Metal-based nanotoxicity and detoxification pathways in higher plants

Zinc, zinc nanoparticles and plants

Zinc belongs to the mineral elements, the so-called micronutrients, which are essential for all types of plants. Embedding itself into the enzymes associated with proteosynthesis and energy processes, zinc is necessary for maintaining the integrity of biomembranes and also plays an important role in the development of seeds and generative organs. This review focuses on summarising the findings on the interaction of zinc and plants and translates into the knowledge of the effect of zinc nanoparticles on plants. The findings include an overview of both positive and negative effects on plants. In conclusion there is a great interest in nano-zinc as improving the knowledge about individual forms of zinc and their uptake and assimilation within higher plants may be the first step towards a wider involvement of zinc nanoparticles into agriculture.

Role of cerium oxide nanoparticle-induced autophagy as a safeguard to exogenous H2O2-mediated DNA damage in tobacco BY-2 cells

The effect of cerium oxide nanoparticle (CeNP) in plants has elicited substantial controversy. While some investigators have reported that CeNP possesses antioxidant properties, others observed CeNP to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS). In spite of considerable research carried out on the effects of CeNP in metazoans, fundamental studies that can unveil its intracellular consequences linking ROS production, autophagy and DNA damage are lacking in plants. To elucidate the impact of CeNP within plant cells, tobacco BY-2 cells were treated with 10, 50 and 250 µg ml-1 CeNP (Ce10, Ce50 and Ce250), for 24 h. Results demonstrated concentration-dependent accumulation of Ca2+ and ROS at all CeNP treatment sets. However, significant DNA damage and alteration in antioxidant defence systems were noted prominently at Ce50 and Ce250. Moreover, Ce50 and Ce250 induced DNA damage, analysed by comet assay and DNA diffusion experiments, complied with the concomitant increase in ROS. Furthermore, to evaluate the antioxidant property of CeNP, treated cells were washed after 24 h (to minimise CeNP interference) and challenged with H2O2 for 3 h. Ce10 did not induce genotoxicity and H2O2 exposure to Ce10-treated cells showed lesser DNA breakage than cells treated with H2O2 only. Interestingly, Ce10 provided better protection over N-acetyl-L-cysteine against exogenous H2O2 in BY-2 cells. CeNP exposure to transgenic BY-2 cells expressing GFP-Atg8 fusion protein exhibited formation of autophagosomes at Ce10. Application of vacuolar protease inhibitor E-64c and fluorescent basic dye acridine orange, further demonstrated accumulation of particulate matters in the vacuole and occurrence of acidic compartments, the autophagolysosomes, respectively. BY-2 cells co-treated with CeNP and autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine exhibited increased DNA damage in Ce10 and cell death at all assessed treatment sets. Thus, current results substantiate an alternative autophagy-mediated, antioxidant and geno-protective role of CeNP, which will aid in deciphering novel phenomena of plant-nanoparticle interaction at cellular level.

Alteration of Crop Yield and Quality of Wheat upon Exposure to Silver Nanoparticles in a Life Cycle Study

As a result of the rapid development of nanotechnology, metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are inadvertently released into the environment and may pose a potential threat to the ecosystem. However, information for food quality and safety in NP-treated crops is limited. In the present study, wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) was grown in different concentrations of Ag-NP-amended soil (20, 200, and 2000 mg kg^-1) for 4 months. At harvest, physiological parameters, Ag and micronutrient (Fe, Cu, and Zn) contents, and amino acid and total protein contents were measured. Results showed that, with increasing the exposure doses, Ag NPs exhibited severe phytotoxicity, including lower biomass, shorter plant height, and lower grain weight. Ag accumulation in roots was significantly higher than that in shoots and grains. Decreases in the content of micronutrients (Fe, Cu, and Zn) in Ag-NP-treated grains suggested low crop quality. The results of amino acid and protein contents in Ag-NP-treated wheat grains indicated that Ag NPs indeed altered the nutrient contents in the edible portion. In the amino acid profile, the presence of Ag NPs significantly decreased the contents of arginine and histidine by 13.0 and 11.8%, respectively. In summary, the effects of metal-based NPs on the edible portion of crops should be taken into account in the evaluation of nanotoxicity to terrestrial plants. Moreover, investigation of the potential impacts of NP-caused nutrient alterations on human health could further our understandings on NP-induced phytotoxicity.

Phytotoxicity of silver nanoparticles to Lemna minor: Surface coating and exposure period-related effects

Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) exponential production raises concern about their environmental impact. The effects of Ag NPs to aquatic plants remain scarcely studied, especially in extended exposures. This paper aims to evaluate Ag NPs effects in Lemna minor at individual and sub-individual levels, focusing on three variables: Ag form (NPs versus ions - Ag⁺), NPs surface coating (citrate vs polyvinylpyrrolidone - PVP) and exposure period (7 vs 14days). Endpoints were assessed at individual level (specific growth rate, chlorosis incidence and number of fronds per colony) and sub-individual level (enzymatic activities of catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST)). Generally, plants exposed to all Ag forms underwent decays on growth rate and fronds per colony, and increases on chlorosis, GPX and GST, but no effects on CAT. The most sensitive endpoints were specific growth rate and GPx activity, showing significant effects down to 0.05mg/L for Ag NPs and 3μg/L for Ag⁺, after 14days. Ag⁺ showed higher toxicity with a 14d-EC₅₀ of 0.0037mg Ag/L. Concerning surface coating, PVP-Ag NPs were more deleterious on growth rate and fronds per colony, whereas citrate-Ag NPs affected more the chlorosis incidence and GPx and GST activities. The exposure period significantly affected chlorosis: 14days triggered a chlorosis increase in Ag⁺-exposed plants and a decrease in Ag NPs-exposed plants when compared to 7days. Ag NPs induced an oxidative stress status in cells, thus ensuing upregulated enzymatic activity as a self-defense mechanism. Since Ag NPs dissolution might occur on a steady and continuous mode along time, and the average longevity of fronds, we propose longer exposures periods than the recommended by the OECD guideline. This approach would provide more relevant and holistic evidences on the overall response of freshwater plants to Ag NPs in an ecological relevant scenario.

