially impairs skeletal muscle healing, supporting the existence of alternative mechanisms to palliate the loss of infiltrating macrophage progenitors. The aims of this study are thus to investigate if proliferation occurs in macrophage subsets within injured skeletal muscles; and to determine if monocyte depletion leads to increased proliferation of macrophages after injury. Methods Injury was induced by bupivacaine injection in the tibialis anterior muscle of rats. Blood monocytes were depleted by daily intravenous injections of liposome-encapsulated clodronate, starting 24 h prior to injury. In separate experiments, irradiation of hind limb was also performed to prevent resident cell proliferation. Upon euthanasia, blood and muscles were collected for flow cytometric analyses of macrophage/monocyte subsets. Results Clodronate induced a 80%-90% depletion of monocyte but only led to 57% and 41% decrease of M1 and M2 macrophage accumulation, respectively, 2 d following injury. Conversely, the number of M1 macrophages in monocyte-depleted rats was 2.4-fold higher than in non-depleted rats 4 d after injury. This was associated with a 16-fold increase in the number of proliferative M1 macrophages, which was reduced by 46% in irradiated animals. Proliferation of M2 macrophages was increased tenfold by clodronate treatment 4 d post injury. The accumulation of M2 macrophages was partially impaired by irradiation, regardless of monocyte depletion. Conclusions M1 and M2 subsets proliferate after skeletal muscle injury and their proliferation is enhanced under condition of monocyte depletion. Our study supports the conclusion that both infiltrating and resident precursors could contribute to M1 or M2 macrophage accumulation in muscle injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Elise Duchesne
- Centre de Recherche du CHUL (CHUQ), 2705 Boulevard Laurier, RC-9800 Québec, Québec, Canada.
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103
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Immunity and Alzheimer's disease: immunological perspectives on the development of novel therapies. Drug Discov Today 2013; 18:1212-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2013.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2013] [Revised: 07/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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104
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Perivascular macrophages mediate neutrophil recruitment during bacterial skin infection. Nat Immunol 2013; 15:45-53. [PMID: 24270515 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Transendothelial migration of neutrophils in postcapillary venules is a key event in the inflammatory response against pathogens and tissue damage. The precise regulation of this process is incompletely understood. We report that perivascular macrophages are critical for neutrophil migration into skin infected with the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Using multiphoton intravital microscopy we showed that neutrophils extravasate from inflamed dermal venules in close proximity to perivascular macrophages, which are a major source of neutrophil chemoattractants. The virulence factor α-hemolysin produced by S. aureus lyses perivascular macrophages, which leads to decreased neutrophil transmigration. Our data illustrate a previously unrecognized role for perivascular macrophages in neutrophil recruitment to inflamed skin and indicate that S. aureus uses hemolysin-dependent killing of these cells as an immune evasion strategy.
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105
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Dahiya S, Irish BP, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. Genetic variation and HIV-associated neurologic disease. Adv Virus Res 2013; 87:183-240. [PMID: 23809924 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407698-3.00006-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
HIV-associated neurologic disease continues to be a significant complication in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. A substantial subset of the HIV-infected population shows impaired neuropsychological performance as a result of HIV-mediated neuroinflammation and eventual central nervous system (CNS) injury. CNS compartmentalization of HIV, coupled with the evolution of genetically isolated populations in the CNS, is responsible for poor prognosis in patients with AIDS, warranting further investigation and possible additions to the current therapeutic strategy. This chapter reviews key advances in the field of neuropathogenesis and studies that have highlighted how molecular diversity within the HIV genome may impact HIV-associated neurologic disease. We also discuss the possible functional implications of genetic variation within the viral promoter and possibly other regions of the viral genome, especially in the cells of monocyte-macrophage lineage, which are arguably key cellular players in HIV-associated CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satinder Dahiya
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Bryan P Irish
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael R Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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106
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Williams DW, Calderon TM, Lopez L, Carvallo-Torres L, Gaskill PJ, Eugenin EA, Morgello S, Berman JW. Mechanisms of HIV entry into the CNS: increased sensitivity of HIV infected CD14+CD16+ monocytes to CCL2 and key roles of CCR2, JAM-A, and ALCAM in diapedesis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69270. [PMID: 23922698 PMCID: PMC3724935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As HIV infected individuals live longer, the prevalence of HIV associated neurocognitive disorders is increasing, despite successful antiretroviral therapy. CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes are critical to the neuropathogenesis of HIV as they promote viral seeding of the brain and establish neuroinflammation. The mechanisms by which HIV infected and uninfected monocytes cross the blood brain barrier and enter the central nervous system are not fully understood. We determined that HIV infection of CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes resulted in their highly increased transmigration across the blood brain barrier in response to CCL2 as compared to uninfected cells, which did not occur in the absence of the chemokine. This exuberant transmigration of HIV infected monocytes was due, at least in part, to increased CCR2 and significantly heightened sensitivity to CCL2. The entry of HIV infected and uninfected CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes into the brain was facilitated by significantly increased surface JAM-A, ALCAM, CD99, and PECAM-1, as compared to CD14(+) cells that are CD16 negative. Upon HIV infection, there was an additional increase in surface JAM-A and ALCAM on CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes isolated from some individuals. Antibodies to ALCAM and JAM-A inhibited the transmigration of both HIV infected and uninfected CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes across the BBB, demonstrating their importance in facilitating monocyte transmigration and entry into the brain parenchyma. Targeting CCR2, JAM-A, and ALCAM present on CD14(+)CD16(+) monocytes that preferentially infiltrate the CNS represents a therapeutic strategy to reduce viral seeding of the brain as well as the ongoing neuroinflammation that occurs during HIV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionna W. Williams
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Tina M. Calderon
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Lillie Lopez
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Loreto Carvallo-Torres
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Peter J. Gaskill
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Eliseo A. Eugenin
- Public Health Research Institute, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Susan Morgello
- Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Joan W. Berman
- Department of Pathology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
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107
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Swaminathan S, Bose C, Shah SV, Hall KA, Hiatt KM. Gadolinium contrast agent-induced CD163+ ferroportin+ osteogenic cells in nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2013; 183:796-807. [PMID: 23867799 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Gadolinium-based contrast agents are linked to nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in patients with renal insufficiency. The pathology of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis is characterized by abnormal tissue repair: fibrosis and ectopic ossification. The mechanisms by which gadolinium could induce fibrosis and ossification are not known. We examined in vitro the effect of a gadolinium-based contrast agent on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells for phenotype and function relevant to the pathology of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis using immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, real-time PCR, and osteogenic assays. We also examined tissues from patients with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, using IHC to identify the presence of cells with phenotype induced by gadolinium. Gadolinium contrast induced differentiation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells into a unique cellular phenotype--CD163(+) cells expressing proteins involved in fibrosis and bone formation. These cells express fibroblast growth factor (FGF)23, osteoblast transcription factors Runt-related transcription factor 2, and osterix, and show an osteogenic phenotype in in vitro assays. We show in vivo the presence of CD163(+)/procollagen-1(+)/osteocalcin(+) cells in the fibrotic and calcified tissues of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis patients. Gadolinium contrast-induced CD163(+)/ferroportin(+)/FGF23(+) cells with osteogenic potential may play a role in systemic fibrosis and ectopic ossification in nephrogenic systemic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sundararaman Swaminathan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA.
