Leptin actions on food intake and body temperature are mediated by IL-1

Feeding and temperature responses to intravenous leptin infusion are differential predictors of obesity in rats

Obesity is frequently associated with leptin resistance. The present study investigated whether leptin resistance in rats is present before obesity develops, and thus could underlie obesity induced by 16 wk exposure to a liquid, palatable, high-energy diet (HED). Before HED exposure, male Wistar rats (weighing between 330 and 360 g) received intravenous infusions of 20 μg leptin 2 h before dark (∼57 μg/kg rat). Relative to saline infusion, this caused a highly variable effect on food intake (ranging between -94 and +129%), with food intake suppression that appeared negatively correlated with HED-induced increases in body weight gain, caloric intake, adiposity, and plasma leptin levels. In contrast, leptin's thermogenic response was positively correlated to body weight gain linked to weights of viscera, but not to adiposity. Before HED exposure, leptin unexpectedly increased food intake in some rats (fi+, n = 8), whereas others displayed the normal reduction in food intake (fi-, n = 7). HED-exposed fi+ rats had higher plasma leptin levels, retroperitoneal fat pad weight, HED intake, and body weight gain than fi- and chow-fed rats. These parameters were also higher in HED-exposed fi- rats relative to chow rats, except for plasma leptin concentrations. It is concluded that leptin's reduced efficacy to suppress food intake could predict obesity on an HED. An unexpected orexigenic effect of leptin might potentially contribute to this as well.

Ciliary neurotrophic factor and leptin induce distinct patterns of immediate early gene expression in the brain

Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) and leptin decrease food intake and body weight. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a potent exogenous pyrogen and produces anorexia via cytokine production. CNTF-, leptin-, and LPS-induced cytokines all act on type I cytokine receptors. However, it is not known if these cytokines engage similar central nervous system (CNS) pathways to exert their effects. To assess mechanisms by which these cytokines act, we examined the patterns of immediate early gene expression (SOCS-3, c-fos, and tis-11) in the brain following intravenous administration. CNTF and LPS induced gene expression in circumventricular organs; ependymal cells of the ventricles, meninges, and choroid plexus; and the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. CNTF administration also induced fever and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA expression. In contrast, we found no evidence of leptin-induced inflammation. CNTF and leptin are being assessed as potential therapeutic anti-obesity agents, and both potently reduce food intake. Our findings support the hypothesis that CNTF and leptin engage distinct CNS sites and CNTF possesses inflammatory properties distinct from leptin.

Brown adipose tissue: function and physiological significance

The function of brown adipose tissue is to transfer energy from food into heat; physiologically, both the heat produced and the resulting decrease in metabolic efficiency can be of significance. Both the acute activity of the tissue, i.e., the heat production, and the recruitment process in the tissue (that results in a higher thermogenic capacity) are under the control of norepinephrine released from sympathetic nerves. In thermoregulatory thermogenesis, brown adipose tissue is essential for classical nonshivering thermogenesis (this phenomenon does not exist in the absence of functional brown adipose tissue), as well as for the cold acclimation-recruited norepinephrine-induced thermogenesis. Heat production from brown adipose tissue is activated whenever the organism is in need of extra heat, e.g., postnatally, during entry into a febrile state, and during arousal from hibernation, and the rate of thermogenesis is centrally controlled via a pathway initiated in the hypothalamus. Feeding as such also results in activation of brown adipose tissue; a series of diets, apparently all characterized by being low in protein, result in a leptin-dependent recruitment of the tissue; this metaboloregulatory thermogenesis is also under hypothalamic control. When the tissue is active, high amounts of lipids and glucose are combusted in the tissue. The development of brown adipose tissue with its characteristic protein, uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1), was probably determinative for the evolutionary success of mammals, as its thermogenesis enhances neonatal survival and allows for active life even in cold surroundings.

Polymorphism of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene and obesity

BACKGROUND

Cytokines appear to be major regulators of adipose tissue metabolism. Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) serum concentrations are increased in human obesity, and are under strong genetic control. We tested the hypothesis that the IL-1ra gene might be a candidate for obesity.

METHODS

We investigated the frequency of a penta-allelic 86-bp tandem repeat (VNTR) in the intron 2 of IL-1ra gene in 52 lean (body mass index (BMI) <25 kg/m(2)), 133 overweight (BMI 25-29.9 kg/m(2)) and 76 obese (BMI > or =30.0 kg/m(2)) otherwise healthy Korean women. Total fat mass and percent body fat were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Genomic DNA was extracted and used for polymerase chain reaction-based genotyping of IL-1ra.