Plant Response to Metal-Containing Engineered Nanomaterials: An Omics-Based Perspective

The increasing use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) raises questions regarding their environmental impact. Improving the level of understanding of the genetic and molecular basis of the response to ENM exposure in biota is necessary to accurately assess the true risk to sensitive receptors. The aim of this Review is to compare the plant response to several metal-based ENMs widely used, such as quantum dots, metal oxides, and silver nanoparticles (NPs), integrating available "omics" data (transcriptomics, miRNAs, and proteomics). Although there is evidence that ENMs can release their metal components into the environment, the mechanistic basis of both ENM toxicity and tolerance is often distinct from that of metal ions and bulk materials. We show that the mechanisms of plant defense against ENM stress include the modification of root architecture, involvement of specific phytohormone signaling pathways, and activation of antioxidant mechanisms. A critical meta-analysis allowed us to identify relevant genes, miRNAs, and proteins involved in the response to ENMs and will further allow a mechanistic understanding of plant-ENM interactions.

Nanobrass CuZn Nanoparticles as Foliar Spray Nonphytotoxic Fungicides

Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) have been proposed as alternative fertilizers to suppress plant disease and increase crop yield. However, phytotoxicity of NPs remains a key factor for their massive employment in agricultural applications. In order to investigate new effective, nonphytotoxic, and inexpensive fungicides, in the present study CuZn bimetallic nanoparticles (BNPs) have been synthesized as antifungals, while assessment of photosystem II (PSII) efficiency by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging analysis is utilized as an effective and noninvasive phytotoxicity evaluation method. Thus, biocompatible coated, nonoxide contaminated CuZn BNPs of 20 nm crystallite size and 250 nm hydrodynamic diameter have been prepared by a microwave-assisted synthesis. BNPs' antifungal activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found to be enhanced compared to monometallic Cu NPs. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and photosystem II (PSII) functionality at low light (LL) and high light (HL) intensity were determined on tomato plants sprayed with 15 and 30 mg L^-1 of BNPs for the evaluation of their phytotoxicity. Tomato leaves sprayed with 15 mg L^-1 of BNPs displayed no significant difference in PSII functionality at LL, while exposure to 30 mg L^-1 of BNPs for up to 90 min resulted in a reduced plastoquinone (PQ) pool that gave rise to H₂O₂ accumulation, initiating signaling networks and regulating acclimation responses. After 3 h of exposure to 30 mg L^-1 of BNPs, PSII functionality at LL was similar to control, indicating nonphytotoxic effects. Meanwhile, exposure of tomato leaves either enhanced (15 mg L^-1) or did not have any significant effect (30 mg L^-1) on PSII functionality at HL, attributed to the absence of semiconducting oxide phases and photochemical toxicity-reducing modifications. The use of chlorophyll fluorescence imaging analysis is recommended as a tool to monitor NPs behavior on plants.

Apoplastic and symplastic uptake of phenanthrene in wheat roots

The contamination of agricultural crops by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has drawn considerable attention due to their carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and toxicity. However, the uptake process of PAHs in plant roots has not been clearly understood. In this work, we first study the radial uptake of phenanthrene in hydroculture wheat roots by vacuum-infiltration-centrifugation method. The concentration-dependent kinetics of apoplastic and symplastic uptake at phenanthrene concentrations of 0-6.72 μM for 4 h can be described with the Langmuir and Michaelis-Menten equations, respectively; whereas, their time-dependent kinetics at 5.60 μM phenanthrene for 36 h follow the Elovich equation. The apoplastic and symplastic uptake increases with temperature of 15-35 °C. The apparent Arrhenius activation energies for apoplastic and symplastic uptake are 77.5 and 9.39 KJ mol^-1, respectively. The symplastic uptake accounts for over 55% of total phenanthrene uptake, suggesting that symplast is the dominant pathway for wheat root phenanthrene uptake. Larger volume of symplast in roots and lower activation energy lead to the greater contribution of symplast to total uptake of phenanthrene. Our results provide not only novel insights into the mechanisms on the uptake of PAHs by plant roots, but also the help to optimize strategies for crop safety and phytoremediation of PAH-contaminated soil/water.

Uptake of Engineered Nanoparticles by Food Crops: Characterization, Mechanisms, and Implications

With the rapidly increasing demand for and use of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) in agriculture and related sectors, concerns over the risks to agricultural systems and to crop safety have been the focus of a number of investigations. Significant evidence exists for NP accumulation in soils, including potential particle transformation in the rhizosphere and within terrestrial plants, resulting in subsequent uptake by plants that can yield physiological deficits and molecular alterations that directly undermine crop quality and food safety. In this review, we document in vitro and in vivo characterization of NPs in both growth media and biological matrices; discuss NP uptake patterns, biotransformation, and the underlying mechanisms of nanotoxicity; and summarize the environmental implications of the presence of NPs in agricultural ecosystems. A clear understanding of nano-impacts, including the advantages and disadvantages, on crop plants will help to optimize the safe and sustainable application of nanotechnology in agriculture for the purposes of enhanced yield production, disease suppression, and food quality.

Chemical Speciation and Metallomics

Chemical speciation approaches is an inherent part of metallomics, once metals/metalloids and organic structures need to be currently evaluated for attaining metallomics studies. Then, this chapter focuses on the applications of the chemical speciation applied to the human health risk, food and human diet, drugs, forensic, nanoscience, and geological metallomics, also pointing out the advances in such area. Some aspects regarding sample preparation is commented along this chapter, and some strategies for maintaining the integrity of the metallomics information are also emphasized.