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108
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Zhang Y, Wei F, Liang Q, Ding W, Qiao L, Song F, Liu L, Yang S, Jin R, Gu J, Li N, Chen D. High levels of divergent HIV-1 quasispecies in patients with neurological opportunistic infections in China. J Neurovirol 2013; 19:359-66. [PMID: 23838848 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-013-0176-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 04/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite the fact that the survival of people infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has improved worldwide because of the increasingly powerful and highly active antiretroviral therapy, opportunistic infections (OIs) of the central nervous system (CNS) remain a serious burden. HIV-1 is capable of entering the CNS through infected peripheral monocytes, but its effect on OIs of CNS remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of HIV-1 in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients with CNS OIs. A total of 24 patients with CNS OIs and 16 non-CNS OIs (control) cases were selected. These AIDS patients were infected with HIV-1 by paid blood donors in China. HIV-1 loads in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were detected using RT-PCR, and the C2-V5 region of HIV-1 envelope gene was amplified from viral quasispecies isolated from CSF using nested PCR. The CSF HIV-1 load of CNS OIs was higher than that of non-CNS OIs, but plasma HIV-1 load of CNS OIs was not higher than that of non-CNS OIs. The nucleotide sequence of C2-V5 region of the HIV-1 quasispecies isolated from the CSF of CNS OIs had a high diversity, and the HIV-1 quasispecies isolated from the CSF of CNS OIs revealed R5 tropism as 11/25 charge rule. These results suggest that high levels of divergent HIV-1 quasispecies in the CNS probably contribute to opportunistic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Beijing You'An Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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109
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Abstract
Neurological sequelae of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have been and remain a significant problem. Monocytes and macrophages in humans and monkeys are susceptible to infection by HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and are considered to be a main mechanism by which the central nervous system (CNS) is infected. Within the infected CNS, perivascular macrophages and, in some cases, parenchymal microglia are infected as are multinucleated giant cells when present. While neurons are not themselves directly infected, neuronal damage occurs within the infected CNS. Despite the success of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in limiting virus in plasma to non-detectable levels, neurological deficits persist. This review discusses the continued neurological dysfunctions that persist in the era of ART, focusing on the roles of monocyte and macrophage as targets of continued viral infection and as agents of pathogenesis in what appears to be emergent macrophage-mediated disease resulting from long-term HIV infection of the host. Data discussed include the biology of monocyte/macrophage activation with HIV and SIV infection, traffic of cells into and out of the CNS with infection, macrophage-associated biomarkers of CNS and cardiac disease, the role of antiretroviral therapy on these cells and CNS disease, as well as the need for effective adjunctive therapies targeting monocytes and macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia H. Burdo
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
| | - Andrew Lackner
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
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110
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Immune activation and regulation in simian immunodeficiency virus-Plasmodium fragile-coinfected rhesus macaques. J Virol 2013; 87:9523-37. [PMID: 23785209 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00861-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is characterized by immune activation, while chronic malaria is associated with elevated interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels. How these apparently antagonizing forces interact in the coinfected host is poorly understood. Using a rhesus macaque model of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-Plasmodium fragile coinfection, we evaluated how innate immune effector cells affect the balance between immune activation and regulation. In vitro Toll-like receptor (TLR) responses of peripheral blood myeloid dendritic cells (mDC) and monocytes were temporarily associated with acute parasitemic episodes and elevated plasma IL-10 levels. Prolonged infection resulted in a decline of mDC function. Monocytes maintained TLR responsiveness but, in addition to IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, also produced IL-10. Consistent with the role of spleen in the clearance of parasite-infected red blood cells, coinfected animals also had increased splenic IL-10 mRNA levels. The main cellular source of IL-10 in the spleens of coinfected animals, however, was not splenic macrophages but T cells, suggesting an impairment of adaptive immunity. In contrast to those in spleen, IL-10-positive cells in axillary lymph nodes of coinfected animals were predominantly mDC, reminiscent of the immunosuppressive phenotype of peripheral blood mDC. Concurrent with IL-10 induction, however, SIV infection promoted elevated systemic IL-12 levels. The continuously increasing ratio of plasma IL-12 to IL-10 suggested that the overall host response in SIV-P. fragile-coinfected animals was shifted toward immune activation versus immune regulation. Therefore, SIV-P. fragile coinfection might be characterized by earlier manifestation of immune dysfunction and exhaustion than that of single-pathogen infections. This could translate into increased morbidity in HIV-malaria-coinfected individuals.
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111
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Hickman SE, El Khoury J. The neuroimmune system in Alzheimer's disease: the glass is half full. J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 33 Suppl 1:S295-302. [PMID: 22751176 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2012-129027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
It is well established that microglia, the neuroimmune cells of the brain, are associated with amyloid-β (Aβ) deposits in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the roles of these cells and other mononuclear phagocytes such as monocytes and macrophages in AD pathogenesis and progression have been elusive. Clues to mononuclear phagocyte involvement came with the demonstration that Aβ directly activates microglia and monocytes to produce neurotoxins, signifying that a receptor mediated interaction of Aβ with these cells may be critical for neurodegeneration seen in AD. Also, in AD brain, mononuclear phagocyte distribution changes from a uniform pattern that covers the brain parenchyma to distinct clusters intimately associated with areas of Aβ deposition, but the driving force behind this choreography was unclear. Here, we review our recent work identifying mononuclear phagocyte receptors for Aβ and unraveling mechanisms of recruitment of these cells to areas of Aβ deposition. While our findings and those of others have added significantly to our understanding of the role of the neuroimmune system in AD, the glass remains half full (or half empty) and a lot remains to be uncovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne E Hickman
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
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112
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Szabo M, Gulya K. Development of the microglial phenotype in culture. Neuroscience 2013; 241:280-95. [PMID: 23535251 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2012] [Revised: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Selected morphological, molecular and functional aspects of various microglial cell populations were characterized in cell cultures established from the forebrains of E18 rat embryos. The mixed primary cortical cultures were maintained for up to 28days using routine culturing techniques when the microglial cells in the culture were not stimulated or immunologically challenged. During culturing, expansion of the microglial cell populations was observed, as evidenced by quantitative assessment of selected monocyte/macrophage/microglial cell-specific markers (human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DP, DQ, DR, CD11b/c and Iba1) via immunocyto- and histochemistry and Western blot analysis. The Iba1 immunoreactivity in Western blots steadily increased about 750-fold, and the number of Iba1-immunoreactive cells rose at least 67-fold between one day in vitro (DIV1) and DIV28. Morphometric analysis on binary (digital) silhouettes of the microglia revealed their evolving morphology during culturing. Microglial cells were mainly ameboid in the early stages of in vitro differentiation, while mixed populations of ameboid and ramified cell morphologies were characteristic of older cultures as the average transformation index (TI) increased from 1.96 (DIV1) to 15.17 (DIV28). Multiple immunofluorescence labeling of selected biomarkers revealed different microglial phenotypes during culturing. For example, while HLA DP, DQ, DR immunoreactivity was present exclusively in ameboid microglia (TI<3) between DIV1 and DIV10, CD11b/c- and Iba1-positive microglial cells were moderately (TI<13) and progressively (TI<81) more ramified, respectively, and always present throughout culturing. Regardless of the age of the cultures, proliferating microglia were Ki67-positive and characterized by low TI values (TI<3). The microglial function was assessed by an in vitro phagocytosis assay. Unstimulated microglia with low TI values were significantly more active in phagocytosing fluorescent microspheres than the ramified forms. In vitro studies on microglial population dynamics combined with phenotypic characterization can be of importance when different in vivo pathophysiological situations are modeled in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Szabo
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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113
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Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Franco-Lira M, Mora-Tiscareño A, Medina-Cortina H, Torres-Jardón R, Kavanaugh M. Early Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease pathology in urban children: Friend versus Foe responses--it is time to face the evidence. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:161687. [PMID: 23509683 PMCID: PMC3581281 DOI: 10.1155/2013/161687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 01/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chronic exposure to particulate matter air pollution is known to cause inflammation leading to respiratory- and cardiovascular-related sickness and death. Mexico City Metropolitan Area children exhibit an early brain imbalance in genes involved in oxidative stress, inflammation, and innate and adaptive immune responses. Early dysregulated neuroinflammation, brain microvascular damage, production of potent vasoconstrictors, and perturbations in the integrity of the neurovascular unit likely contribute to progressive neurodegenerative processes. The accumulation of misfolded proteins coincides with the anatomical distribution observed in the early stages of both Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. We contend misfolding of hyperphosphorylated tau (HPπ), alpha-synuclein, and beta-amyloid could represent a compensatory early protective response to the sustained systemic and brain inflammation. However, we favor the view that the chronic systemic and brain dysregulated inflammation and the diffuse vascular damage contribute to the establishment of neurodegenerative processes with childhood clinical manifestations. Friend turns Foe early; therefore, implementation of neuroprotective measures to ameliorate or stop the inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes is warranted in exposed children. Epidemiological, cognitive, structural, and functional neuroimaging and mechanistic studies into the association between air pollution exposures and the development of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in children are of pressing importance for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Calderón-Garcidueñas
- Center for Structural and Functional Neurosciences, The University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive, Skaggs Building 287, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
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114
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Browne TC, McQuillan K, McManus RM, O’Reilly JA, Mills KHG, Lynch MA. IFN-γ Production by Amyloid β–Specific Th1 Cells Promotes Microglial Activation and Increases Plaque Burden in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2241-51. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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115
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Dragunow M. Meningeal and choroid plexus cells--novel drug targets for CNS disorders. Brain Res 2013; 1501:32-55. [PMID: 23328079 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The meninges and choroid plexus perform many functions in the developing and adult human central nervous system (CNS) and are composed of a number of different cell types. In this article I focus on meningeal and choroid plexus cells as targets for the development of drugs to treat a range of traumatic, ischemic and chronic brain disorders. Meningeal cells are involved in cortical development (and their dysfunction may be involved in cortical dysplasia), fibrotic scar formation after traumatic brain injuries (TBI), brain inflammation following infections, and neurodegenerative disorders such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other brain disorders. The choroid plexus regulates the composition of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as well as brain entry of inflammatory cells under basal conditions and after injuries. The meninges and choroid plexus also link peripheral inflammation (occurring in the metabolic syndrome and after infections) to CNS inflammation which may contribute to the development and progression of a range of CNS neurological and psychiatric disorders. They respond to cytokines generated systemically and secrete cytokines and chemokines that have powerful effects on the brain. The meninges may also provide a stem cell niche in the adult brain which could be harnessed for brain repair. Targeting meningeal and choroid plexus cells with therapeutic agents may provide novel therapies for a range of human brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Dragunow
