Carbamazepine and diclofenac: removal in wastewater treatment plants and occurrence in water bodies

A comprehensive review on current technologies for removal of endocrine disrupting chemicals from wastewaters

In the recent years, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) has received increasing attention due to their significant toxic effects on human beings and wildlife by affecting their endocrine systems. As an important group of emerging pollutant, EDCs have been detected in various aquatic environments, including surface waters, groundwater, wastewater, runoff, and landfill leachates. Their removal from water resources has also been an emerging concern considering growing population as well as reducing access to fresh water resources. EDC removal from wastewaters is highly dependent on physicochemical properties of the given EDCs present in each wastewater types as well as various aquatic environments. Due to chemical, physical and physicochemical diversities in these parameters, variety of technologies consisting of physical, biological, electrochemical, and chemical processes have been developed for their removal. This review highlights that the effectiveness of EDC removal is highly dependent of selecting the appropriate technology; which decision is made upon a full wastewater chemical characterization. This review aims to provide a comprehensive perspective about all the current technologies used for EDCs removal from various aquatic matrices along with rising challenges such as the antimicrobial resistance gene transfer during EDC treatment.

Efficiency of the bank filtration technique for diclofenac removal: A review

Bank filtration (BF) has been employed for more than a century for the production of water with a better quality, and it has been showing satisfactory results in diclofenac attenuation. Considered the most administered analgesic in the world, diclofenac has been frequently detected in water bodies. Besides being persistent in the environment, this compound is not completely removed by the conventional water treatments, drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and wastewater treatment plant (WWTPs). BF has a high complexity, whose efficiency depends on the characteristics of the observed pollutant and on the environment where the system in installed, which is why this is a topic that has been constantly studied. Nevertheless, studies present the behavior of diclofenac during the BF process. In this context, this research performed the evaluation of the factors and the biogeochemical processes that influence the efficiency of the BF technique in diclofenac removal. The aerobic conditions, higher temperatures, microbial biomass density, hydrogen potential close to neutrality and sediments with heterogeneous fractions are considered the ideal conditions in the aquifer for diclofenac removal. Nonetheless, there is no consensus on which of these factors has the greatest contribution on the mechanism of attenuation during BF. Studies with columns in laboratory and modeling affirm that the highest degradation rates occur in the first centimeters (5-50 cm) of the passage of water through the porous medium, in the environment known as hyporheic zone, where intense biogeochemical activities occur. Research has shown 100% removal efficiency for diclofenac persistent to compounds not removed during the BF process. However, half of the studies had removal efficiency that ranged between 80 and 100%. Therefore, the performance of more in-depth studies on the degradation and mobility of this compound becomes necessary for a better understanding of the conditions and biogeochemical processes which act in its attenuation.

Effect of Operational Parameters on the Removal of Carbamazepine and Nutrients in a Submerged Ceramic Membrane Bioreactor

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products have raised significant concerns because of their extensive use, presence in aquatic environments, and potential impacts on wildlife and humans. Carbamazepine was the most frequently detected pharmaceutical residue among pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Nevertheless, the low removal efficiency of carbamazepine by conventional wastewater treatment plants was due to resistance to biodegradation at low concentrations. A membrane bioreactor (MBR) has recently attracted attention as a new separation process for wastewater treatment in cities and industries because of its effectiveness in separating pollutants and its tolerance to high or shock loadings. In the current research, the main and interaction effects of three operating parameters, including hydraulic retention time (12-24 h), dissolved oxygen (1.5-5.5 mg/L), and sludge retention time (5-15 days), on removing carbamazepine, chemical oxygen demand, ammonia nitrogen, and phosphorus using ceramic membranes was investigated by applying a two-level full-factorial design analysis. Optimum dissolved oxygen, hydraulic retention time, and sludge retention time were 1.7 mg/L, 24 h, and 5 days, respectively. The research results showed the applicability of the MBR to wastewater treatment with a high carbamazepine loading rate and the removal of nutrients.

Influence of physicochemical parameters on PPCP occurrences in the wetlands

There have been many global studies on the occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the aquatic resources, but reports on the effects of physicochemical properties of water on their concentrations are very scarce. The amounts and removal of these contaminants in various environmental media are dependent on these physicochemical properties, which include pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, salinity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen. Here, we reviewed the influence of these properties on determination of PPCPs. Reports showed that increase in turbidity, electrical conductivity, and salinity gives increase in concentrations of PPCPs. Also, neutral pH gives higher PPCP concentrations, while decrease in temperature and dissolved oxygen gives low concentration of PPCPs. Nevertheless, it is quite challenging to ascertain the influence of water quality parameters on the PPCP concentration, as other factors like climate change, type of water, source of pollution, persistence, and dilution factor may have great influence on the concentration of PPCPs. Therefore, routine monitoring is suggested as most water quality parameters vary because of effects of climate change.

Bromide strongly influences the formation of reaction products during the ozonation of diclofenac, metoprolol and isoproturon

Bromide as an omnipresent matrix component in wastewater can react with ozone to form hypobromous acid (HOBr). This secondary oxidant can subsequently react with micropollutants but also with formed intermediates. Therefore, bromide and especially HOBr can highly influence the formation of transformation products (TPs). This has already been reported for the ozonation of N,N-dimethylsulfamide leading to the formation of the cancerogenic N-nitrosodimethylamine only in bromide containing waters. In this study, the influence of different bromide and ozone concentrations on the formation of TPs during the ozonation of isoproturon (ISO), metoprolol (METO) and diclofenac (DCF) were investigated. Additionally, TPs were identified, which are formed in the direct reaction of the micropollutants with HOBr with and without subsequent ozonation. The results showed that even if the reactions of ozone with the substances should be favored bromide can highly influence the formation of TPs already at low concentrations. In summary, new TPs after the reaction with HOBr (and subsequent ozonation) could be postulated for ISO, METO and DCF. This underlines that the present water matrix can have a high influence on the formation of TPs and that these mechanisms need to be investigated further.