Interaction of Engineered Nanoparticles with the Agri-environment

Nanoparticles with their unique surface properties can modulate the physiological, biochemical, and physicochemical pathways, such as photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen metabolism, and solute transport. In this context, researchers have developed a wide range of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) for the improvement of growth and productivity by modulating the metabolic pathways in plants. This class of tailor-made materials can potentially lead to the development of a new group of agrochemical nanofertilizers. However, there are reports that engineered nanomaterials could impart phytotoxicity to edible and medicinal plants. On the contrary, there is a series of ENMs that might be detrimental when applied directly and/or indirectly to the plants. These particles can sometimes readily aggregate and dissolute in the immediate vicinity; the free ions released from the nanomatrix can cause serious tissue injury and membrane dysfunction to the plant cell through oxidative stress. On that note, thorough studies on uptake, translocation, internalization, and nutritional quality assessment must be carried out to understand ENM-plant interactions. This review critically discusses the possible beneficial or adverse aftereffect of nanofertilizers in the immediate environment to interrelate the impacts of ENMs on the crop health and food security management.

Distinct physiological and molecular responses in Arabidopsis thaliana exposed to aluminum oxide nanoparticles and ionic aluminum

Nano-aluminium oxide (nAl₂O₃) is one of the most widely used nanomaterials. However, nAl₂O₃ toxicity mechanisms and potential beneficial effects on terrestrial plant physiology remain poorly understood. Such knowledge is essential for the development of robust nAl₂O₃ risk assessment. In this study, we studied the influence of a 10-d exposure to a total selected concentration of 98 μM nAl₂O₃ or to the equivalent molar concentration of ionic Al (AlCl₃) (196 μM) on the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana on the physiology (e.g., growth and photosynthesis, membrane damage) and the transcriptome using a high throughput state-of-the-art technology, RNA-seq. We found no evidence of nAl₂O₃ toxicity on photosynthesis, growth and lipid peroxidation. Rather the nAl₂O₃ treatment stimulated root weight and length by 48% and 39%, respectively as well as photosynthesis opening up the door to the use of nAl₂O₃ in biotechnology and nano agriculture. Transcriptomic analyses indicate that the beneficial effect of nAl₂O₃ was related to an increase in the transcription of several genes involved in root growth as well as in root nutrient uptake (e.g., up-regulation of the root hair-specific gene family and root development genes, POLARIS protein). By contrast, the ionic Al treatment decreased shoot and root weight of Arabidopsis thaliana by 57.01% and 45.15%, respectively. This toxic effect was coupled to a range of response at the gene transcription level including increase transcription of antioxidant-related genes and transcription of genes involved in plant defense response to pathogens. This work provides an integrated understanding at the molecular and physiological level of the effects of nAl₂O₃ and ionic Al in Arabidopsis.

Nanoparticle Uptake in Plants: Gold Nanomaterial Localized in Roots of Arabidopsis thaliana by X-ray Computed Nanotomography and Hyperspectral Imaging

Terrestrial plants can internalize and translocate nanoparticles (NPs). However, direct evidence for the processes driving the NP uptake and distribution in plants is scarce at the cellular level. Here, NP-root interactions were investigated after 10 days of exposure of Arabidopsis thaliana to 10 mg·L^-1 of negatively or positively charged gold NPs (∼12 nm) in gels. Two complementary imaging tools were used: X-ray computed nanotomography (nano-CT) and enhanced dark-field microscopy combined with hyperspectral imaging (DF-HSI). The use of these emerging techniques improved our ability to detect and visualize NP in plant tissue: by spectral confirmation via DF-HSI, and in three dimensions via nano-CT. The resulting imaging provides direct evidence that detaching border-like cells (i.e., sheets of border cells detaching from the root) and associated mucilage can accumulate and trap NPs irrespective of particle charge. On the contrary, border cells on the root cap behaved in a charge-specific fashion: positively charged NPs induced a higher mucilage production and adsorbed to it, which prevented translocation into the root tissue. Negatively charged NPs did not adsorb to the mucilage and were able to translocate into the apoplast. These observations provide direct mechanistic insight into NP-plant interactions, and reveal the important function of border cells and mucilage in interactions of plants with charged NPs.

Parallel comparative studies on toxicity of quantum dots synthesized and surface engineered with different methods in vitro and in vivo

Quantum dots (QDs) have been considered to be promising probes for biosensing, bioimaging, and diagnosis. However, their toxicity issues caused by heavy metals in QDs remain to be addressed, in particular for their in vivo biomedical applications. In this study, a parallel comparative investigation in vitro and in vivo is presented to disclose the impact of synthetic methods and their following surface modifications on the toxicity of QDs. Cellular assays after exposure to QDs were conducted including cell viability assessment, DNA breakage study in a single cellular level, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) receptor measurement, and transmission electron microscopy to evaluate their toxicity in vitro. Mice experiments after QD administration, including analysis of hemobiological indices, pharmacokinetics, histological examination, and body weight, were further carried out to evaluate their systematic toxicity in vivo. Results show that QDs fabricated by the thermal decomposition approach in organic phase and encapsulated by an amphiphilic polymer (denoted as QDs-1) present the least toxicity in acute damage, compared with those of QDs surface engineered by glutathione-mediated ligand exchange (denoted as QDs-2), and the ones prepared by coprecipitation approach in aqueous phase with mercaptopropionic acid capped (denoted as QDs-3). With the extension of the investigation time of mice respectively injected with QDs, we found that the damage caused by QDs to the organs can be gradually recovered. This parallel comparative investigation suggests that synthetic methods and their resulting surface microenvironment play vital roles in the acute toxicity profiles of QDs. The present study provides updated insights into the fabrication and surface engineering of QDs for their translational applications in theranostics.