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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116
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Kushchayev SV, Kushchayeva YS, Wiener PC, Scheck AC, Badie B, Preul MC. Monocyte-derived cells of the brain and malignant gliomas: the double face of Janus. World Neurosurg 2012. [PMID: 23178919 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2012.11.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Monocyte-derived cells of the brain (MDCB) are a diverse group of functional immune cells that are also highly abundant in gliomas. There is growing evidence that MDCB play essential roles in the pathogenesis of gliomas. The aim of this review was to collate and systematize contemporary knowledge about these cells as they relate to glioma progression and antiglioblastoma therapeutic modalities with a view toward improved effectiveness of therapy. METHODS We reviewed relevant studies to construct a summary of different MDCB subpopulations in steady state and in malignant gliomas and discuss their role in the development of malignant gliomas and potential future therapies. RESULTS Current studies suggest that MDCB subsets display different phenotypes and differentiation potentials depending on their milieu in the brain and exposure to tumoral influences. MDCB possess specific and unique functions, including those that are protumoral and those that are antitumoral. CONCLUSIONS Elucidating the role of mononuclear-derived cells associated with gliomas is crucial in designing novel immunotherapy strategies. Much progress is needed to characterize markers to identify cell subsets and their specific regulatory roles. Investigation of MDCB can be clinically relevant. Specific MDCB populations potentially can be used for glioma therapy as a target or as cell vehicles that might deliver cytotoxic substances or processes to the glioma microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergiy V Kushchayev
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Yevgeniya S Kushchayeva
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA; Department of Surgery, Medstar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Philip C Wiener
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Adrienne C Scheck
- Neuro-oncology Research Laboratory, Division of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Behnam Badie
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Mark C Preul
- Neurosurgery Research Laboratory, Division of Neurological Surgery, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
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117
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Wong KL, Yeap WH, Tai JJY, Ong SM, Dang TM, Wong SC. The three human monocyte subsets: implications for health and disease. Immunol Res 2012; 53:41-57. [PMID: 22430559 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-012-8297-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 494] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human blood monocytes are heterogeneous and conventionally subdivided into two subsets based on CD16 expression. Recently, the official nomenclature subdivides monocytes into three subsets, the additional subset arising from the segregation of the CD16+ monocytes into two based on relative expression of CD14. Recent whole genome analysis reveal that specialized functions and phenotypes can be attributed to these newly defined monocyte subsets. In this review, we discuss these recent results, and also the description and utility of this new segregation in several disease conditions. We also discuss alternative markers for segregating the monocyte subsets, for example using Tie-2 and slan, which do not necessarily follow the official method of segregating monocyte subsets based on relative CD14 and CD16 expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Loon Wong
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #04/04 Immunos, Biopolis, Singapore
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118
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Impact of opiate addiction on neuroinflammation in HIV. J Neurovirol 2012; 18:364-73. [PMID: 22797933 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-012-0118-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the independent and interactive effects of opiate addiction and HIV on neuroinflammation, we measured microglial/macrophage activation and astrogliosis in multiple regions of human brain. Samples of thalamus, frontal gray matter, and frontal white matter were obtained from 46 individuals categorized as: HIV negatives, HIV-negative opiate addicts, HIV positives, HIV-positive opiate addicts, HIV encephalitis (HIVE), and HIVE opiate addicts. Activated brain microglia/macrophages and astrocytosis were quantified by morphometric analysis of immunohistochemical stains for CD68, HLA-D, CD163, and GFAP. The effects of HIV grouping, opiate addiction, and their interaction on expression of the markers were examined in a series of two-way ANOVAs. In opiate addicts, there was generally higher baseline expression of CD68 and HLA-D in HIV negatives, and lower expression in HIV and HIVE, compared to individuals without opiate abuse. Thus, for these markers, and for GFAP in frontal gray, opiates were associated with attenuated HIV effect. In contrast, for CD163, opiates did not significantly alter responses to HIV, and HIV effects were variably absent in individuals without opiate abuse. The divergent impact that opiate addiction displays on these markers may suggest a generally immunosuppressive role in the CNS, with decreased HIV-associated activation of markers CD68 and HLA-D that potentially reflect neurotoxic pathways, and preservation of CD163, thought to be an indicator of neuroprotective scavenger systems. These results suggest a complex impact of opiates on neuroinflammation in baseline and virally stimulated states.
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119
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Spudich S, González-Scarano F. HIV-1-related central nervous system disease: current issues in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012; 2:a007120. [PMID: 22675662 PMCID: PMC3367536 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a007120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
HIV-associated central nervous system (CNS) injury continues to be clinically significant in the modern era of HIV infection and therapy. A substantial proportion of patients with suppressed HIV infection on optimal antiretroviral therapy have impaired performance on neuropsychological testing, suggesting persistence of neurological abnormalities despite treatment and projected long-term survival. In the underresourced setting, limited accessibility to antiretroviral medications means that CNS complications of later-stage HIV infection continue to be a major concern. This article reviews key recent advances in our understanding of the neuropathogenesis of HIV, focusing on basic and clinical studies that reveal viral and host features associated with viral neuroinvasion, persistence, and immunopathogenesis in the CNS, as well as issues related to monitoring and treatment of HIV-associated CNS injury in the current era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Spudich
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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120
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Winkler JM, Chaudhuri AD, Fox HS. Translating the brain transcriptome in neuroAIDS: from non-human primates to humans. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2012; 7:372-9. [PMID: 22367717 PMCID: PMC3354039 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9344-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In the post-human genome project era, high throughput techniques to detect and computational algorithms to analyze differentially expressed genes have proven to be powerful tools for studying pathogenesis of neuroAIDS. Concurrently, discovery of non-coding RNAs and their role in development and disease has underscored the importance of examining the entire transcriptome instead of protein coding genes alone. Herein, we review the documented changes in brain RNA expression profiles in the non-human primate model of neuroAIDS (SIV infected monkeys) and compare the findings to those resulting from studies in post-mortem human samples of neuroAIDS. Differential expression of mRNAs involved in inflammation and immune response are a common finding in both monkey and human samples - even in HIV infected people on combination antiretroviral therapy, a shared set of genes is upregulated in the brains of both infected monkeys and humans: B2M, IFI44, IFIT3, MX1, STAT1. Additionally, alterations in ion channel encoding genes have been observed in the human studies. Brain miRNA profiling has also been performed, and up-regulation of two miRNAs originating from the same transcript, miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p, is common to human and monkey neuroAIDS studies. With increases in knowledge about the genome and advances in technology, unraveling alterations in the transcriptome in the SIV/monkey model will continue to enrich our knowledge about the effects of HIV on the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Winkler
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 985800 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5800, USA
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121
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Zhang Z, Zhang ZY, Wu Y, Schluesener HJ. Lesional accumulation of CD163+ macrophages/microglia in rat traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2012; 1461:102-10. [PMID: 22583855 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
A robust neuroinflammation, contributing to the development of secondary injury, is a common histopathological feature of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Characterization of leukocytic subpopulations contributing to the early infiltration of the damaged tissue might aid in further understanding of lesion development. Reactive macrophages/microglia can exert protective or damaging effects in TBI. CD163 is considered a marker of M2 (alternatively activated) macrophages. Therefore we investigated the accumulation of CD163(+) macrophages/microglia in the brain of TBI rats. TBI was induced in rats using an open skull weight-drop contusion model and the accumulation of CD163(+) cells was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. In normal rat brains, CD163 was expressed by meningeal, choroid plexus and perivascular macrophages. Significant parenchymal CD163(+) cell accumulation was observed two days post TBI and continuously increased in the investigated survival time. The accumulated CD163(+) cells were mainly distributed to the lesional areas and exhibited macrophage phenotypes with amoeboid morphologic characteristics but not activated microglial phenotypes with hypertrophic morphology and thick processes. Double-labeling experiments showed that most CD163(+) cells co-expressed heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). In addition, in vitro incubating of macrophage RAW264.7 cells or primary peritoneal macrophages with hemoglobin- haptoglobin (Hb-Hp) complex suppressed LPS-induced inflammatory macrophages phenotype and induced CD163 and HO-1 upregulation, indicating that CD163(+) macrophages/microglia in TBI might have anti-inflammatory effects. And further study is necessary to identify functions of these cells in TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiren Zhang
- Institute of Immunology, Third Military Medical University of PLA, Gaotanyan Main Street 30, 400038 Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
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122
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Diastolic dysfunction is associated with myocardial viral load in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques. AIDS 2012; 26:815-23. [PMID: 22301409 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0b013e3283518f01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To establish the relationship between HIV-induced cardiac diastolic dysfunction, immune responses, and virus replication in the heart using the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/macaque model. DESIGN Cardiac diastolic dysfunction is common in HIV-infected individuals including asymptomatic patients and those treated with combination antiretroviral therapy. SIV-infected macaques develop cardiac dysfunction, serving as a useful model to establish mechanisms underlying HIV-induced cardiac dysfunction. To understand the relationship between functional cardiac impairment, viral replication in the heart, and associated host inflammatory responses, cardiac function was evaluated in SIV-infected macaques and functional decline was correlated with features of the host immune response and the extent of viral replication in both the myocardium and plasma. METHODS Cardiac function was evaluated longitudinally in 22 SIV-infected and eight uninfected macaques using mitral inflow and tissue Doppler echocardiography. Myocardial macrophage populations were evaluated by CD68 and CD163 immunostaining. SIV RNA levels in both myocardium and plasma were measured by qRT-PCR. RESULTS Echocardiographic abnormalities developed in SIV-infected macaques that closely resembled diastolic dysfunction reported in asymptomatic HIV-infected individuals. Although CD68 and CD163 were upregulated in the myocardium of SIV-infected animals, neither macrophage marker correlated with functional decline. SIV-induced diastolic dysfunction was strongly correlated with extent of SIV replication in the myocardium, implicating virus or viral proteins in the initiation and progression of cardiac dysfunction. CONCLUSION This study demonstrated a strong correlation between cardiac functional impairment and extent of SIV replication in the myocardium, suggesting that persistent viral replication in myocardial macrophages induces cardiomyocyte damage manifest as diastolic dysfunction.