Degradation of Carbamazepine from Aqueous Solutions via TiO2-Assisted Photo Catalyze

Photocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine (CBZ) from spiked aqueous solutions, via a UV/TiO₂ system, was investigated, and the optimum photocatalyst type (P25 Degussa) and dose (500 mg/L), as well as irradiation time (45 min), were established. The degradation process kinetics was studied, and a degradation rate constant of 3.14 × 10⁻⁵ M min⁻¹ was calculated for CBZ, using the Langmuir–Hinshelwood equation. Experiments performed in the presence of scavengers showed that the main reactive species involved in the degradation process are holes and free hydroxyl radicals; superoxide radicals also play a role in CBZ degradation. Eight transformation products of CBZ were identified, and a possible degradation pathway, consisting of four routes, was proposed. Toxicity and genotoxicity tests were also performed for both untreated and treated CBZ solutions, proving that the use of a UV/TiO₂ system represents a suitable treatment approach for aqueous systems with CBZ content.

Bioconcentration of neuroactive pharmaceuticals in fish: Relation to lipophilicity, experimental design and toxicity in the aquatic environment

Uptake of contaminants is linked to their toxicity and is usually estimated through their lipophilicity (logK_ow). Here, we review current literature regarding bioconcentration, i.e. uptake of contaminants from the external environment only, and the effects of exposure to neuroactive pharmaceuticals in fish. We aim to determine if lipophilicity is a suitable predictor of bioconcentration of these compounds in fish, to identify major drivers of bioconcentration and explore the link between bioconcentration potential and toxicity, focusing on survival, growth, condition, behaviour and reproduction endpoints. Additionally, we compare concentrations known to elicit significant effects in fish with current environmental concentrations, identifying exposure risk in ecosystems. The majority of studies have focused on antidepressants, mainly fluoxetine, and encompasses mostly freshwater species. Few studies determined pharmaceuticals bioconcentration, and even a smaller portion combined bioconcentration with other toxicity endpoints. Results show that lipophilicity isn't a good predictor of neuroactive pharmaceuticals' bioconcentration in fish, which in turn is highly influenced by experimental parameters, including abiotic conditions, species and life-stage. The need for increased standardization of experimental settings is key towards improving accuracy of environmental risk assessments and application in future regulatory schemes. Still, increased fish lethality was linked to increased bioconcentration, yet no other correlations were observed when considering effects on growth, condition, behaviour or reproduction, likely as a result of insufficient and variable data. In the context of current environmental concentrations, several neuroactive pharmaceuticals were found to be potentially threatening, while data on occurrence is lacking for some compounds, particularly in brackish/marine systems. Specifically, nine compounds (fluoxetine, citalopram, sertraline, amitriptyline, venlafaxine, clozapine, carbamazepine, metamfetamine and oxazepam) were found at concentrations either above or critically close to minimum response concentrations, thus likely to affect fish in freshwater and brackish or marine environments, which supports further exploration in risk management strategies and monitoring programs in aquatic environments.

Insight into natural medium remediation through ecotoxicity correlation with clay catalyst selectivity in organic molecule ozonation

The oxidative degradation of diazinon (DAZ) and diclofenac sodium (DCF) in aqueous media was comparatively investigated and correlated with the mortality of Artemia salina in the presence of clay catalysts. For this purpose, montmorillonites (Mt) exchanged with Na⁺ and Fe²⁺ cations (NaMt and Fe(II)Mt), acid activated bentonites and hydrotalcite were used as clay catalysts. Surface interaction and adsorption on the clay surface were found to govern the catalyst dispersion in aqueous media and both activity and selectivity in ozonation. These catalysts' features were correlated with the ecotoxicity of ozonised reaction mixtures as expressed in terms of mortality rates of Artemia salina. DAZ and DCF display specific intrinsic ecotoxicity that evolves differently during ozonation according to the catalyst. The ecotoxicity was found to strongly depend on the distribution of the ozonation intermediates, which, in turn, was narrowly correlated with the acid-base properties of the catalyst surface. These valuable findings allow the prediction of the behaviour of the clay-containing media in natural remediation.

Long-term exposure to environmental diclofenac concentrations impairs growth and induces molecular changes in Lymnaea stagnalis freshwater snails

As pharmaceutical substances are highly used in human and veterinary medicine and subsequently released in the environment, they represent emerging contaminants in the aquatic compartment. Diclofenac (DCF) is one of the most commonly detected pharmaceuticals in water and little research has been focused on its long-term effects on freshwater invertebrates. In this study, we assessed the chronic impacts of DCF on the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis using life history, behavioral and molecular approaches. These organisms were exposed from the embryo to the adult stage to three environmentally relevant DCF concentrations (0.1, 2 and 10 μg/L). The results indicated that DCF impaired shell growth and feeding behavior at the juvenile stage, yet no impacts on hatching, locomotion and response to light stress were noted. The molecular findings (metabolomics and transcriptomic) suggested that DCF may disturb the immune system, energy metabolism, osmoregulation and redox balance. In addition, prostaglandin synthesis could potentially be inhibited by DCF exposure. The molecular findings revealed signs of reproduction impairment but this trend was not confirmed by the physiological tests. Combined omics tools provided complementary information and enabled us to gain further insight into DCF effects in freshwater organisms.

Individual and synergic effect of carbamazepine and diclofenac in the removal of organic matter from an expanded granular bed anaerobic reactor

Due to the negative effects caused to the natural environment by the presence of pharmaceutical-type traces and other pollutants in wastewater, it is necessary to develop and optimize efficient treatment systems. This study evaluated the effect of carbamazepine (CBZ) and diclofenac (DCF) on the behavior of seven EGSB (expanded granular sludge bed) anaerobic reactors at laboratory scale, using chromatographic and physicochemical analyses of the influent, effluent, and the biomass contained in the reactors. The results showed that CBZ had a greater effect on the removal and behavior of microorganisms than DCF, with average efficiencies of 34.04 ± 18.58%, 20.76 ± 8.51% and 16.29 ± 11.08% during stage II, III and IV, respectively, for CBZ, and 92.37 ± 12.74%, 26.77 ± 5.90% and 22.28 ± 9.60% during stage II, III and IV, respectively, for DCF. Additionally, it was found that the interaction of the co-substrate used (sodium acetate) in conjunction with the pharmaceutical compounds decreased the efficiency of the system in terms of the removal of analytes.