Silver nanoparticles uptake by salt marsh plants - Implications for phytoremediation processes and effects in microbial community dynamics

This study investigated the uptake of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by a salt marsh plant, Phragmites australis, as well as AgNPs effects on rhizospheric microbial community, evaluating the implications for phytoremediation processes. Experiments were carried out with elutriate solution doped with Ag, either in ionic form or in NP form. Metal uptake was evaluated in plant tissues, elutriate solutions and sediments (by AAS) and microbial community was characterized in terms of bacterial community structure (evaluated by ARISA). Results showed Ag accumulation but only in plant belowground tissues and only in the absence of rhizosediment, the presence of sediment reducing Ag availability. But in plant roots Ag accumulation was higher when Ag was in NP form. Multivariate analysis of ARISA profiles showed significant effect of the absence/presence of Ag either in ionic or NP form on microbial community structure, although without significant differences among bacterial richness and diversity. Overall, P. australis can be useful for phytoremediation of medium contaminated with Ag, including with AgNPs. However, the presence of Ag in either forms affected the microbial community structure, which may cause disturbances in ecosystems function and compromise phytoremediation processes. Such considerations need to be address regarding environmental management strategies applied to the very important estuarine areas.

CAPSULE

The form in which the metal was added affected metal uptake by Phragmites australis and rhizosediment microbial community structure, which can affect phytoremediation.

Copper Oxide Nanoparticle Foliar Uptake, Phytotoxicity, and Consequences for Sustainable Urban Agriculture

Throughout the world, urban agriculture supplies fresh local vegetables to city populations. However, the increasing anthropogenic uses of metal-containing nanoparticles (NPs) such as CuO-NPs in urban areas may contaminate vegetables through foliar uptake. This study focused on the CuO-NP transfer processes in leafy edible vegetables (i.e., lettuce and cabbage) to assess their potential phytotoxicity. Vegetables were exposed via leaves for 5, 10, or 15 days to various concentrations of CuO-NPs (0, 10, or 250 mg per plant). Biomass and gas exchange values were determined in relation to the Cu uptake rate, localization, and Cu speciation within the plant tissues. High foliar Cu uptake occurred after exposure for 15 days for lettuce [3773 mg (kg of dry weight)-1] and cabbage [4448 mg (kg of dry weight)-1], along with (i) decreased plant weight, net photosynthesis level, and water content and (ii) necrotic Cu-rich areas near deformed stomata containing CuO-NPs observed by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Analysis of the CuO-NP transfer rate (7.8-242 μg day-1), translocation of Cu from leaves to roots and Cu speciation biotransformation in leaf tissues using electron paramagnetic resonance, suggests the involvement of plant Cu regulation processes. Finally, a potential health risk associated with consumption of vegetables contaminated with CuO-NPs was highlighted.

Surface coating changes the physiological and biochemical impacts of nano-TiO2 in basil (Ocimum basilicum) plants

Little is known about the effects of surface coating on the interaction of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) with plants. In this study, basil (Ocimum basilicum) was cultivated for 65 days in soil amended with unmodified, hydrophobic (coated with aluminum oxide and dimethicone), and hydrophilic (coated with aluminum oxide and glycerol) titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO₂) at 125, 250, 500, and 750 mg nano-TiO₂ kg^-1 soil. ICP-OES/MS, SPAD meter, and UV/Vis spectrometry were used to determine Ti and essential elements in tissues, relative chlorophyll content, carbohydrates, and antioxidant response, respectively. Compared with control, hydrophobic and hydrophilic nano-TiO₂ significantly reduced seed germination by 41% and 59%, respectively, while unmodified and hydrophobic nano-TiO₂ significantly decreased shoot biomass by 31% and 37%, respectively (p ≤ 0.05). Roots exposed to hydrophobic particles at 750 mg kg^-1 had 87% and 40% more Ti than the pristine and hydrophilic nano-TiO₂; however, no differences were found in shoots. The three types of particles affected the homeostasis of essential elements: at 500 mg kg^-1, unmodified particles increased Cu (104%) and Fe (90%); hydrophilic increased Fe (90%); while hydrophobic increased Mn (339%) but reduced Ca (71%), Cu (58%), and P (40%). However, only hydrophobic particles significantly reduced root elongation by 53%. Unmodified, hydrophobic, and hydrophilic particles significantly reduced total sugar by 39%, 38%, and 66%, respectively, compared with control. Moreover, unmodified particles significantly decreased reducing sugar (34%), while hydrophobic particles significantly reduced starch (35%). Although the three particles affected basil plants, coated particles impacted the most its nutritional quality, since they altered more essential elements, starch, and reducing sugars.

Damage assessment for soybean cultivated in soil with either CeO2 or ZnO manufactured nanomaterials

With increasing use, manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) may enter soils and impact agriculture. Herein, soybean (Glycine max) was grown in soil amended with either nano-CeO2 (0.1, 0.5, or 1.0gkg-1 soil) or nano-ZnO (0.05, 0.1, or 0.5gkg-1 soil). Leaf chlorosis, necrosis, and photosystem II (PSII) quantum efficiency were monitored during plant growth. Seed protein and protein carbonyl, plus leaf chlorophyll, reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and genotoxicity were measured for plants at harvest. Neither PSII quantum efficiency, seed protein, nor protein carbonyl indicated negative MNM effects. However, increased ROS, lipid peroxidation, and visible damage, along with decreased total chlorophyll concentrations, were observed for soybean leaves in the nano-CeO2 treatments. These effects correlated to aboveground leaf, pod, and stem production, and to root nodule N2 fixation potential. Soybeans grown in soil amended with nano-ZnO maintained growth, yield, and N2 fixation potential similarly to the controls, without increased leaf ROS or lipid peroxidation. Leaf damage was observed for the nano-ZnO treatments, and genotoxicity appeared for the highest nano-ZnO treatment, but only for one plant. Total chlorophyll concentrations decreased with increasing leaf Zn concentration, which was attributable to zinc complexes-not nano-ZnO-in the leaves. Overall, nano-ZnO and nano-CeO2 amended to soils differentially triggered aboveground soybean leaf stress and damage. However, the consequences of leaf stress and damage to N2 fixation, plant growth, and yield were only observed for nano-CeO2.