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123
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Neuropathology of wild-type and nef-attenuated T cell tropic simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVmac32H) and macrophage tropic neurovirulent SIVmac17E-Fr in cynomolgus macaques. J Neurovirol 2012; 18:100-12. [PMID: 22403025 PMCID: PMC3325410 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-012-0084-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Revised: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The neuropathology of simian immunodeficiency (SIV) infection in cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) was investigated following infection with either T cell tropic SIVmacJ5, SIVmacC8 or macrophage tropic SIVmac17E-Fr. Formalin fixed, paraffin embedded brain tissue sections were analysed using a combination of in situ techniques. Macaques infected with either wild-type SIVmacJ5 or neurovirulent SIVmac17E-Fr showed evidence of neuronal dephosphorylation, loss of oligodendrocyte and CCR5 staining, lack of microglial MHC II expression, infiltration by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and mild astrocytosis. SIVmacJ5-infected animals exhibited activation of microglia whilst those infected with SIVmac17E-Fr demonstrated a loss of microglia staining. These results are suggestive of impaired central nervous system (CNS) physiology. Furthermore, infiltration by T cells into the brain parenchyma indicated disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB). Animals infected with the Δnef-attenuated SIVmacC8 showed microglial activation and astrogliosis indicative of an inflammatory response, lack of MHC II and CCR5 staining and infiltration by CD8+ T cells. These results demonstrate that the SIV infection of cynomolgus macaque can be used as a model to replicate the range of CNS pathologies observed following HIV infection of humans and to investigate the pathogenesis of HIV associated neuropathology.
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124
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Balasubramaniam VRMT, Wai TH, Omar AR, Othman I, Hassan SS. Cellular transcripts of chicken brain tissues in response to H5N1 and Newcastle disease virus infection. Virol J 2012; 9:53. [PMID: 22361110 PMCID: PMC3297529 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-9-53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and Newcastle disease (ND) viruses are the two most important poultry viruses in the world, with the ability to cause classic central nervous system dysfunction in poultry and migratory birds. To elucidate the mechanisms of neurovirulence caused by these viruses, a preliminary study was design to analyze host's cellular responses during infections of these viruses. Methods An improved mRNA differential display technique (Gene Fishing™) was undertaken to analyze differentially expressed transcripts regulated during HPAI H5N1 and velogenic neurotropic NDV infections of whole brain of chickens. The identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was made possible as this technique uses annealing control primers that generate reproducible, authentic and long PCR products that are detectable on agarose gels. Results Twenty-three genes were identified to be significantly regulated during infections with both viruses, where ten of the genes have been selected for validation using a TaqMan® based real time quantitative PCR assay. Some of the identified genes demonstrated to be key factors involving the cytoskeletal system, neural signal transduction and protein folding during stress. Interestingly, Septin 5, one of the genes isolated from HPAI H5N1-infected brain tissues has been reported to participate in the pathogenic process of Parkinson's disease. Conclusions In this limited study, the differentially expressed genes of infected brain tissues regulated by the viruses were found not to be identical, thus suggesting that their neurovirulence and neuropathogenesis may not share similar mechanisms and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod R M T Balasubramaniam
- Virus-Host Interaction Group, Infectious Disease Laboratory (MR3), School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University, Sunway Campus, 46150 Sunway, Malaysia
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125
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Williams DW, Eugenin EA, Calderon TM, Berman JW. Monocyte maturation, HIV susceptibility, and transmigration across the blood brain barrier are critical in HIV neuropathogenesis. J Leukoc Biol 2012; 91:401-15. [PMID: 22227964 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0811394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV continues to be a global health crisis with more than 34 million people infected worldwide (UNAIDS: Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2010, Geneva, World Health Organization). HIV enters the CNS within 2 weeks of infection and establishes a spectrum of HAND in a large percentage of infected individuals. These neurologic deficits greatly impact the quality of life of those infected with HIV. The establishment of HAND is largely attributed to monocyte transmigration, particularly that of a mature CD14(+)CD16(+) monocyte population, which is more susceptible to HIV infection, across the BBB into the CNS parenchyma in response to chemotactic signals. To enter the CNS, junctional proteins on the monocytes must participate in homo- and heterotypic interactions with those present on BMVECs of the BBB as they transmigrate across the barrier. This transmigration is responsible for bringing virus into the brain and establishing chronic neuroinflammation. While there is baseline trafficking of monocytes into the CNS, the increased chemotactic signals present during HIV infection of the brain promote exuberant monocyte transmigration into the CNS. This review will discuss the mechanisms of monocyte differentiation/maturation, HIV infectivity, and transmigration into the CNS parenchyma that contribute to the establishment of cognitive impairment in HIV-infected individuals. It will focus on markers of monocyte subpopulations, how differentiation/maturation alters HIV infectivity, and the mechanisms that promote their increased transmigration across the BBB into the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionna W Williams
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave., Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
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126
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Monocyte mobilization, activation markers, and unique macrophage populations in the brain: observations from SIV infected monkeys are informative with regard to pathogenic mechanisms of HIV infection in humans. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 7:363-71. [PMID: 22167311 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-011-9330-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Non-human primate models of AIDS and neuroAIDS have been useful to study AIDS in humans in general and neuroAIDS in particular. Important information concerning target cells of infection, mechanisms of immune activation and pathology and cell traffic has been made in non-human primate models. To date observations in SIV infected monkey models have predicted or paralleled monocyte/macrophage biology with HIV infection and neuroAIDS. In this brief review we discuss a CD8+ T lymphocyte depletion model of rapid AIDS which results in a high incidence of SIV encephalitis. Specifically we review recent observations we have made using this model concerning monocyte turnover, monocyte/macrophage activation, macrophage derived biomarkers of disease and novel therapeutic approaches to AIDS and CNS pathology. Importantly, all observations made in the rapid model of AIDS discussed here are important and relevant to HIV infection of humans, even in the current era of anti-retroviral therapy that maintains HIV in plasma below the limit of detection.
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127
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Prinz M, Priller J, Sisodia SS, Ransohoff RM. Heterogeneity of CNS myeloid cells and their roles in neurodegeneration. Nat Neurosci 2011; 14:1227-35. [DOI: 10.1038/nn.2923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 514] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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128
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Recently infiltrating MAC387(+) monocytes/macrophages a third macrophage population involved in SIV and HIV encephalitic lesion formation. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 178:2121-35. [PMID: 21514427 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Monocytes/macrophages are critical components of HIV and SIV encephalitic lesions. We used in vivo BrdU labeling and markers specific to stages of macrophage differentiation or inflammation to define macrophage heterogeneity and to better define the role of macrophage populations in lesion formation and productive infection. Lesions were heterogeneously composed of resident macrophages (CD68(+)HAM56(+)), perivascular macrophages (CD163(+) CD68(+)MAC387(-)), and recently infiltrated MAC387(+) CD68(-)CD163(-) monocytes/macrophages. At 24 and 48 hours after BrdU inoculation, 30% of MAC387(+) monocytes/macrophages were BrdU(+), consistent with their being recently infiltrated. In perivascular cuffs with low-level SIV replication, MAC387(+) monocytes/macrophages outnumbered CD68(+) macrophages. Conversely, lesions with numerous SIV-p28(+) macrophages and multinucleated giant cells had fewer MAC387(+) monocytes/macrophages. The MAC387(+) cells were not productively infected nor did they express detectable CCR2, unlike perivascular macrophages. Overall, we found that the proportion of MAC387(+) cells tends to be higher than the proportion of CD68(+) macrophages in the brain of animals with mild encephalitis; the ratio was reversed with more severe encephalitis. These results suggest that development of SIV and HIV encephalitis is an active and ongoing process that involves the recruitment and accumulation of: i) nonproductively infected MAC387(+) monocytes/macrophages that are present with inflammation (potentially M1-like macrophages), ii) CD163(+) perivascular macrophages (consistent with M2-like macrophages), and iii) CD68(+) or HAM56(+) resident macrophages. The latter two populations are cellular reservoirs for productive infection.