Effects of Al substitution on sorption of diclofenac to Fe(III) (hydr)oxides: roles of phase transition and sorption mechanisms

Fe(III) (hydr)oxides commonly contained many metal impurities such as Al. The incorporation of Al might change the properties of minerals and consequently affect sorption behaviors of pollutants with polar functional groups (e.g., diclofenac (DCF)). In this study, batch experiments and microscale characterization were conducted to investigate the DCF sorption mechanisms to goethite and Al-substituted minerals. Goethite and Al-substituted products (including Al-goethite, Al-goethite-hematite, and Al-hematite) were synthesized with different Al contents (i.e., 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% (in mol)) by co-precipitation method. Due to difference of ionic radius between Al and Fe and formation of excessive -OH, Al substitution resulted in deviation of cell parameters from the Vegard line. Al substitution caused increasing -OH in Al-goethite and phase transformation caused decreasing -OH in Al-hematite. The total -OH in minerals was positively related to DCF sorption capacity. In the lower initial concentration range (0.4-9 mg/L), the sorption distribution coefficient (Kd) values of goethite, Al-goethite, and Al-hematite were 21.98, 22.25, and 21.18 L/kg, respectively. Desorption characteristics and ion strength effects indicated that DCF sorption to minerals occurred mainly through outer-sphere complexation. Fourier transform infrared analyses revealed that H-bonds could be formed through -OH of minerals and -COOH of DCF, and the H-bond strength on Al-hematite was stronger than that on goethite/Al-goethite. In the normal environmental pH (e.g., 6.0 to 8.0), Kd values of DCF decreased linearly with increasing pH. These findings are helpful for understanding of DCF migration in environment involving Al-substituted minerals.

Effects of carbamazepine in aquatic biota

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is one of the most common pharmaceuticals found in the aquatic environment. Here, we reviewed studies in aquatic animals highlighting that CBZ affected ROS homeostasis but also the neuroendocrine system, cell viability, immunity, reproduction, feeding behavior and growth. Notably, the acetylcholinesterase activity was modified by concentrations of the order of ng L^-1 CBZ. At ≥10 μg L^-1, data pointed that CBZ triggered the production of ROS, modifying the activity of antioxidant enzymes and produced a significant cellular stress at concentrations ≥100 μg L^-1. However, the response appeared species-, organ- and time-dependent, and was impacted by different experimental conditions and the origin of animals. In this context, this review discusses the available data and proposes future research priorities.

Ba substituted SrTiO3 induced lattice deformation for enhanced piezocatalytic removal of carbamazepine from water

Removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) from water by mechanical energy-driven piezocatalysis is a promising technology for environmental remediation that highly depends on the design of efficient piezocatalyst. In this study, Ba-substituted SrTiO₃ piezoelectric materials were constructed and used for piezocatalytic degradation of carbamazepine (CBZ) from water. The Ba_0.5Sr_0.5TiO₃ (BSTO-2) achieved the optimal performance, exhibiting 94.5% removal efficiency for CBZ (10 mg/L) after 30 min in the presence of BSTO-2 (0.5 g/L) and ultrasonic vibration (40 kHz, 100 W) with the minimal energy consumption. The kinetic rate constant was up to 0.106 min^-1, which were 1.86 and 2.08 times as high as that of pure SrTiO₃ and BaTiO₃, respectively. The enhanced piezocatalytic activity was attributed to its distorted structure and modified conductivity, resulting in a higher piezoelectric response and faster interfacial charge transfer. The involved reactive species, the effects of operational condition (catalyst dosage, CBZ concentration, solution pH, anions, water matrices and different pollutants), and the possible degradation products and their toxicity were discussed in detail. The work is of great significance to develop highly efficient piezocatalysts and highlights the potential of piezocatalysis in water remediation.

Phenylamine/Amide Grafted in Silica as Sensing Nanocomposites for the Removal of Carbamazepine: A DFT Approach

This study aimed to remove carbamazepine from aqueous solutions, using functional silica phenylamine (SiBN), which is characterized and showed excellent chemical and thermal stability. Adsorbents based on silica were developed due to their unusually large surface area, homogenous pore structure, and well-modified surface properties, as silica sparked tremendous interest. It was determined to develop a novel silica adsorbent including phenylamine and amide (SiBCON). The adsorbents obtained were analyzed by various spectroscopy devices, including SEM, FT-IR and TGA analysis. The maximum removal rates for carbamazepine were 98.37% and 98.22% for SiBN and SiBCON, respectively, when optimized at room temperature, pH 9.0, initial concentration of 10 mg·L−1 and contact time of 15 min. Theoretical tools are widely used in the prediction of the power of interactions between chemical systems. The computed data showed that new amine modified silica is quite effective in terms of the removal of carbamazepine from aqueous solution. Calculation binding energies and DFT data showed that there is a powerful interaction between amine-modified silica and carbamazepine.

Ultraviolet-Light-emitting-diode activated monochloramine for the degradation of carbamazepine: Kinetics, mechanisms, by-product formation, and toxicity

Monochloramine (NH₂Cl) oxidant combined with a Ultraviolet (UV)-Light-emitting-diode (LED) light source forms a new advanced oxidation process (AOP), which can achieve high-efficiency degradation of carbamazepine (CBZ). The degradation of CBZ displayed pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics (R² > 0.98, k_CBZ = 0.0043 cm² mJ^-1 at pH 7). The degradation of CBZ was dependent on UV-LED wavelength, with maximum degradation efficiency observed at 265 nm since it was the lowest wavelength studied among UV-LEDs. Variation in pH across the range, which might be expected under normal environmental conditions (pH 6-8), and the presence of Cl^- had no significant effect on the degradation efficiency of CBZ, while the presence of HCO₃^- and natural organic matter (NOM) inhibited degradation. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments detected OH in the system. Probe compounds were used to distinguish the contribution of reactive chlorine species (RCS). It was proved that OH and Cl played major roles and OH was responsible for around 50% of the observed degradation of CBZ. Eight transformative products (TPs) in the degradation process of CBZ were identified, with a generally decreasing toxicity. The concentration of disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed during CBZ degradation was all within limits of WHO and China standard for drinking water. Although the concentration of nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) was the lowest, N-DBPs were the main contributors to toxicity, and these would require more attention in practical applications. UV-LED/NH₂Cl AOP was identified as an effective way to degrade pharmaceutically active compounds.