The effects of metallic engineered nanoparticles upon plant systems: An analytic examination of scientific evidence

Recent evidence for the effects of metallic engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) on plants and plant systems was examined together with its implications for other constituents of the Society-Environment-Economy (SEE) system. In this study, we were particularly interested to determine whether or not metallic ENPs have both stimulatory and inhibitory effects upon plant performance. An emphasis was made to analyze the scientific evidence on investigations examining both types of effects in the same studies. Analysis of evidence demonstrated that metallic ENPs have both stimulatory and inhibitory effects mostly in well-controlled environments and soilless media. Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) and Cu ENPs have potential for use as micronutrients for plant systems, keeping in mind the proper formulation at the right dose for each type of ENP. The concentration levels for the stimulatory effects of Cu ENPs are lower than for those for nZVI. Newer findings showed that extremely smaller concentrations of Au ENPs (smaller than those for nZVI and Cu ENPs) induce positive effects for plant growth, which is attributed to effects on secondary metabolites. Ag ENPs have demonstrated their usage as antimicrobial/pesticidal agents for plant protection; however, precautions should be taken to avoid higher concentrations not only for plant systems, but also, other constituents in the SEE. Further research is warranted to investigate the stimulatory and inhibitory effects of metallic ENPs in soil media in order to broaden the horizon of sustainable agriculture production in terms of higher and safer yields so as to meet the food requirements of human population.

Comparative impacts of iron oxide nanoparticles and ferric ions on the growth of Citrus maxima

The impacts of iron oxide nanoparticles (γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs) and ferric ions (Fe³⁺) on plant growth and molecular responses associated with the transformation and transport of Fe²⁺ were poorly understood. This study comprehensively compared and evaluated the physiological and molecular changes of Citrus maxima plants as affected by different levels of γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs and Fe³⁺. We found that γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs could enter plant roots but no translocation from roots to shoots was observed. 20 mg/L γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs had no impact on plant growth. 50 mg/L γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs significantly enhanced chlorophyll content by 23.2% and root activity by 23.8% as compared with control. However, 100 mg/L γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs notably increased MDA formation, decreased chlorophyll content and root activity. Although Fe³⁺ ions could be used by plants and promoted the synthesis of chlorophyll, they appeared to be more toxic than γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs, especially for 100 mg/L Fe³⁺. The impacts caused by γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs and Fe³⁺ were concentration-dependent. Physiological results showed that γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs at proper concentrations had the potential to be an effective iron nanofertilizer for plant growth. RT-PCR analysis showed that γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs had no impact on AHA gene expression. 50 mg/L γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs and Fe³⁺ significantly increased expression levels of FRO2 gene and correspondingly had a higher ferric reductase activity compared to both control and Fe(II)-EDTA exposure, thus promoting the iron transformation and enhancing the tolerance of plants to iron deficiency. Relative levels of Nramp3 gene expression exposed to γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs and Fe³⁺ were significantly lower than control, indicating that all γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs and Fe³⁺ treatments could supply iron to C. maxima seedlings. Overall, plants can modify the speciation and transport of γ-Fe₂O₃ NPs or Fe³⁺ for self-protection and development by activating many physiological and molecular processes.

Jointed toxicity of TiO2 NPs and Cd to rice seedlings: NPs alleviated Cd toxicity and Cd promoted NPs uptake

Previous studies have reported that nanoparticles (NPs) and heavy metals are toxic to the environment. However, the jointed toxicity is not yet well understood. This study was aimed to investigate the combined toxicity of TiO₂ NPs and the heavy metal cadmium (Cd) to plants. Rice (Oryzasativa L.) was selected as the target plant. The rice seedlings were randomly separated into 12 groups and treated with CdCl₂ (0, 10 and 20 mg/L) and TiO₂ NPs (0, 10, 100 and 1000 mg/L). The plant height, biomass and root length indicated significant toxicity of Cd to the growth, but TiO₂ NPs exhibited the potential ability to alleviate the Cd toxicity. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) confirmed the existence of TiO₂ NPs in plants. Elemental analysis of Ti and Cd suggested that the presences of Cd significantly decreased the Ti accumulation in the rice roots in the co-exposure treatments. Interestingly, TiO₂ NPs could lower the Cd uptake and distribution in rice roots and leaves. The results of antioxidant enzyme activity, lipid peroxide as well as phytohormones varied in the different treatments. Comparing with the Cd alone treatment, the net photosynthetic rate and chlorophyll content were significantly increased in the co-exposure treatments, suggesting that TiO₂ NPs could tremendously reduce the Cd toxicity.

Zinc, copper, or cerium accumulation from metal oxide nanoparticles or ions in sweet potato: Yield effects and projected dietary intake from consumption

The potential release of metal oxide engineered nanoparticles (ENP) into agricultural systems has created the need to evaluate the impact of these materials on crop yield and food safety. The study here grew sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) to maturity in field microcosms using substrate amended with three concentrations (100, 500 or 1000 mg kg DW^-1) of either nZnO, nCuO, or nCeO₂ or equivalent amounts of Zn²⁺, Cu²⁺, or Ce⁴⁺. Adverse effects on tuber biomass were observed only for the highest concentration of Zn or Cu applied. Exposure to both forms of Ce had no adverse effect on yield and a slight positive benefit at higher concentrations on tuber diameter. The three metals accumulated in both the peel and flesh of the sweet potato tubers, with concentrations higher in the peel than the flesh for each element. For Zn, >70% of the metal was in the flesh and for Cu >50%. The peels retained 75-95% of Ce in the tubers. The projected dietary intake of each metal by seven age-mass classes from child to adult only exceeded the oral reference dose for chronic toxicity in a scenario where children consumed tubers grown at the highest metal concentration. The results throughout were generally not different between the ENP- and ionic-treatments, suggesting that the added ENPs underwent dissolution to release their component ions prior to accumulation. The results offer insight into the fate and impact of these ENPs in soils.