RESULTS

Carriers of the allele 2 did not show a significant difference in physical and clinical characteristics. The genotypic, or allelic distribution did not differ markedly between the three groups. The relative risk of being obese in comparison with lean group tended to be higher in allele 2 carriers, but not significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no relationship between the IL-1ra polymorphism and BMI in Korean women.

Evidence for a key role of leptin in osteoarthritis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the contribution of leptin (an adipose tissue-derived hormone) to the pathophysiology of osteoarthritis (OA), by determining the level of leptin in both synovial fluid (SF) and cartilage specimens obtained from human joints. We also investigated the effect of leptin on cartilage, using intraarticular injections of leptin in rats.

METHODS

Leptin levels in SF samples obtained from OA patients undergoing either knee replacement surgery or knee arthroscopy were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, histologic sections of articular cartilage and osteophytes obtained during surgery for total knee replacement were graded using the Mankin score, and were immunostained using antibodies to leptin, transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). For experimental studies, various doses of leptin (10, 30, 100, and 300 microg) were injected into the knee joints of rats. Tibial plateaus were collected and processed for proteoglycan synthesis by radiolabeled sulfate incorporation, and for expression of leptin, its receptor (Ob-Rb), and growth factors by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical analysis.

RESULTS

Leptin was observed in SF obtained from human OA-affected joints, and leptin concentrations correlated with the body mass index. Marked expression of the protein was observed in OA cartilage and in osteophytes, while in normal cartilage, few chondrocytes produced leptin. Furthermore, the pattern and level of leptin expression were related to the grade of cartilage destruction and paralleled those of growth factors (IGF-1 and TGFbeta1). Animal studies showed that leptin strongly stimulated anabolic functions of chondrocytes and induced the synthesis of IGF-1 and TGFbeta1 in cartilage at both the messenger RNA and the protein levels.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest a new peripheral function of leptin as a key regulator of chondrocyte metabolism, and indicate that leptin may play an important role in the pathophysiology of OA.

Effects of interactions between interleukin-1 beta and leptin on cat intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors

In a previous study, we established that leptin acts on chemosensitive intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors and that its excitatory effects are blocked by the endogenous interleukin-1beta receptor antagonist (Il-1ra). To determine how interleukin-1beta (Il-1beta) is involved in the action of leptin, we studied the effects of this drug on the single vagal afferent activities of intestinal mechanoreceptors in anaesthetized cats. For this purpose, the activity of 34 intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors was recorded via glass microelectrodes implanted in the nodose ganglion. Il-1beta (1 microg) administered into the artery irrigating the upper part of the intestine activated both the 16 leptin-activated units (type 1 units; P < 0.01) and the 12 leptin-inhibited units (type 2 units; P < 0.001), but had no effect on the six leptin-insensitive units. Cholecystokinin (CCK, 10 microg) induced an activatory response only in the two types of Il-1beta-sensitive units. When Il-1beta was administered after CCK, its excitatory effects on type 1 units were enhanced, whereas the excitatory effects on type 2 units were abolished. Pre-treatment with Il-1ra (250 microg) blocked all the effects of Il-1beta and the excitatory effects of leptin on type 1 units, whereas it enhanced the inhibitory effects of leptin on type 2 units. It can therefore be concluded that (i) leptin acts on intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors via Il-1beta in the case of the type 1 units and independently of Il-1beta in the case of the type 2 units, and (ii) type 1 and type 2 units belong to two different populations of vagal afferents that transmit different information about ingestion or inflammation to the CNS, depending on the chemical environment.

Central effects of rat versus mouse leptin: ingestive behavior and adipose apoptosis