Insights into the wavelength-dependent photolysis of chlorite: Elimination of carbamazepine and formation of chlorate

Simultaneous removal of chlorite (ClO₂^-) and organic micro-pollutants (OMPs) by the irradiation of UV is a novel process. In this study we used UV light emitting diode (UV-LED) as a new UV source to systematically investigate the effect of UV wavelength (255, 285, 365 nm) on the simultaneous removal of carbamazepine (CBZ) and ClO₂^-. Removal of both CBZ and ClO₂^- followed the order of 255, 285, and 365 nm. Formation of hydroxyl radical and reactive chlorine species (RCS) were confirmed during the photolysis of ClO₂^- using probe compounds. RCS were always the predominant contributor to the degradation of CBZ in UV-LED/ClO₂^- system. The impacts of ClO₂^- dosage, pH, bicarbonate/carbonate (HCO₃^-/CO₃^2-), and the effect of natural organic matter (NOM) on CBZ degradation were also evaluated. This study identified the products produced by CBZ through possible degradation pathways during the transformation process. Further, the amount of ClO₂^- may affect the amount of chlorate produced in UV/ClO₂^- system. Overall, our research provides an in-depth analysis of the effects of UV wavelength on the simultaneous removal of ClO₂^- and OMPs in water.

Instrumental and bioanalytical assessment of pharmaceuticals and hormone-like compounds in a major drinking water source-wastewater receiving Zayandeh Rood river, Iran

Zayandeh Rood river is the most important river in central Iran supplying water for a variety of uses including drinking water for approximately three million inhabitants. The study aimed to investigate the quality of water concerning the presence of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) and hormonelike compounds, which have been only poorly studied in this region. Sampling was performed at seven sites along the river (from headwater sites to downstream drinking water source, corresponding drinking water, and treated wastewater) affected by wastewater effluents, specific drought conditions, and high river-water demand. The targeted and nontargeted chemical analyses and in vitro bioassays were used to evaluate the presence of PhACs and hormonelike compounds in river water. In the samples, 57 PhACs and estrogens were detected with LC-MS/MS with the most common and abundant compounds valsartan, carbamazepine, and caffeine present in the highest concentrations in the treated wastewater in the concentrations of 8.4, 19, and 140 μg/L, respectively. A battery of in vitro bioassays detected high estrogenicity, androgenicity, and AhR-mediated activity (viz., in treated wastewater) in the concentrations 24.2 ng/L, 62.2 ng/L, and 0.98 ng/L of 17β-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone and 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalents, respectively. In surface water samples, estrogenicity was detected in the range of <0.42 (LOD) to 1.92 ng/L of 17β-estradiol equivalents, and the drinking water source contained 0.74 ng/L of 17β-estradiol equivalents. About 19% of the estrogenicity could be explained by target chemical analyses, and the remaining estrogenicity can be at least partially attributed to the potentiation effect of detected surfactant residues. Drinking water contained several PhACs and estrogens, but the overall assessment suggested minor human health risk according to the relevant effect-based trigger values. To our knowledge, this study provides some of the first comprehensive information on the levels of PhACs and hormones in Iranian waters.

Luminescent Two-Dimensional Metal-Organic Framework Nanosheets with Large π-Conjugated System: Design, Synthesis, and Detection of Anti-Inflammatory Drugs and Pesticides

Two-dimensional (2D) metal-organic framework (MOF) nanosheets, with largely exposed surface area and highly accessible active sites, have emerged as a novel kind of sensing material. Here, a luminescent 2D MOF nanosheet was designed and synthesized by a facile top-down strategy based on a three-dimensional (3D) layered MOF {[Zn(H2L)(H2O)2]·H2O}n (Zn-MOF; H4L = 3,5-bis(3',5'-dicarboxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole). With a large π-conjugated system and rigid planar structure, ligand H4L was elaborately selected to construct the bulk Zn-MOF, which can be readily exfoliated into 2D nanosheets, owing to the weak interlayer interactions and easy-to-release H2O molecules in the interspaces of 2D layers. Given the great threat posed to the ecological environment by anti-inflammatory drugs and pesticides, the developed luminescent Zn-MOF nanosheets were utilized to determine these organic pollutants, achieving highly selective and sensitive detection of diclofenac sodium (DCF) and tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD). Compared to the detection limits of 3D Zn-MOF (7.72 ppm for DCF, 6.01 ppm for TMTD), the obviously lower detection limits for 2D Zn-MOF nanosheets toward DCF (0.20 ppm) and TMTD (0.18 ppm) further revealed that the largely exposed surface area with rigid planar structure and ultralarge π-conjugated system greatly accelerated electron transfer, which brought about a vast improvement in response sensitivity. The remarkable quenching performance for DCF and TMTD stems from a combined effect of photoinduced electron transfer and competitive energy absorption. The possible sensing mechanism was systematically investigated by the studies of powder X-ray diffraction, UV-vis, luminescence lifetime, and density functional theory calculations.

Sewage sludge-derived biochar for the adsorptive removal of wastewater pollutants: A critical review

The production of biochar from sewage sludge pyrolysis is a promising approach to transform the waste resultant from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to a potential adsorbent. The current review provides an up-to-date review regarding important aspects of sewage sludge pyrolysis, highlighting the process that results major solid fraction (biochar), as high-value product. Further, the physio-chemical characteristics of sewage-sludge derived biochar such as the elemental composition, specific surface area, pore size and volume, the functional groups, surface morphology and heavy metal content are discussed. Recent progress on adsorption of metals, emerging pollutants, dyes, nutrients and oil are discussed and the results are examined. The sewage sludge-derived biochar is a promising material that can make significant contributions on pollutants removal from water by adsorption and additional benefit of the management of huge volume of sewage. Considering all these aspects, this field of research still needs more attention from the researchers in the direction of the technological features and sustainability aspects.