Exposure of engineered nanomaterials to plants: Insights into the physiological and biochemical responses-A review

Recent investigations show that carbon-based and metal-based engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), components of consumer goods and agricultural products, have the potential to build up in sediments and biosolid-amended agricultural soils. In addition, reports indicate that both carbon-based and metal-based ENMs affect plants differently at the physiological, biochemical, nutritional, and genetic levels. The toxicity threshold is species-dependent and responses to ENMs are driven by a series of factors including the nanomaterial characteristics and environmental conditions. Effects on the growth, physiological and biochemical traits, production and food quality, among others, have been reported. However, a complete understanding of the dynamics of interactions between plants and ENMs is not clear enough yet. This review presents recent publications on the physiological and biochemical effects that commercial carbon-based and metal-based ENMs have in terrestrial plants. This document focuses on crop plants because of their relevance in human nutrition and health. We have summarized the mechanisms of interaction between plants and ENMs as well as identified gaps in knowledge for future investigations.

Practical review on the use of synchrotron based micro- and nano- X-ray fluorescence mapping and X-ray absorption spectroscopy to investigate the interactions between plants and engineered nanomaterials

The increased use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in commercial products and the continuous development of novel applications, is leading to increased intentional and unintentional release of ENMs into the environment with potential negative impacts. Particularly, the partition of nanoparticles (NPs) to waste water treatment plant (WWTP) sludge represents a potential threat to agricultural ecosystems where these biosolids are being applied as fertilizers. Moreover, several applications of ENMs in agriculture and soil remediation are suggested. Therefore, detailed risk assessment should be done to evaluate possible secondary negative impacts. The impact of ENMS on plants as central component of ecosystems and worldwide food supply is of primary relevance. Understanding the fate and physical and chemical modifications of NPs in plants and their possible transfer into food chains requires specialized analytical techniques. Due to the importance of both chemical and physical factors to consider for a better understanding of ENMs behavior in complex matrices, these materials can be considered a new type of analyte. An ideal technique should require minimal sample preparation, be non-destructive, and offer the best balance between sensitivity, chemical specificity, and spatial resolution. Synchrotron radiation (SR) techniques are particularly adapted to investigate localization and speciation of ENMs in plants. SR X-ray fluorescence mapping (SR-XFM) offers multi-elemental detection with lateral resolution down to the tens of nm, in combination with spatially resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) speciation. This review will focus on important methodological aspects regarding sample preparation, data acquisition and data analysis of SR-XFM/XAS to investigate interactions between plants and ENMs.

Effects of ionic strength and temperature on the aggregation and deposition of multi-walled carbon nanotubes

The aggregation and deposition of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) determines their transport and fate in natural waters. Therefore, the aggregation kinetics of humic-acid treated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (HA-MWCNTs) was investigated by time-resolved dynamic light scattering in NaCl and CaCl₂ electrolyte solutions. Increased ionic strength induced HA-MWCNT aggregation due to the less negative zeta potential and the reduced electrostatic repulsion. The critical coagulation concentration (CCC) values of HA-MWCNTs were 80mmol/L in NaCl and 1.3mmol/L in CaCl₂ electrolyte, showing that Ca²⁺ causes more serious aggregation than Na⁺. The aggregation behavior of HA-MWCNTs was consistent with Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory. The deposition kinetics of HA-MWCNTs was measured by the optical absorbance at 800nm. The critical deposition concentrations for HA-MWCNT in NaCl and CaCl₂ solutions were close to the CCC values, therefore the rate of deposition cannot be increased by changing the ionic strength in the diffusion-limited aggregation regime. The deposition process was correlated to the aggregation since larger aggregates increased gravitational deposition and decreased random Brownian diffusion. HA-MWCNTs hydrodynamic diameters were evaluated at 5, 15 and 25°C. Higher temperature caused faster aggregation due to the reduced electrostatic repulsion and increased random Brownian motion and collision frequency. HA-MWCNTs aggregate faster at higher temperature in either NaCl or CaCl₂ electrolyte due to the decreased electrostatic repulsion and increased random Brownian motion. Our results suggest that CNT aggregation and deposition are two correlated processes governed by the electrolyte, and CNT transport is favored at low ionic strength and low temperature.

Interaction of metal oxide nanoparticles with higher terrestrial plants: Physiological and biochemical aspects

Multiple applications of metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs) could result in their accumulation in soil, threatening higher terrestrial plants. Several reports have shown the effects of MONPs on plants. In this review, we analyze the most recent reports about the physiological and biochemical responses of plants to stress imposed by MONPs. Findings demonstrate that MONPs may be taken up and accumulated in plant tissues causing adverse or beneficial effects on seed germination, seedling elongation, photosynthesis, antioxidative stress response, agronomic, and yield characteristics. Given the importance of determining the potential risks of MONPs on crops and other terrestrial higher plants, research questions about field long-term conditions, transgenernational phytotoxicity, genotype specific sensitivity, and combined pollution problems should be considered.

An overview on manufactured nanoparticles in plants: Uptake, translocation, accumulation and phytotoxicity

The unprecedented capability to control and characterize materials on the nanometer scale has led to the rapid expansion of nanostructured materials. The expansion of nanotechnology, resulting into myriads of consumer and industrial products, causes a concern among the scientific community regarding risk associated with the release of nanomaterials in the environment. Bioavailability of excess nanomaterials ultimately threatens ecosystem and human health. Over the past few years, the field of nanotoxicology dealing with adverse effects and the probable risk associated with particulate structures <100 nm in size has emerged from the recognized understanding of toxic effects of fibrous and non-fibrous particles and their interactions with plants. The present review summarizes uptake, translocation and accumulation of nanomaterials and their recognized ways of phytotoxicity on morpho-anatomical, physiological, biochemical and molecular traits of plants. Besides this, the present review also examines the intrinsic detoxification mechanisms in plants in light of nanomaterial accumulation within plant cells or parts.