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129
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Thompson KA, Cherry CL, Bell JE, McLean CA. Brain cell reservoirs of latent virus in presymptomatic HIV-infected individuals. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 179:1623-9. [PMID: 21871429 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
We detected HIV-1 DNA in pure populations of perivascular macrophages, parenchymal microglia, and astrocytes, isolated using laser microdissection from brain tissue of five untreated individuals who died in the presymptomatic stage of infection from non-HIV causes. HIV-1 DNA was detected in the three cell populations, most consistently in perivascular macrophages, without evidence of productive infection. The percentage of PCR reactions detecting HIV-1 DNA in perivascular macrophages correlated inversely with peripheral blood CD4 counts. These findings demonstrate that brain cell reservoirs of latent HIV-1 exist before pathological HIV encephalitis and suggest that perivascular macrophage trafficking of latent virus into the brain increases with immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Thompson
- Pathology Research Laboratory, Anatomical Pathology Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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130
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Burdo TH, Lentz MR, Autissier P, Krishnan A, Halpern E, Letendre S, Rosenberg ES, Ellis RJ, Williams KC. Soluble CD163 made by monocyte/macrophages is a novel marker of HIV activity in early and chronic infection prior to and after anti-retroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:154-63. [PMID: 21628670 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
CD163, a monocyte- and macrophage-specific scavenger receptor, is shed during activation as soluble CD163 (sCD163). We have previously demonstrated that monocyte expansion from bone marrow with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection correlated with plasma sCD163, the rate of AIDS progression, and the severity of macrophage-mediated pathogenesis. Here, we examined sCD163 in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. sCD163 was elevated in the plasma of individuals with chronic HIV infection (>1 year in duration), compared with HIV-seronegative individuals. With effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), sCD163 levels decreased in parallel with HIV RNA levels but did not return to HIV-seronegative levels, suggesting the presence of residual monocyte/macrophage activation even with plasma viral loads below the limit of detection. In individuals with early HIV infection (≤1 year in duration), effective ART resulted in decreased sCD163 levels that were comparable to levels in HIV-seronegative individuals. sCD163 levels in plasma were positively correlated with the percentage of CD14+CD16+ monocytes and activated CD8+HLA-DR+CD38+ T lymphocytes and were inversely correlated with CD163 expression on CD14+CD16+ monocytes. With ART interruption in subjects with early HIV infection, sCD163 and plasma virus levels spiked but rapidly returned to baseline with reinitiation of ART. This study points to the utility of monocyte- and macrophage-derived sCD163 as a marker of HIV activity that links viral replication with monocyte and macrophage activation. These observations underscore the significance of monocyte and macrophage immune responses with HIV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia H Burdo
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
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131
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Zhang Z, Zhang ZY, Schittenhelm J, Wu Y, Meyermann R, Schluesener HJ. Parenchymal accumulation of CD163+ macrophages/microglia in multiple sclerosis brains. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 237:73-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2011] [Revised: 05/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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132
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Patil AJ, Edward DP, Wong M, Ravichandran P, Goldstein DA. The role of perivascular melanophage infiltrates in the conjunctiva in sympathetic ophthalmia. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 2011; 19:186-91. [PMID: 21595534 DOI: 10.3109/09273948.2010.538122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To report pathologic changes in the conjunctiva from the exciting eye in a case of sympathetic ophthalmia (SO). METHODS Report of clinical findings and conjunctival histopathology in a patient with SO. RESULTS A 50-year-old male developed SO, with unusual peribulbar conjunctival pigmentation in the inciting eye. Histological examination of the conjunctival biopsy revealed perivascular distribution of CD68(+) melanophages that also expressed HLA-DR, suggesting that these macrophages may act as antigen-presenting cells. In addition, increased CD4(+) and CD3(+) lymphocytes were noted in the subconjunctival space when compared to specimens of normal conjunctiva and traumatic uveal prolapse without SO, suggesting T-cell recruitment. CONCLUSIONS These pathologic findings suggest a possible mechanism by which local antigen processing by subconjunctival melanophages may play a role in the initiation of the complex cell-mediated response seen in SO.
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133
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Tippett E, Cheng WJ, Westhorpe C, Cameron PU, Brew BJ, Lewin SR, Jaworowski A, Crowe SM. Differential expression of CD163 on monocyte subsets in healthy and HIV-1 infected individuals. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19968. [PMID: 21625498 PMCID: PMC3098854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
CD163, a haptoglobin-hemoglobin (Hp-Hb) scavenger receptor, expressed by monocytes and macrophages, is important in resolution of inflammation. Age-related non-AIDS co-morbidities in HIV-infected individuals, particularly dementia and cardiovascular disease, result in part from effects of HIV-1 infection on monocyte and macrophage biology. CD163 co-expression on CD14+CD16++ monocytes has been proposed as a useful biomarker for HIV-1 disease progression and the presence of HIV associated dementia. Here we investigated CD163 expression on monocyte subsets ex vivo, on cultured macrophages, and soluble in plasma, in the setting of HIV-1 infection. Whole blood immunophenotyping revealed CD163 expression on CD14++CD16- monocytes but not on CD14+CD16++ monocytes (P = 0.004), supported by CD163 mRNA levels. Incubation with M-CSF induced CD163 protein expression on CD14+CD16++ monocytes to the same extent as CD14++CD16− monocytes. CD163 expression on CD14++CD16+ monocytes from HIV-infected subjects was significantly higher than from uninfected individuals, with a trend towards increased expression on CD14++CD16− monocytes (P = 0.019 and 0.069 respectively), which is accounted for by HIV-1 therapy including protease inhibitors. Shedding of CD163 was shown to predominantly occur from the CD14++CD16− subset after Ficoll isolation and LPS stimulation. Soluble CD163 concentration in plasma from HIV-1 infected donors was similar to HIV-1 uninfected donors. Monocyte CD163 expression in HIV-1 infected patients showed a complicated relationship with classical measures of disease progression. Our findings clarify technical issues regarding CD163 expression on monocyte subsets and further elucidates its role in HIV-associated inflammation by demonstrating that CD163 is readily lost from CD14++CD16− monocytes and induced in pro-inflammatory CD14+CD16++ monocytes by M-CSF. Our data show that all monocyte subsets are potentially capable of differentiating into CD163-expressing anti-inflammatory macrophages given appropriate stimuli. Levels of CD163 expression on monocytes may be a potential biomarker reflecting efforts by the immune system to resolve immune activation and inflammation in HIV-infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Tippett
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Wan-Jung Cheng
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clare Westhorpe
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul U. Cameron
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Infectious Disease Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Immunology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bruce J. Brew
- Department of Neurology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Sharon R. Lewin
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Infectious Disease Unit, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anthony Jaworowski
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Immunology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Suzanne M. Crowe
- Centre for Virology, The Macfarlane Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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134
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Ananworanich J, Apornpong T, Kosalaraksa P, Jaimulwong T, Hansudewechakul R, Pancharoen C, Bunupuradah T, Chandara M, Puthanakit T, Ngampiyasakul C, Wongsawat J, Kanjanavanit S, Luesomboon W, Klangsinsirikul P, Ngo-Giang-Huong N, Kerr SJ, Ubolyam S, Mengthaisong T, Gelman RS, Pattanapanyasat K, Saphonn V, Ruxrungtham K, Shearer WT. Characteristics of lymphocyte subsets in HIV-infected, long-term nonprogressor, and healthy Asian children through 12 years of age. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 126:1294-301.e10. [PMID: 21134574 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Revised: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are limited data on the immune profiles of HIV-positive children compared with healthy controls, and no such data for Asian children. OBJECTIVES To immunophenotype HIV-positive Asian children, including long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs), compared with age-matched healthy controls. METHODS We used flow cytometry to analyze 13 lymphocyte and monocyte subsets from 222 untreated, HIV-positive children with 15% to 24% CD4(+) T cells and no AIDS-related illnesses and 142 healthy children (controls). Data were compared among age categories. Profiles from LTNPs (n = 50), defined as children ≥8 years old with CD4(+) T-cell counts ≥350 cells/mm(3), were compared with data from age-matched non-LTNPs (n = 17) and controls (n = 53). RESULTS Compared with controls, HIV-positive children had lower values (cell count per mm(3) and percent distribution) for T(H) cells and higher values for cytotoxic T cells, with reductions in populations of naive T(H) and cytotoxic T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. HIV-positive children had high values for activated T(H) and cytotoxic T cells. Compared with non-LTNPs, LTNPs had higher values of T(H) and cytotoxic T cells, naive and memory T-cell subsets, and B and NK cells. Surprisingly, counts of activated T(H) and cytotoxic T cells were also higher among LTNPs. LNTPs were more frequently male. CONCLUSION Untreated, HIV-infected Asian children have immune profiles that differ from those of controls, characterized by low values for T(H) cells, naive T cells, B cells, and NK cells but high values for cytotoxic, activated T(H), and cytotoxic T cells. The higher values for activated T cells observed in LTNPs require confirmation in longitudinal studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jintanat Ananworanich
- HIV Netherlands Australia Thailand Research Collaboration, Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Center, Bangkok, Thailand.