Leptin decreases food intake, body weight and fat mass while sparing lean mass. Although mouse leptin (ML) and rat leptin (RL) are 95.9% identical, our impression from previous studies was that they were not equally potent in rats. Thus, in the present study, 0 microg (vehicle) or 10 microg of ML or RL was injected into the lateral ventricle of rats (eight per treatment) once a day for four consecutive days. Body temperature, body weight, food intake and water intake were measured daily. Intrascapular and perirenal brown fat pads, white fat tissues (retroperitoneal, epididymal and inguinal fat pads) and the gastrocnemius muscle were collected and weighed 24h after the last treatments. Body temperature was not affected by either ML or RL. Both ML and RL caused significant reductions in food intake (P<0.05), and there was no difference between them. ML and RL also similarly inhibited water intake on days 2 and 3 (P<0.05). By day 5 both ML- and RL-treated rats had lost weight (11.6 and 15.4 g, respectively), while vehicle-treated rats gained weight (6.8 g). Weights of retroperitoneal and epididymal fat pads, but not other tissues, were reduced similarly by both leptin treatments (P<0.05). However, an increased apoptotic response was detected in the retroperitoneal fat tissue of RL- but not ML-treated rats (P<0.05). These results suggest that RL is more effective than ML in inducing apoptosis in retroperitoneal fat tissue after i.c.v. injection in rats.

Anorectic actions of prolactin-releasing peptide are mediated by corticotropin-releasing hormone receptors

Prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP) reduces food intake and body weight and modifies body temperature when administered centrally in rats, suggesting a role in energy homeostasis. However, the mediators of PrRP's actions are unknown. The present study, therefore, first examined the possible involvement of the anorectic neuropeptides corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and the melanocortins (e.g., alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone) in PrRP's effects on food intake and core body temperature and, second, determined if PrRP affects energy expenditure by measuring oxygen consumption (Vo2). Intracerebroventricular injection of PrRP (4 nmol) to 24-h-fasted male Sprague-Dawley rats decreased food intake and modified body temperature. Blockade of central CRH receptors by intracerebroventricular coadministration of the CRH receptor antagonist astressin (20 microg) reversed the PrRP-induced reduction in feeding. However, astressin's effect on PrRP-induced changes in body temperature was complicated because the antagonist itself caused a slight rise in body temperature. In contrast, intracerebroventricular coadministration of the melanocortin receptor-3/4 antagonist SHU-9119 (0.1 nmol) had no effect on any of PrRP's actions. Finally, intracerebroventricular injection of PrRP (4 nmol) caused a significantly greater Vo2 over a 3-h test period compared with vehicle-treated rats. These results show that the anorectic actions of PrRP are mediated by central CRH receptors but not by melanocortin receptors-3/4 and that PrRP can modify Vo2.

IL-1 plays an important role in lipid metabolism by regulating insulin levels under physiological conditions

IL-1 is a proinflammatory cytokine that plays important roles in inflammation. However, the role of this cytokine under physiological conditions is not known completely. In this paper, we analyzed the role of IL-1 in maintaining body weight because IL-1 receptor antagonist-deficient (IL-1Ra-/-) mice, in which excess IL-1 signaling may be induced, show a lean phenotype. Body fat accumulation was impaired in IL-1Ra-/- mice, but feeding behavior, expression of hypothalamic factors involved in feeding control, energy expenditure, and heat production were normal. When IL-1Ra-/- mice were treated with monosodium glutamate (MSG), which causes obesity in wild-type mice by ablating cells in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus, they were resistant to obesity, indicating that excess IL-1 signaling antagonizes the effect of MSG-sensitive neuron deficiency. IL-1Ra-/- mice showed decreased weight gain when they were fed the same amount of food as wild-type mice, and lipid accumulation remained impaired even when they were fed a high-fat diet. Interestingly, serum insulin levels and lipase activity were low in IL-1Ra-/- mice, and the insulin levels were low in contrast to wild-type mice after MSG treatment. These observations suggest that IL-1 plays an important role in lipid metabolism by regulating insulin levels and lipase activity under physiological conditions.

Cachexia and obesity: two sides of one coin?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Leptin, a member of the interleukin-6 superfamily of proteins, modifies the gene expression and synthetic pathway of both orexigenic (appetite-stimulating) and anorexigenic (appetite-suppressing) molecules in the hypothalamus, thereby controlling adipocyte energy stores. Lack of leptin secretion or the inability of leptin to interact with these molecules via leptin receptors, prevent leptin's effects and lead to obesity. It is not well known, however, how these feeding-regulatory molecules are affected in cachexia associated with cancer and other critical conditions in which cytokines such as interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 may have a key role.

RECENT FINDINGS

Decreased leptin and increased leptin-like signaling by cytokines in the hypothalamus are the hallmark of obesity and cachexia, respectively. Increased orexigenic and impaired anorexigenic signaling produces hyperphagia and obesity, while the reverse applies to anorexia-cachexia in which adaptive feeding response to starvation is lacking or insufficient.