Engineered nanomaterial-mediated changes in the metabolism of terrestrial plants

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) possess remarkable physicochemical characteristics suitable for different applications in medicine, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, energy, cosmetics and electronics. Because of their ultrafine size and high surface reactivity, ENMs can enter plant cells and interact with intracellular structures and metabolic pathways which may produce toxicity or promote plant growth and development by diverse mechanisms. Depending on their type and concentration, ENMs can have positive or negative effects on photosynthesis, photochemical fluorescence and quantum yield as well as photosynthetic pigments status of the plants. Some studies have shown that ENMs can improve photosynthetic efficiency via increasing chlorophyll content and light absorption and also broadening the spectrum of captured light, suggesting that photosynthesis can be nano-engineered for harnessing more solar energy. Both up- and down-regulation of primary metabolites such as proteins and carbohydrates have been observed following exposure of plants to various ENMs. The potential capacity of ENMs for changing the rate of primary metabolites lies in their close relationship with activation and biosynthesis of the key enzymes. Several classes of secondary metabolites such as phenolics, flavonoids, and alkaloids have been shown to be induced (mostly accompanied by stress-related factors) in plants exposed to different ENMs, highlighting their great potential as elicitors to enhance both quantity and quality of biologically active secondary metabolites. Considering reports on both positive and negative effects of ENMs on plant metabolism, in-depth studies are warranted to figure out the most appropriate ENMs (type, size and optimal concentration) in order to achieve the desirable effect on specific metabolites in a given plant species. In this review, we summarize the studies performed on the impacts of ENMs on biosynthesis of plant primary and secondary metabolites and mention the research gaps that currently exist in this field.

Changes of primary and secondary metabolites in barley plants exposed to CdO nanoparticles

The environmental fate of airborne nanoparticles and their toxicity to plants is not yet fully understood. Pot-grown barley plants with second leaves developed were therefore exposed to CdO nanoparticles (CdONPs) of ecologically relevant size (7-60 nm) and concentration (2.03 ± 0.45 × 10⁵ particles cm^-3) in air for 3 weeks. An experiment was designed to test the effects of different treatments when only leaves (T1); leaves and soil substrate (T2); and leaves, soil, and water supply were exposed to nanoparticles (T3). A fourth, control group of plants was left without treatment (T0). Although CdONPs were directly absorbed by leaves from the air, a part of leaf-allocated Cd was also transported from roots by transpiration flow. Chromatographic assays revealed that CdONPs had a significant effect on total content of primary metabolites (amino acids and saccharides) but no significant effect on total content of secondary metabolites (phenolic compounds, Krebs cycle acids, and fatty acids). In addition, the compositions of individual metabolite classes were affected by CdONP treatment. For example, tryptophan and phenylalanine were the most affected amino acids in both analysed organs, while ferulic acid and isovitexin constituted the polyphenols most affected in leaves. Even though CdONP treatment had no effect on total fatty acids content, there were significant changes in the composition of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in both the roots and leaves of treated plants. Although the results indicate the most pronounced effect in T3 plants as compared to T1 and T2 plants, even just leaf exposure to CdONPs has the potential to induce changes in plant metabolism.

Internalization and Phytotoxic Effects of CuO Nanoparticles in Arabidopsis thaliana as Revealed by Fatty Acid Profiles

Internalization and phytotoxic effects of CuO nanoparticles (nCuO) in plants were studied at the cellular level. Arabidopsis thaliana was hydroponically challenged by nCuO (100 mg/L), as compared to Cu²⁺ ions (1.2 mg/L), to account for nCuO dissolution for 96 h and 28 days to monitor Cu accumulation in the plant as well as the fatty acid (FA) profiles of the plant cell membrane. Under the same growing conditions, the nCuO exposure resulted in more Cu accumulation than did the Cu²⁺ exposure. Multiple microscopic techniques confirmed the internalization and sequestration of nCuO in root cell vacuoles, where transformation of Cu(II) to Cu(I)Cl occurred. Short and long exposures (96 h versus 28 days) to both nCuO and Cu²⁺ elevated FA saturation degrees in plant cells through oxidative stress, as verified by in situ detection of superoxide radicals, with conversions mostly from C18:3, C16:3, and C18:2 to C16:0. Only the long exposure to nCuO significantly brought about an additional elevation of FA saturation degree in root cells. These results demonstrated that the acute effects of plant exposure to nCuO were mainly produced from the stress of Cu²⁺ ions released from nCuO dissolution, while the chronic effects in roots were significantly developed by the nCuO particle stress. The findings in this work are novel and may offer significant implications in better understanding nanoparticle-induced phytotoxicity and potential risks in ecosystems.

Uptake, translocation and physiological effects of magnetic iron oxide (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles in corn (Zea mays L.)

Iron oxide nanoparticles (γ-Fe2O3 NPs) have emerged as an innovative and promising method of iron application in agricultural systems. However, the possible toxicity of γ-Fe2O3 NPs and its uptake and translocation require further study prior to large-scale field application. In this study, we investigated uptake and distribution of γ-Fe2O3 NPs in corn (Zea mays L.) and its impacts on seed germination, antioxidant enzyme activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and chlorophyll content were determined. 20 mg/L of γ-Fe2O3 NPs significantly promoted root elongation by 11.5%, and increased germination index and vigor index by 27.2% and 39.6%, respectively. However, 50 and 100 mg/L γ-Fe2O3 NPs remarkably decreased root length by 13.5% and 12.5%, respectively. Additionally, evidence for γ-Fe2O3 NPs induced oxidative stress was exclusively found in the root. Exposures of different concentrations of NPs induced notably high levels of MDA in corn roots, and the MDA levels of corn roots treated by γ-Fe2O3 NPs (20-100 mg/L) were 5-7-fold higher than that observed in the control plants. Meanwhile, the chlorophyll contents were decreased by 11.6%, 39.9% and 19.6%, respectively, upon NPs treatment relative to the control group. Images from fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicated that γ-Fe2O3 NPs could enter plant roots and migrate apoplastically from the epidermis to the endodermis and accumulate the vacuole. Furthermore, we found that NPs mostly existed around the epidermis of root and no translocation of NPs from roots to shoots was observed. Our results will be highly meaningful on understanding the fate and physiological effects of γ-Fe2O3 NPs in plants.