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135
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Meléndez LM, Colon K, Rivera L, Rodriguez-Franco E, Toro-Nieves D. Proteomic analysis of HIV-infected macrophages. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 6:89-106. [PMID: 21153888 PMCID: PMC3028070 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-010-9253-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mononuclear phagocytes (monocytes, macrophages, and microglia) play an important role in innate immunity against pathogens including HIV. These cells are also important viral reservoirs in the central nervous system and secrete inflammatory mediators and toxins that affect the tissue environment and function of surrounding cells. In the era of antiretroviral therapy, there are fewer of these inflammatory mediators. Proteomic approaches including surface enhancement laser desorption ionization, one- and two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis, and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry have been used to uncover the proteins produced by in vitro HIV-infected monocytes, macrophages, and microglia. These approaches have advanced the understanding of novel mechanisms for HIV replication and neuronal damage. They have also been used in tissue macrophages that restrict HIV replication to understand the mechanisms of restriction for future therapies. In this review, we summarize the proteomic studies on HIV-infected mononuclear phagocytes and discuss other recent proteomic approaches that are starting to be applied to this field. As proteomic instruments and methods evolve to become more sensitive and quantitative, future studies are likely to identify more proteins that can be targeted for diagnosis or therapy and to uncover novel disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loyda M Meléndez
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00935, Puerto Rico.
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136
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Yang Y, Ye J, Yang X, Jiang R, Chen H, Cao S. Japanese encephalitis virus infection induces changes of mRNA profile of mouse spleen and brain. Virol J 2011; 8:80. [PMID: 21345237 PMCID: PMC3056812 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, leading to an acute encephalitis and damage to the central nervous system (CNS). The mechanism of JEV pathogenesis is still unclear. DNA microarray analyses have been recently employed to detect changes in host gene expression, which is helpful to reveal molecular pathways that govern viral pathogenesis. In order to globally identify candidate host genes associated with JEV pathogenesis, a systematic mRNA profiling was performed in spleens and brains of JEV-infected mice. RESULTS The results of microarray analysis showed that 437 genes in spleen and 1119 genes in brain were differentially expressed in response to JEV infection, with obviously upregulated genes like pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines, apoptosis-related proteases and IFN inducible transcription factors. And the significant pathways of differentially expressed genes are involved in cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity, antigen processing and presentation, MAPK signaling, and toll-like receptor signaling, etc. The differential expression of these genes suggests a strong antiviral response of host but may also contribute to the pathogenesis of JEV resulting in encephalitis. Quantitative RT-PCR (RT-qPCR) assay of some selected genes further confirmed the results of microarray assay. CONCLUSIONS Data obtained from mRNA microarray suggests that JEV infection causes significant changes of mRNA expression profiles in mouse spleen and brain. Most of differentially expression genes are associated with antiviral response of host, which may provide important information for investigation of JEV pathogenesis and therapeutic method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Jing Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Xiaohong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Rong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Huanchun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
| | - Shengbo Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
- Laboratory of Animal Virology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, PR China
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137
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Maniecki MB, Etzerodt A, Moestrup SK, Møller HJ, Graversen JH. Comparative assessment of the recognition of domain-specific CD163 monoclonal antibodies in human monocytes explains wide discrepancy in reported levels of cellular surface CD163 expression. Immunobiology 2011; 216:882-90. [PMID: 21458881 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2011.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CD163 is expressed exclusively on cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage and is widely used as a marker of human macrophages. Further, it has been suggested as a diagnostic marker of monocyte/macrophage activity in inflammatory conditions and as a therapeutic target. However, studies continue to exhibit great discrepancy in the measured percentage of CD163-expressing blood monocytes in healthy individuals. In this study we sought to clarify this inconsistency in reported levels of CD163 surface expression by a detailed analysis of a panel of CD163 antibodies used in previous studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cellular distribution of CD163 on human peripheral blood monocytes in freshly drawn blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from buffy-coats was investigated by flow cytometry using CD163 monoclonal antibodies recognizing scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domain 1 (MAC2-158), domain 4 (R-20), domain 7 (GHI/61), and domain 9 (RM3/1). The CD163 monoclonal antibodies were characterized in binding and endocytosis experiments in human macrophages and CD163-transfected Flp-In CHO cells. Calcium-dependent ligand binding was assessed using surface plasmon resonance, and the specificity of the CD163 monoclonal antibodies was analyzed by western blotting. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Flow cytometric analysis revealed that the estimated proportion of CD163-expressing human peripheral blood monocytes increased when using CD163 monoclonal antibodies recognizing epitopes in the N-terminal part of CD163, remote from the membrane surface. Moreover, the proportion of CD163 positive monocytes observed was highly dependent on free calcium. GHI/61 did not exhibit CD163 binding in the presence of calcium as measured by surface plasmon resonance, which was in agreement with the concordant loss of binding in heparin-stabilized whole blood observed by flow cytometry. In contrast, RM3/1 exhibited weak binding to CD163 in the absence of calcium but high affinity binding to CD163 in the presence of calcium. R-20 and MAC2-158 were unaffected by extracellular calcium levels. The latter SRCR domain 1mAb consistently recognized more than 80% CD163-positive monocytes in human peripheral blood. CONCLUSION Epitope accessibility and extracellular calcium dependence elucidate discrepancies in reported levels of monocytic CD163 expression. Utilizing monoclonal antibodies to the N-terminal part of CD163 more than 80% monocytes in human peripheral blood could be identified as CD163 positive, indicating that most, and conceivably all, human peripheral blood monocytes do express CD163.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Bogdan Maniecki
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Aarhus Sygehus, Aarhus University Hospital, Nørrebrogade 44, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
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138
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Buckner CM, Calderon TM, Willams DW, Belbin TJ, Berman JW. Characterization of monocyte maturation/differentiation that facilitates their transmigration across the blood-brain barrier and infection by HIV: implications for NeuroAIDS. Cell Immunol 2010; 267:109-23. [PMID: 21292246 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2010.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2010] [Revised: 11/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV) associated neurocognitive disorders resulting from infection of the central nervous system (CNS) by HIV continues to increase despite the success of combination antiretroviral therapy. Although monocytes are known to transport HIV across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) into the CNS, there are few specific markers that identify monocyte subpopulations susceptible to HIV infection and/or capable of infiltrating the CNS. We cultured human peripheral blood monocytes and characterized the expression of the phenotypic markers CD14, CD16, CD11b, Mac387, CD163, CD44v6 and CD166 during monocyte/macrophage (Mo/Mac) maturation/differentiation. We determined that a CD14(+)CD16(+)CD11b(+)Mac387(+) Mo/Mac subpopulation preferentially transmigrates across our in vitro BBB model in response to CCL2. Genes associated with Mo/Mac subpopulations that transmigrate across the BBB and/or are infected by HIV were identified by cDNA microarray analyses. Our findings contribute to the understanding of monocyte maturation, infection and transmigration into the brain during the pathogenesis of NeuroAIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarisa M Buckner
- Departments of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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139
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Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) regulates perivascular macrophages and modifies amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer mouse model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:20816-21. [PMID: 21076037 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1005888107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is a high-density lipoprotein receptor that regulates cholesterol efflux from the peripheral tissues to the liver. SR-BI has been identified on astrocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells in Alzheimer's disease brain and has been shown to mediate adhesion of microglia to fibrillar amyloid-β (Aβ). Here we report that SR-BI mediates perivascular macrophage response and regulates Aβ-related pathology and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in an Alzheimer's mouse model. Reduction or deletion of SR-BI gene in heterozygous or homozygous deficient mice (SR-BI(+/-), (-/-)) resulted in a significant increase in perivascular macrophages in the brain. SR-BI deletion had no effect on apolipoprotein E or apolipoprotein AI levels in the mouse brain. Our analysis revealed increased levels of SR-BI expression in the brains of human amyloid precursor protein (Swedish, Indiana) transgenic mice (J20 line). To evaluate the role of SR-BI in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis, we inactivated one SR-BI allele in J20 transgenic mice. SR-BI reduction in J20/SR-BI(+/-) mice enhanced fibrillar amyloid deposition and cerebral amyloid angiopathy and also exacerbated learning and memory deficits compared with J20 littermates. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed localization of SR-BI on perivascular macrophages in tight association with Aβ deposits. Our data suggest that SR-BI reduction impairs the response of perivascular macrophages to Aβ and enhances the Aβ-related phenotype and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in J20 mice. These results reveal that SR-BI, a scavenger receptor primarily involved in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol transport, plays an essential role in Alzheimer's disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