A novel electro-Fenton process coupled with sulfite: Enhanced Fe3+ reduction and TOC removal

To promote the reduction of Fe³⁺ and improve the mineralization of organic pollutants, a novel electro-Fenton coupled with sulfite (Fe³⁺-EF/sulfite) process was constructed, which was superior to Fe³⁺-EF process in terms of carbamazepine (CBZ) degradation and mineralization with 5.99 times enhancement in degradation rate constant and 15.7 times enhancement on TOC removal. The complexation of Fe³⁺ and sulfite prevented the precipitation of Fe³⁺, reduced Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺, and accelerated the iron cycle, so that H₂O₂ utilization efficiency (0.051 mg_TOC mg_H2O2^-1) was greatly improved and electric energy consumption was greatly reduced (0.081 kWh g^-1 TOC). The quenching experiments and EPR test confirmed that the reactive species, such as SO₃^•-, SO₄^•-, ^•OH, O₂^•- and ¹O₂ were responsible for the degradation of CBZ. This process also expanded the pH application range from 3 to 9 with satisfactory CBZ removal efficiency. This work verified the suitability of the Fe³⁺-EF/sulfite process for different sulfites (sulfite and bisulfite), typical pollutants (atrazine, sulfamethazine, rhodamine B) and real wastewater with 2.1-18.7 folds enhancement in degradation rate. The Fe³⁺-EF/sulfite process can achieve deep mineralization with low cost and simple operation, which has a broad and cost-effective application prospect in removal of refractory organic pollutants.

An innovative biofilter technology for reducing environmental spreading of emerging pollutants and odour emissions during municipal sewage treatment

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are known sources of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) spreading into the environment, as well as, of unpleasant odors. CECs represent a potential hazard for human health and the environment being pharmaceutical or biologically active compounds and they are acquiring relevance in European directives. Similarly, the public concern about odour emissions from WWTPs is also increasing due to the decreasing distance between WWTP and residential areas. This study focuses on the effectiveness of the recently developed MULESL technology (MUch LEss SLudge; WO2019097463) in removing CECs and limiting odour emissions from WWTPs. MULESL technology has been developed for its ability to reduce up to 80% the sludge production from WWTPs. However, it is ought to evaluate if the benefits coming from sludge production reduction do not invalidate CECs removal or negatively affect odour emissions. Thus, the performances of a MULESL and a conventional WWTP (flow rate of 375 m³/d and 3600 m³/d, respectively) were compared while treating the same municipal sewage. Whereas both plants succeeded in removing the traditional gross parameters characterizing wastewaters (e.g. chemical oxygen demand, nitrogen), the MULESL was much more effective than the conventional one in terms of CECs removal for about 60% of the identified compounds showing, however, the same or lower effectiveness for about 30% and 10% of them, respectively. This result was attributed to the high sludge retention time and biomass concentration in the MULESL (enabling enrichment of slow growing microorganisms and forcing biomass to use unusual substrates, respectively), and to the biomass feature to grow in the form of biofilm and granules (favoring micropollutants absorption on biomass). Furthermore, odour impact analysis has shown that the MULESL was characterized by a much lower impact, i.e. 45% lower than that of primary and secondary treatments of the conventional WWTP.

Multifunctional Membranes-A Versatile Approach for Emerging Pollutants Removal

This paper presents a comprehensive literature review surveying the most important polymer materials used for electrospinning processes and applied as membranes for the removal of emerging pollutants. Two types of processes integrate these membrane types: separation processes, where electrospun polymers act as a support for thin film composites (TFC), and adsorption as single or coupled processes (photo-catalysis, advanced oxidation, electrochemical), where a functionalization step is essential for the electrospun polymer to improve its properties. Emerging pollutants (EPs) released in the environment can be efficiently removed from water systems using electrospun membranes. The relevant results regarding removal efficiency, adsorption capacity, and the size and porosity of the membranes and fibers used for different EPs are described in detail.

Biodegradability, environmental risk assessment and ecological footprint in wastewater technologies for pharmaceutically active compounds removal

Several studies have investigated the removal of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) by wastewater treatment technologies due to the risk that these compounds pose to the environment. In this sense, advanced biological processes have been developed for micropollutants removal, such as membrane bioreactors and moving bed biofilm reactors. Thus, this review holistically evaluated the biodegradation of 18 environmentally hazardous PhACs. Biological processes were assessed including removal efficiencies, environmental risk, and ecological footprint (consumption of resources and energy, atmospheric emissions, and waste generation). The maximum concentration of PhACs for a low or negligible risk scenario in treated wastewater and the potential of biological processes to meet this goal were assessed. Among the evaluated PhACs, the most biodegradable was paracetamol, while the most recalcitrant was diclofenac. Combination of conventional processes and advanced biological processes proved to be the most efficient way to remove several PhACs, mainly the osmotic membrane bioreactor.

An integrated metabolomics and proteogenomics approach reveals molecular alterations following carbamazepine exposure in the male mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Carbamazepine is one of the most abundant pharmaceutical active compounds detected in aquatic systems. Based on laboratory exposures, carbamazepine has been proven to adversely affect aquatic organisms. However, the underlying molecular events remain poorly understood. This study aims to investigate the molecular mechanisms potentially associated with toxicological effects of carbamazepine on the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed for 3 days at realistic concentrations encountered in coastal environments (80 ng/L and 8 μg/L). An integrated metabolomics and proteogenomics approach, including data fusion strategy, was applied to gain more insight in molecular events and cellular processes triggered by carbamazepine exposure. Consistent metabolic and protein signatures revealed a metabolic rewiring and cellular stress at both concentrations (e.g. intensification of protein synthesis, transport and catabolism processes, disruption of lipid and amino acid metabolisms). These highlighted molecular signatures point to the induction of autophagy, closely related with carbamazepine mechanism of action, as well as a destabilization of the lysosomal membranes and an enzymatic overactivity of the peroxisomes. Induction of programmed cell death was highlighted by the modulation of apoptotic cognate proteins. The proposed integrative omics data analysis was shown to be highly relevant to identify the modulations of the two molecular levels, i.e. metabolites and proteins. Multi-omics approach is able to explain the resulting complex biological system, and document stronger toxicological pieces of evidence on pharmaceutical active compounds at environmental concentrations in sentinel organisms.