Molecular Response of Crop Plants to Engineered Nanomaterials

Functional toxicology has enabled the identification of genes involved in conferring tolerance and sensitivity to engineered nanomaterial (ENM) exposure in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Several genes were found to be involved in metabolic functions, stress response, transport, protein synthesis, and DNA repair. Consequently, analysis of physiological parameters, metal content (through ICP-MS quantification), and gene expression (by RT-qPCR) of A. thaliana orthologue genes were performed across different plant species of agronomic interest to highlight putative biomarkers of exposure and effect related to ENMs. This approach led to the identification of molecular markers in Solanum lycopersicum L. and Cucurbita pepo L. (tomato and zucchini) that might not only indicate exposure to ENMs (CuO, CeO2, and La2O3) but also provide mechanistic insight into response to these materials. Through Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, the target genes were mapped in complex interatomic networks representing molecular pathways, cellular components, and biological processes involved in ENM response. The transcriptional response of 38 (out of 204) candidate genes studied varied according to particle type, size, and plant species. Importantly, some of the genes studied showed potential as biomarkers of ENM exposure and effect and may be useful for risk assessment in foods and in the environment.

CuO Nanoparticle Interaction with Arabidopsis thaliana: Toxicity, Parent-Progeny Transfer, and Gene Expression

CuO nanoparticles (NPs) (20, 50 mg L(-1)) inhibited seedling growth of different Arabidopsis thaliana ecotypes (Col-0, Bay-0, and Ws-2), as well as the germination of their pollens and harvested seeds. For most of growth parameters (e.g., biomass, relative growth rate, root morphology change), Col-0 was the more sensitive ecotype to CuO NPs compared to Bay-0 and Ws-2. Equivalent Cu(2+) ions and CuO bulk particles had no effect on Arabidopsis growth. After CuO NPs (50 mg L(-1)) exposure, Cu was detected in the roots, leaves, flowers and harvested seeds of Arabidopsis, and its contents were significantly higher than that in CuO bulk particles (50 mg L(-1)) and Cu(2+) ions (0.15 mg L(-1)) treatments. Based on X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy analysis (XANES), Cu in the harvested seeds was confirmed as being mainly in the form of CuO (88.8%), which is the first observation on the presence of CuO NPs in the plant progeny. Moreover, after CuO NPs exposure, two differentially expressed genes (C-1 and C-3) that regulated root growth and reactive oxygen species generation were identified, which correlated well with the physiological root inhibition and oxidative stress data. This current study provides direct evidence for the negative effects of CuO NPs on Arabidopsis, including accumulation and parent-progeny transfer of the particles, which may have significant implications with regard to the risk of NPs to food safety and security.

Metal-based quantum dots: synthesis, surface modification, transport and fate in aquatic environments and toxicity to microorganisms

The intense interest in metal-based QDs is diluted by the fact that they cause risks to aquatic environments.

Brassinosteroid Ameliorates Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles-Induced Oxidative Stress by Improving Antioxidant Potential and Redox Homeostasis in Tomato Seedling

In the last few decades use of metal-based nanoparticles (MNPs) has been increased significantly that eventually contaminating agricultural land and limiting crop production worldwide. Moreover, contamination of food chain with MNPs has appeared as a matter of public concern due to risk of potential health hazard. Brassinosteroid has been shown to play a critical role in alleviating heavy metal stress; however, its function in relieving zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs)-induced phytotoxicity remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the potential role of 24-epibrassinolide (BR) in mitigating ZnO NPs-induced toxicity in tomato seedlings. Seedling growth, biomass production, and root activity gradually decreased, but Zn accumulation increased with increasing ZnO NPs concentration (10-100 mg/L) in growth media (½ MS). The augmentation of BR (5 nM) in media significantly ameliorated 50 mg/L ZnO NPs-induced growth inhibition. Visualization of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and quantification of H2O2 and malondialdehyde (MDA) in tomato roots confirmed that ZnO NPs induced an oxidative stress. However, combined treatment with BR and ZnO NPs remarkably reduced concentration of H2O2 and MDA as compared with ZnO NPs only treatment, indicating that BR supplementation substantially reduced oxidative stress. Furthermore, the activities of key antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase were increased by combined treatment of BR and ZnO NPs compared with ZnO NPs only treatment. BR also increased reduced glutathione (GSH), but decreased oxidized glutathione (GSSG)] and thus improved cellular redox homeostasis by increasing GSH:GSSG ratio. The changes in relative transcript abundance of corresponding antioxidant genes such as Cu/Zn SOD, CAT1, GSH1, and GR1 were in accordance with the changes in those antioxidants under different treatments. More importantly, combined application of BR and ZnO NPs significantly decreased Zn content in both shoot and root of tomato seedlings as compared with ZnO NPs alone. Taken together, this study, for the first time, showed that BR could not only improve plant tolerance to ZnO NPs but also reduce the excess zinc content in tomato seedlings. Such a finding may have potential implication in safe vegetable production in the MNPs-polluted areas.

The Proteomic Response of Arabidopsis thaliana to Cadmium Sulfide Quantum Dots, and Its Correlation with the Transcriptomic Response

A fuller understanding of the interaction between plants and engineered nanomaterials is of topical relevance because the latter are beginning to find applications in agriculture and the food industry. There is a growing need to establish objective safety criteria for their use. The recognition of two independent Arabidopsis thaliana mutants displaying a greater level of tolerance than the wild type plant to exposure to cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs) has offered the opportunity to characterize the tolerance response at the physiological, transcriptomic, and proteomic levels. Here, a proteomics-based comparison confirmed the conclusions drawn from an earlier transcriptomic analysis that the two mutants responded to CdS QD exposure differently both to the wild type and to each other. Just over half of the proteomic changes mirrored documented changes at the level of gene transcription, but a substantial number of transcript/gene product pairs were altered in the opposite direction. An interpretation of the discrepancies is given, along with some considerations regarding the use and significance of -omics when monitoring the potential toxicity of ENMs for health and environment.