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140
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Thompson KA, Varrone JJ, Jankovic-Karasoulos T, Wesselingh SL, McLean CA. Cell-specific temporal infection of the brain in a simian immunodeficiency virus model of human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis. J Neurovirol 2010; 15:300-11. [PMID: 19593698 DOI: 10.1080/13550280903030125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports early brain infection by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Definitive temporal studies determining when and within which brain cells viral DNA is present are lacking. This study utilized simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected macaques sacrificed at days 10, 21, 56, and 84 post inoculation. Laser-microdissection isolated pure perivascular macrophage, parenchymal microglia, and astrocyte populations. Nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing determined the presence and characteristics of SIV V3 and V1 env DNA from each population. At day 10, SIV DNA was detected in perivascular macrophage and astrocytes but not parenchymal microglia. gp41 expression was restricted to perivascular macrophage. At day 21, SIV DNA was not detected in any cell type. At day 56, SIV DNA was detectable in perivascular macrophage from one of two macaques, with no gp41 expression detected. At day 84 (morphologic and clinical encephalitis), SIV DNA was detected in all cell types, gp41 was only detected in perivascular macrophage and parenchymal microglia. The neurovirulent molecular clone, SIV/17E-Fr, was the only genotype identified in the brain cell populations. Early, productive brain SIV infection was transient and restricted to trafficking perivascular macrophage. During the nonencephalitic stage, there was a period of time when no SIV DNA could be detected in the brain cell populations. SIV was then seen to reenter the brain via infected perivascular macrophage, leading to productive infection of brain parenchymal macrophage/microglia with a terminal phase of encephalitis. These data challenge current notions of a HIV reservoir within latently infected, semipermanent brain cells and has significant implications for the timing and design of therapies to prevent HIV encephalitis (HIVE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A Thompson
- Department of Anatomical Pathology, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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141
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Gelbard HA, Dewhurst S, Maggirwar SB, Kiebala M, Polesskaya O, Gendelman HE. Rebuilding synaptic architecture in HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disease: a therapeutic strategy based on modulation of mixed lineage kinase. Neurotherapeutics 2010; 7:392-8. [PMID: 20880503 PMCID: PMC2948545 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2010] [Revised: 07/28/2010] [Accepted: 08/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Work from our laboratories has validated mixed lineage kinase type 3 (MLK3) as an enzyme pathologically activated in the CNS by human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) neurotoxins. In this review, we discuss MLK3 activation in the context of the neuropathogenesis of HIV-1 associated neurocognitive deficits (HAND). We use findings from the literature to substantiate the neuropathologic relevance of MLK3 to neurodegenerative disease, with an emphasis on Parkinson's disease that shares a number of important phenotypic and neuropathologic characteristics with HAND. We discuss signal transduction pathways downstream from MLK3 activation, with an emphasis on their involvement in microglia and neurons in preclinical models of HAND. Finally, we make a case for pharmacologic intervention targeted at inhibition of MLK3 as a strategy to reverse HAND, in light of the fact that combination antiretroviral therapy, despite successfully managing systemic infection of HIV-1, has been largely unsuccessful in eradicating HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harris A Gelbard
- Center for Neural Development and Disease, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, USA.
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142
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Shi X. Resident macrophages in the cochlear blood-labyrinth barrier and their renewal via migration of bone-marrow-derived cells. Cell Tissue Res 2010; 342:21-30. [PMID: 20838812 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-010-1040-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2010] [Accepted: 08/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A large population of perivascular cells was found to be present in the area of the blood-labyrinth barrier in the stria vascularis of normal adult cochlea. The cells were identified as perivascular resident macrophages (PVMs), as they were positive for several macrophage surface molecules including F4/80, CD68, and CD11b. The macrophages, which were closely associated with microvessels and structurally intertwined with endothelial cells and pericytes, constitutively expressed scavenger receptor classes A(1) and B(1) and accumulated blood-borne proteins such as horseradish peroxidase and acetylated low-density lipoprotein. The PVMs were demonstrated to proliferate slowly, as evidenced by the absence of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive PVMs at 3-14 days in normal mice injected with BrdU. However, in irradiated mice, the majority of the PVMs turned over via bone-marrow-cell migration within a 10-month time-frame. The existence of PVMs in the vascular wall of the blood-labyrinth barrier might therefore serve as a source for progenitor cells for postnatal vasculogenesis and might contribute to the repair of damaged vessels in the context of a local inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorui Shi
- Oregon Hearing Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, NRC04, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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Zhou J, Tang PCY, Qin L, Gayed PM, Li W, Skokos EA, Kyriakides TR, Pober JS, Tellides G. CXCR3-dependent accumulation and activation of perivascular macrophages is necessary for homeostatic arterial remodeling to hemodynamic stresses. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 207:1951-66. [PMID: 20733031 PMCID: PMC2931170 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20100098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Sustained changes in blood flow modulate the size of conduit arteries through structural alterations of the vessel wall that are dependent on the transient accumulation and activation of perivascular macrophages. The leukocytic infiltrate appears to be confined to the adventitia, is responsible for medial remodeling, and resolves once hemodynamic stresses have normalized without obvious intimal changes. We report that inward remodeling of the mouse common carotid artery after ligation of the ipsilateral external carotid artery is dependent on the chemokine receptor CXCR3. Wild-type myeloid cells restored flow-mediated vascular remodeling in CXCR3-deficient recipients, adventitia-infiltrating macrophages of Gr1low resident phenotype expressed CXCR3, the perivascular accumulation of macrophages was dependent on CXCR3 signaling, and the CXCR3 ligand IP-10 was sufficient to recruit monocytes to the adventitia. CXCR3 also contributed to selective features of macrophage activation required for extracellular matrix turnover, such as production of the transglutaminase factor XIII A subunit. Human adventitial macrophages displaying a CD14+/CD16+ resident phenotype, but not circulating monocytes, expressed CXCR3, and such cells were more frequent at sites of disturbed flow. Our observations reveal a CXCR3-dependent accumulation and activation of perivascular macrophages as a necessary step in homeostatic arterial remodeling triggered by hemodynamic stress in mice and possibly in humans as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhou
- Department of Surgery, Interdepartmental Program in Vascular Biology and Therapeutics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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144
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Dyad of CD40/CD40 ligand fosters neuroinflammation at the blood-brain barrier and is regulated via JNK signaling: implications for HIV-1 encephalitis. J Neurosci 2010; 30:9454-64. [PMID: 20631174 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5796-09.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infection may result in activation of peripheral monocytes followed by their infiltration into the CNS, where the release of proinflammatory mediators causes neurologic disease. Previously, we detected high levels of soluble CD40 ligand (CD40L) in CSF and plasma of HIV-infected patients with cognitive impairment. We now show that CD40, a receptor for CD40L, is highly expressed in brain endothelial cells of patients affected by HIV-1 encephalitis (HIVE), suggesting an important role for the CD40/CD40L dyad in regulating blood-brain barrier (BBB) functions. This concept was further supported by in vitro experiments. Exposure of primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMVECs) to CD40L upregulated the expression of adhesion molecules intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, which caused a fourfold increase in monocyte adhesion to BMVECs and stimulated migration across an in vitro BBB model. Investigations into the intracellular signaling pathways that govern these events revealed that cJUN-N-terminal kinase (JNK) is critical to CD40 activation in the BMVECs. CD40L induced activation of mixed-lineage-kinase-3 and JNK, leading to the subsequent activation of cJUN/AP-1 (activating-protein-1). JNK inhibition in the BMVECs prevented CD40L-mediated induction of adhesion molecules, monocyte adhesion, and transendothelial migration. These new findings support the concept that the CD40/CD40L dyad plays an important role in HIVE neuroinflammation.