Effect of colloidal fluorescence properties on the complexation of chloramphenicol and carbamazepine to the natural aquatic colloids

The complexation mechanism between pharmaceuticals and natural colloids is still uncertain due to the complexity, heterogeneity, and polydispersity of colloids. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of fluorescence properties on the complexation of chloramphenicol (CAP) and carbamazepine (CBZ) to the colloids from Poyang Lake Basin based on the multiple spectroscopic techniques and methods. Three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy-parallel factor analysis results illustrated that two humic-like components and two protein-like components of colloids from the rivers and lakes were identified, with the much higher fluorescence intensity of the protein-like substance observed in lake samples. The protein-like substance decreased dramatically with the addition of CAP and CBZ, suggesting its higher binding capacity towards these drugs, especially for CBZ. In addition, the fluorescence quenching titration was proceeded to explore the binding mechanism between the colloids and the pharmaceuticals. Results of synchronous fluorescence spectra and two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy demonstrated that the fluorescence quenching effect occurred preferentially between the protein-like substances and the pharmaceuticals, with the stronger complexation for CBZ. Ryan-Weber model fitting results showed that the stability constant ranged from 4.02 to 5.04 with the higher binding capacity observed for the tryptophan-like substance. Combined, the fluorescence components in aquatic colloids could be significantly impacted the complexation of the pharmaceuticals. This study provides deep insights into the fate and pollution protection of pharmaceuticals.

Total Release of 21 Indicator Pharmaceuticals Listed by the Swedish Medical Products Agency from Wastewater Treatment Plants to Surface Water Bodies in the 1.3 Million Populated County Skåne (Scania), Sweden

In 2017, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency published a report on advanced wastewater treatment for the removal of pharmaceutical residues and stated that advanced treatment should be implemented where it will make the largest difference from an environmental perspective. However, the report also concluded that this need cannot be specified with existing data, but consideration must be made of local conditions. Two considerations are (1) the discharged amount of pharmaceutical into receiving water bodies and (2) the turnover of water in the recipient, where the highest risks are related to recipients with a low water turnover and low dilution. The current project comprised eight different WWTPs distributed throughout the entire County Skåne (Scania) in Sweden, with a population of ca. 1,300,000 persons. In total, 21 of 22 pharmaceuticals were analyzed according to the list proposed by the Swedish Medical Products Agency 2015. The results show that large amounts of pharmaceuticals are released from the WWTPs yearly to Scanian recipients. The total discharge of pharmaceuticals from the eight treatment plants adds up to 71 kg of these 21 substances alone, mainly comprising metoprolol, which is a drug that lowers blood pressure, and the analgesic drug diclofenac. Additionally, carbamazepine, losartan, naproxen and oxazepam were present in significant concentrations. These represented three illnesses that are very common: high blood pressure, inflammation/pain and depression/anxiety. The concentrations were generally in line with previous national Swedish screenings. It was estimated that, when one million cubic meters (1,000,000 m3) of wastewater is discharged, almost 4 kg of the 21 pharmaceuticals is released. The total volume wastewater release by the >90 WWTPs in Scania was estimated to 152,887,000 m3, which corresponded to 590 kg/year. The investigated 21 drugs cover only a small part of many hundred pharmaceuticals that are in use in Sweden. Thus, most likely, one or several tons of pharmaceuticals leak out to the Scanian recipients annually. The analysis of river samples shows that the dilution of wastewater is a key parameter in reducing concentrations. However, some locations have remarkably high concentrations, which occur when the volume wastewater is large in relation to the flow in the river. These kinds of regional results are of importance when selecting where advanced treatment should be prioritized in a first instance, as requested by the Swedish EPA.

Assessing the Fungal Simultaneous Removal Efficiency of Carbamazepine, Diclofenac and Ibuprofen in Aquatic Environment

Unused pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs) discharged into the aquatic environment have been regarded as emerging pollutants due to potential harmful effects on humans and the environment. Microbial bioremediation is considered as a viable option for their removal from wastewater. The aim of this study was to assess the simultaneous removal of carbamazepine (CBZ), diclofenac (DCF) and ibuprofen (IBP) by previously isolated fungi (Aspergillus niger, Mucor circinelloides, Trichoderma longibrachiatum, Trametes polyzona, and Rhizopus microsporus). The tolerance to PhCs was conducted by tracking the fungal mycelium mat diameters in solid media and its dry biomass in liquid media, at the drug concentration range of 0.1 to 15 mg/L. The fungal enzymatic activities were determined for lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP) and laccase (Lac), respectively. The PhC removal efficiency of the fungi was assessed in aerated batch flasks and the drug concentrations and intermediate compounds formation were determined by using SPE-UPLC/MS. A tolerance over 70% was recorded for all the fungi at drug concentration of 0.1 mg/L. Manganese peroxidase was produced by all the fungi with very low amount of LiP, while all the enzymes were produced by T. polyzona. The pH of 4.3, temperature 37 ± 1.5°C and incubation time of 6 days were the optimum parameters for the fungal enzymatic activities. The best removal of CBZ (87%) was achieved by R. microsporus after 10 days. Between 78 and 100% removal of DCF was observed by all the fungi after 24 h, while 98% of IBP was removed after 2 days by M. circinelloides. Only a few intermediate compounds were identified after 3 days and disappeared after 10 days of incubation. This study demonstrated that apart from the basidiomycetes, the ascomycetes and zygomycetes are also producers of ligninolytic enzymes and have the ability to biodegrade emerging pollutants such as PhCs.