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145
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Malm T, Koistinaho M, Muona A, Magga J, Koistinaho J. The role and therapeutic potential of monocytic cells in Alzheimer's disease. Glia 2010; 58:889-900. [PMID: 20155817 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a dementing neurodegenerative disorder without a cure. The abnormal parenchymal accumulation of beta-amyloid (Abeta) is associated with inflammatory reactions involving microglia and astrocytes. Increased levels of Abeta and Abeta deposition in the brain are thought to cause neuronal dysfunction and underlie dementia. Microglia, the brain resident cells of monocytic origin, have a potential ability to phagocytose Abeta but they also react to Abeta by increased production of proinflammatory toxic agents. Microglia originate from hemangioblastic mesoderm during early embryonic stages and from bone marrow (BM)-derived monocytic cells that home the brain throughout the neonatal stage of development. Recent studies indicate that BM or blood-derived monocytes are recruited to the diseased AD brain, associate with the Abeta depositions, and are more efficient phagocytes of Abeta compared with resident microglia. The clearance of Abeta deposition by these cells has been recently under intensive investigation and can occur through several different mechanisms. Importantly, peripheral monocytic cells of patients with AD appear to be deficient in clearing Abeta. This review will summarize the findings on the role of blood-derived cells in AD and discuss their therapeutic potential for treating patients suffering from this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarja Malm
- Department of Neurobiology, A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, Biocenter Kuopio, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, Kuopio, Finland
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146
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Fletcher NF, Meeker RB, Hudson LC, Callanan JJ. The neuropathogenesis of feline immunodeficiency virus infection: barriers to overcome. Vet J 2010; 188:260-9. [PMID: 20418131 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Revised: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1, is a neurotropic lentivirus, and both natural and experimental infections are associated with neuropathology. FIV enters the brain early following experimental infection, most likely via the blood-brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers. The exact mechanism of entry, and the factors that influence this entry, are not fully understood. As FIV is a recognised model of HIV-1 infection, understanding such mechanisms is important, particularly as HIV enters the brain early in infection. Furthermore, the development of strategies to combat this central nervous system (CNS) infection requires an understanding of the interactions between the virus and the CNS. In this review the results of both in vitro and in vivo FIV studies are assessed in an attempt to elucidate the mechanisms of viral entry into the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola F Fletcher
- Veterinary Sciences Centre, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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147
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Burdo TH, Soulas C, Orzechowski K, Button J, Krishnan A, Sugimoto C, Alvarez X, Kuroda MJ, Williams KC. Increased monocyte turnover from bone marrow correlates with severity of SIV encephalitis and CD163 levels in plasma. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000842. [PMID: 20419144 PMCID: PMC2855320 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 03/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells of the myeloid lineage are significant targets for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in humans and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in monkeys. Monocytes play critical roles in innate and adaptive immunity during inflammation. We hypothesize that specific subsets of monocytes expand with AIDS and drive central nervous system (CNS) disease. Additionally, there may be expansion of cells from the bone marrow through blood with subsequent macrophage accumulation in tissues driving pathogenesis. To identify monocytes that recently emigrated from bone marrow, we used 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling in a longitudinal study of SIV-infected CD8+ T lymphocyte depleted macaques. Monocyte expansion and kinetics in blood was assessed and newly migrated monocyte/macrophages were identified within the CNS. Five animals developed rapid AIDS with differing severity of SIVE. The percentages of BrdU+ monocytes in these animals increased dramatically, early after infection, peaking at necropsy where the percentage of BrdU+ monocytes correlated with the severity of SIVE. Early analysis revealed changes in the percentages of BrdU+ monocytes between slow and rapid progressors as early as 8 days and consistently by 27 days post infection. Soluble CD163 (sCD163) in plasma correlated with the percentage of BrdU+ monocytes in blood, demonstrating a relationship between monocyte activation and expansion with disease. BrdU+ monocytes/macrophages were found within perivascular spaces and SIVE lesions. The majority (80–90%) of the BrdU+ cells were Mac387+ that were not productively infected. There was a minor population of CD68+BrdU+ cells (<10%), very few of which were infected (<1% of total BrdU+ cells). Our results suggest that an increased rate of monocyte recruitment from bone marrow into the blood correlates with rapid progression to AIDS, and the magnitude of BrdU+ monocytes correlates with the severity of SIVE. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the closely related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) can infect monocyte/macrophages, which enter and accumulate in the brain leading to neuronal dysfunction. Monocyte/macrophages exit the bone marrow, transit through the blood and enter the central nervous system (CNS). What triggers these cells to traffic is undefined, but it occurs in normal non-infected conditions at a rate that is accelerated with viral infection. Here, we used 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) injection and incorporation into the DNA of monocytes prior to their departure from the bone marrow. We found that the percentage of BrdU+ monocytes leaving the bone marrow 24 hours after injection increased in animals that rapidly succumbed to AIDS and correlated with the severity of SIV encephalitis (SIVE). Differences in BrdU labeled monocytes in slow and rapid progressors were revealed as early as 8 days and were consistent by 27 days post infection. Soluble CD163, shed by activated monocyte/macrophages, directly correlated with BrdU+ monocyte expansion. Our study provides new insights into the development of HIV-related CNS disease and underscores the importance of monocyte/macrophage recruitment from the bone marrow as an AIDS defining event.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/blood
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/blood
- Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic/immunology
- Bone Marrow Cells/immunology
- Cell Separation
- Encephalitis, Viral/etiology
- Encephalitis, Viral/immunology
- Encephalitis, Viral/pathology
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Flow Cytometry
- Immunohistochemistry
- Macaca
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Monocytes/immunology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/blood
- Receptors, Cell Surface/immunology
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/complications
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/immunology
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/pathology
- Simian Immunodeficiency Virus
- Viral Load
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia H. Burdo
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Caroline Soulas
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Krystyna Orzechowski
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jessica Button
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anitha Krishnan
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Chie Sugimoto
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Science Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Xavier Alvarez
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Science Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Marcelo J. Kuroda
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Health Science Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Kenneth C. Williams
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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148
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Kraft-Terry SD, Stothert AR, Buch S, Gendelman HE. HIV-1 neuroimmunity in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37:542-8. [PMID: 20044002 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2009] [Revised: 12/13/2009] [Accepted: 12/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) can affect up to 50% of infected people during the disease course. While antiretroviral therapies have substantively increased the quality of life and reduced HIV-1-associated dementia, less severe minor cognitive and motor deficits continue. Trafficking of HIV-1 into the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral immune activation, dysregulated glial immunity, and diminished homeostatic responses are the disease-linked pathobiologic events. Monocyte-macrophage passage into the CNS remains an underlying force for disease severity. Monocyte phenotypes may change at an early stage of cell maturation and immune activation of hematopoietic stem cells. Activated monocytes are pulled into the brain in response to chemokines made as a result of glial inflammatory processes, which in turn, cause secondary functional deficits in neurons. Current therapeutic approaches are focused on adjunctive and brain-penetrating antiretroviral therapies. These may attenuate virus-associated neuroinflammatory activities thereby decreasing the severity and frequency of HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie D Kraft-Terry
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5880, USA
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149
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Cassol E, Cassetta L, Alfano M, Poli G. Macrophage polarization and HIV-1 infection. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 87:599-608. [PMID: 20042468 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1009673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Edana Cassol
- AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
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150
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Coordinated regulation of SIV replication and immune responses in the CNS. PLoS One 2009; 4:e8129. [PMID: 20019816 PMCID: PMC2790080 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) invasion during acute-stage HIV-infection has been demonstrated in a small number of individuals, but there is no evidence of neurological impairment at this stage and virus infection in brain appears to be controlled until late-stage disease. Using our reproducible SIV macaque model to examine the earliest stages of infection in the CNS, we identified immune responses that differentially regulate inflammation and virus replication in the brain compared to the peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. SIV replication in brain macrophages and in brain of SIV-infected macaques was detected at 4 days post-inoculation (p.i.). This was accompanied by upregulation of innate immune responses, including IFNβ, IFNβ-induced gene MxA mRNA, and TNFα. Additionally, IL-10, the chemokine CCL2, and activation markers in macrophages, endothelial cells, and astrocytes were all increased in the brain at four days p.i. We observed synchronous control of virus replication, cytokine mRNA levels and inflammatory markers (MHC Class II, CD68 and GFAP) by 14 days p.i.; however, control failure was followed by development of CNS lesions in the brain. SIV infection was accompanied by induction of the dominant-negative isoform of C/EBPβ, which regulates SIV, CCL2, and IL6 transcription, as well as inflammatory responses in macrophages and astrocytes. This synchronous response in the CNS is in part due to the effect of the C/EBPβ on virus replication and cytokine expression in macrophage-lineage cells in contrast to CD4+ lymphocytes in peripheral blood and lymphoid tissues. Thus, we have identified a crucial period in the brain when virus replication and inflammation are controlled. As in HIV-infected individuals, though, this control is not sustained in the brain. Our results suggest that intervention with antiretroviral drugs or anti-inflammatory therapeutics with CNS penetration would sustain early control. These studies further suggest that interventions should target HIV-infected individuals with increased CCL2 levels or HIV RNA in the CNS.
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