Effects of diclofenac on the swimming behavior and antioxidant enzyme activities of the freshwater interstitial crustacean Bryocamptus pygmaeus (Crustacea, Harpacticoida)

Diclofenac (DCF) is one of the most widespread pharmaceutical compounds found in freshwaters as a pseudo-persistent pollutant due to its continuous release from point and diffuse sources, being its removal in Wastewater Treatment Plants incomplete. Moreover, DCF is particularly persistent in interstitial habitats and potentially toxic for the species that spend their whole life cycle among the same sediment grains. This study is aimed at offering a first contribution to the assessment of DCF effects on freshwater invertebrate species living in the interstitial habitats of springs, rivers, lakes and groundwaters. The Crustacea Copepoda are one of the main components of the freshwater interstitial communities, with the primacy taken by the worm-like and small-sized harpacticoids. A sub-lethal concentration of 50 μg L^-1 DCF significantly affected six out of the eight behavior parameters of the burrower/interstitial crustacean harpacticoid Bryocamptus pygmaeus recorded by video tracking analysis. DCF exposure reduced swimming speed, swimming activity, exploration ability and thigmotaxis, and increased swimming path tortuosity. The biochemical approach revealed a reduced level of the mitochondrial superoxide dismutase 2 in individuals exposed to DCF. It could be explained by a decline in mitochondrial performance or by a reduced number of functional mitochondria. Since mitochondrial dysfunction may determine ATP reduction, it comes that less energy is produced for maintaining the cell functions of the DCF-exposed individuals. In addition, the increasing energy demand for the detoxification process further contributes to decrease the total energetic budget allocated for other physiological activities. These observations can explain the changes we have observed in the swimming behavior of the copepod B. pygmaeus.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the Eastern Gulf of Finland (Russia)

The presence of substances of emerging concern-pharmaceuticals-in marine environments has been studied to a lesser extent compared to fresh and wastewaters. This is the first study of pharmaceutical distribution in the Russian part of the Baltic Sea. Among 18 pharmaceuticals previously detected in influent waters of Saint-Petersburg WWTPs, 7 compounds (caffeine [81% of samples], carbamazepine [81%], ketoprofen [60%], diclofenac [23 %], ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, and clarithromycin) were recorded in seawater samples in a range of measured concentrations from 0.1 to 4452 ng L^-1. Antibiotics were presented in trace concentrations. In sediment samples, 6 pharmaceuticals (0.1-66.2 ng g^-1) were detected. The most common was carbamazepine (80%). The remaining compounds were located in decreasing frequency as follows: ketoprofen, trimethoprim, drotaverine, tetracycline, and ciprofloxacin. Some specific features of the Gulf of Finland affecting the distribution of pharmaceutical concentrations were highlighted-among the most important, the megapolis of St. Petersburg with its population over 5 million and freshwater input by the Neva River (high urbanization of the territory with a potent dilution factor). We discussed the suitable set of anthropogenic markers for the Russian part of the Gulf of Finland.

Toxic effects of a mixture of five pharmaceutical drugs assessed using Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw

The potential health risks associated with the pharmaceuticals released into the environment through effluents from sewage treatment plants have become a major cause for concern. Owing to the lack of effective indicators, monitoring the concentration of these pollutants in the aquatic environment is challenging. The aim of this study was to assess the toxicity of a mixture of five pharmaceutical drugs (paracetamol, carbamazepine, diclofenac, irbesartan, and naproxen) using the aquatic moss Fontinalis antipyretica as a bioindicator and bioaccumulator. We examined the effects of the drug mixture on the cellular antioxidant system, chlorophyll content, and morphological traits of F. antipyretica. The plant was exposed for 5 months to three concentrations of the mixture, including the environmental concentration (MX1), and 10- (MX10) and 100-times (MX100) the environmental concentration. The results showed that only carbamazepine and irbesartan were accumulated by the species. The bioconcentration level increased with exposure time, with the maximum uptake at the 4th month of exposure. The increase in bioaccumulation with exposure time was more evident in plants exposed to MX100. Analysis of the activity of antioxidant enzymes showed that superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1.) and catalase (EC 1.11.1.6.) were highly sensitive to the drug mixture. The activity of the enzymes was significantly higher in plants exposed to MX100; however, the activity of guaiacol peroxidase (GPX, EC 1.11.1.7.) was not significantly affected. Plants exposed to MX10 and MX100 had significantly lower total chlorophyll content and chlorophyll a/b ratio compared with those of plants in the control group; however, photosynthetic activity was restored after 5 months of exposure. The morphological characteristics of F. antipyretica were less sensitive to the treatment conditions.

A review on occurrence of emerging pollutants in waters of the MENA region

Little is known about the occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) in waters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region despite the extensive use of low-quality water there. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, 290 EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater (TWW). Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Worryingly, 57 cases of EPs have been reported in different fresh and drinking waters, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and European Commission (EC) thresholds. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region.

Chitosan/Selenium Nanoparticles Attenuate Diclofenac Sodium-Induced Testicular Toxicity in Male Rats

The detrimental effect of diclofenac sodium (Diclo-Na) on male reproductive organs is reported upon in this paper. Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of various amounts of glucosamine. Chitosan nanoparticles (CH-NPs) have attracted much attention owing to their biomedical activity. Selenium (Se) has a vital role in nutrition, plays an important role in enhancing male reproduction, and has a wide range of free radical scavenging activities. However, the study of the impact of chitosan nanoparticles in combination with Se (IV) (CH-NPs/Se) on male reproductive toxicity associated with Diclo-Na administration is lacking in recent literature. The current study assessed the ameliorative effects of complexes of CH-NPs/Se (IV) on Diclo-Na and the ways in which they alter reproductive toxicity in male rats. Male rats were treated for 30 days successively, either with Diclo-Na (10 mg/kg) or co-treated with a CH-NPs/Se complex (280 mg/kg). Sperm characteristics, marker enzymes of testicular function, LH, FSH, and testosterone were evaluated in addition to oxidative stress markers and histological alterations. CH-NPs/Se significantly alleviated Diclo-Na-induced decline in sperm count and motility, testicular function enzymes, and levels of LH and testosterone in serum. Additionally, CH-NPs/Se co-administration at 280 mg/Kg, inhibited the Diclo-Na-induced decline of antioxidant enzyme activities and elevated oxidative stress indices and reactive free radicals in testicular homogenates of male rats. CH-NPs/Se (280 mg/kg) alone improved Diclo-Na and ameliorated histological damages in exposed rats. In conclusion, chitosan improved testicular function in Diclo-Na-treated rats by enhancing the testosterone hormone levels, ameliorating testicular tissue, and inhibiting markers of oxidative stress in male rats.

Assessment of removal efficiency of pharmaceutical products from wastewater in sewage treatment plants: A case of the sewerage systems Ghana limited, Accra

Pharmaceuticals put the environment at high risk when found in products of wastewater treatment plants, hence need to be removed efficiently. This study quantified selected pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) (diclofenac, aspirin, paracetamol, and ibuprofen) in wastewater and evaluated its removal efficiency from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Samples were taken from the WWTP of the Sewerage Systems Ghana Limited (SSGL) for 18 consecutive days. Both effluents and influents were tested in the laboratory to determine the concentrations of the various pharmaceutical products. The results reveal diclofenac as the PhAC with the highest concentration in the influent with an average of 121.31 μg/ml. Paracetamol recorded an average of 65.54 μg/ml, then ibuprofen with an average of 19.54 μg/ml. Aspirin was the PhAC with the lowest concentration in the influent with an average of 0.27 μg/ml. Further assessment was also done on the trickling filter (biological filter) which is part of the process plant at the secondary stage to assess how the trickling filter aids in the removal of these selected pharmaceuticals.

The average removal efficiency found were; diclofenac 74%, aspirin 93%, paracetamol 98%, and ibuprofen 99%. The technologies suggested for improvement, particularly for diclofenac, based on comprehensive literature were phototransformation and sorption of diclofenac onto sludge which occurs via absorption and adsorption, that can be adopted by the management of the WWTP at SSGL to help increase the removal efficiency of the selected PhACs. It was also identified that the trickling filter is the stage that substantially aids in the removal of the selected pharmaceuticals due to its special features.

Microbial Electrochemical Fluidized Bed Reactor: A Promising Solution for Removing Pollutants From Pharmaceutical Industrial Wastewater

The capacity of electroactive bacteria to exchange electrons with electroconductive materials has been explored during the last two decades as part of a new field called electromicrobiology. Such microbial metabolism has been validated to enhance the bioremediation of wastewater pollutants. In contrast with standard materials like rods, plates, or felts made of graphite, we have explored the use of an alternative strategy using a fluid-like electrode as part of a microbial electrochemical fluidized bed reactor (ME-FBR). After verifying the low adsorption capacity of the pharmaceutical pollutants on the fluid-bed electrode [7.92 ± 0.05% carbamazepine (CBZ) and 9.42 ± 0.09% sulfamethoxazole (SMX)], our system showed a remarkable capacity to outperform classical solutions for removing pollutants (more than 80%) from the pharmaceutical industry like CBZ and SMX. Moreover, the ME-FBR performance revealed the impact of selecting an anode potential by efficiently removing both pollutants at + 200 mV. The high TOC removal efficiency also demonstrated that electrostimulation of electroactive bacteria in ME-FBR could overcome the expected microbial inhibition due to the presence of CBZ and SMX. Cyclic voltammograms revealed the successful electron transfer between microbial biofilm and the fluid-like electrode bed throughout the polarization tests. Finally, Vibrio fischeri-based ecotoxicity showed a 70% reduction after treating wastewater with a fluid-like anode (+ 400 mV), revealing the promising performance of this bioelectrochemical approach.

Carvacrol exerts nephroprotective effect in rat model of diclofenac-induced renal injury through regulation of oxidative stress and suppression of inflammatory response

Diclofenac (DIC) is an NSAID that can cause toxic effects in animals and humans and carvacrol (CAR) is a monoterpene compound that displays effective pharmacological and biological actions. The purpose of this work was to assess the influences of CAR on DIC-induced renal injury and oxidative stress in male rats. The rats were segregated into four groups. Group 1, control group; Group 2 received DIC-only; Groups 3, received CAR-only and group 4 received DIC plus CAR. Changes in biochemical indexes, pathological changes, molecular biological indexes, and genes related to the inflammation of main organs were evaluated. The results of this work indicated that the amounts of the serum protein carbonyl, sGOT, sGPT, urea, creatinine, uric acid, nitrite content, MDA, serum TNF-α, and renal TNF-α gene expression were remarkably increased and the levels of the GPx, GSH, CAT, and SOD were significantly reduced in DIC-only treated animals compared to the control group. On the other hand, treatment with CAR after exposure to DIC led to significant improvements in abnormalities of DIC-induced renal injury and serum biochemical factors. The data approve that CAR diminished the deleterious effects of DIC exposure. In this regard, the findings of this study indicated that the administration of CAR could alleviate the noxious effects of DIC on the antioxidant defense system and renal tissue.

A rapid magnetic bead-based immunoassay for sensitive determination of diclofenac

Increasing contamination of environmental waters with pharmaceuticals represents an emerging threat for the drinking water quality and safety. In this regard, fast and reliable analytical methods are required to allow quick countermeasures in case of contamination. Here, we report the development of a magnetic bead-based immunoassay (MBBA) for the fast and cost-effective determination of the analgesic diclofenac (DCF) in water samples, based on diclofenac-coupled magnetic beads and a robust monoclonal anti-DCF antibody. A novel synthetic strategy for preparation of the beads resulted in an assay that enabled for the determination of diclofenac with a significantly lower limit of detection (400 ng/L) than the respective enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). With shorter incubation times and only one manual washing step required, the assay demands for remarkably shorter time to result (< 45 min) and less equipment than ELISA. Evaluation of assay precision and accuracy with a series of spiked water samples yielded results with low to moderate intra- and inter-assay variations and in good agreement with LC–MS/MS reference analysis. The assay principle can be transferred to other, e.g., microfluidic, formats, as well as applied to other analytes and may replace ELISA as the standard immunochemical method.