SUMMARY

Imbalanced operation of orexigenic and anorexigenic circuits perturbs the homeostatic loop of body weight regulation leading to either obesity or cachexia. Modifiers of the central effects on appetite and energy metabolism could restore the balance and be effective for treating both conditions. In cachexia this may especially be true when combined with agents that target muscle and protein breakdown.

Risk factors for hot flashes in midlife women

OBJECTIVE

To review the scientific literature pertaining to potential risk factors for hot flashes in midlife women.

METHODS

Scientific publications reporting on risk factors for hot flashes were identified through a systematic Medline search and are summarized in this review paper.

RESULTS

Although few studies have investigated risk factors for hot flashes in midlife women, consistent evidence suggests that smoking is associated with an increased risk for hot flashes. In addition, some studies suggest that other factors, such as hormone levels, body size, tubal ligation, surgical menopause, and race/ethnicity, may be associated with the occurrence of hot flashes.

CONCLUSIONS

Future studies are needed to confirm previous findings and to identify additional risk factors for hot flashes. Such studies will increase our understanding of the etiology of hot flashes and may lead to better treatments and preventive measures for this condition.

Serum sialic acid, a reputed cardiovascular risk factor, is related to serum leptin concentrations in Fijians

BACKGROUND

Serum sialic acid (TSA) has been shown to be a cardiovascular risk factor and an acute phase reactant, with elevated concentrations associated with increased cardiovascular mortality and to precede the onset of type 2 diabetes.

AIM

The purpose of this present study was to test the hypothesis that serum TSA may be related to serum leptin concentrations in healthy individuals.

METHODS

Thirty Fijian individuals were studied (8 males and 22 females). They were urban Melanesians living in Raiwaga, a suburb of Suva in Fiji.

RESULTS

Serum TSA significantly correlated with subject body mass index (BMI, rho 0.39, P<0.05) and serum leptin concentration (rho 0.44, P<0.05). In stepwise multiple regression analysis serum TSA independently correlated with subject waist/hip ratio (r(2)=0.167, P<0.02) and diastolic blood pressure (r(2)=0.300, P<0.01) but not with age, BMI, serum insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP-1), fasting plasma glucose or systolic or diastolic blood pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum TSA is related to markers of obesity and adipose tissue metabolism which may help to explain why it is a reputed cardiovascular risk factor and why elevated serum TSA concentrations precede the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Adipose tissue is a major source of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: upregulation in obesity and inflammation

The secreted form of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) is an acute-phase protein intervening in the counterregulation of inflammatory processes. We previously showed that this cytokine antagonist is upregulated in the serum of obese patients, correlating with BMI and insulin resistance. In this study, we examined the expression pattern of IL-1Ra and showed that it is highly expressed not only in liver and spleen, but also in white adipose tissue (WAT), where it is upregulated in obesity. In WAT of obese humans, IL-1Ra was also markedly increased. Moreover, human WAT explants secreted IL-1Ra into the medium, a process that could be stimulated fivefold by interferon-beta. Finally, lipopolysaccharide administration induced a long-lasting expression of IL-1Ra in mouse WAT, suggesting that adipose tissue is an important source of IL-1Ra in both obesity and inflammation. In summary, we demonstrated that WAT is one of the most important sources of IL-1Ra quantitatively, suggesting that this tissue could represent a novel target for anti-inflammatory treatment. Moreover, it can be speculated that IL-1Ra, whose production is markedly increased in WAT in obese individuals, contributes further to weight gain because of its endocrine and paracrine effects on the hypothalamus and adipocytes, respectively.

Inhibition of leptin-induced IL-1beta expression by glucocorticoids in the brain

Leptin is an important circulating signal for the regulation of food intake and body weight. Glucocorticoids were suggested to play a physiological role in the feedback inhibition of immune/inflammatory responses. In the present study, we examined whether these neuroendocrine effects of glucocorticoids are linked to changes in the leptin-induced expression of IL-1beta and STAT3 activation in the brain. Intravenous injection of leptin induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus. Pretreatment with dexamethasone dose dependently inhibited leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus. Moreover, dexamethasone inhibited leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the primary cultured glial cells. In contrast, pretreatment with dexamethasone did not inhibit leptin-induced STAT3 phosphorylation in the hypothalamus. These effects of dexamethasone may not be due to the change in the expression level of the leptin receptor Ob-Ra and Ob-Rb isoforms. Therefore, it is suggested that glucocorticoid negatively regulates leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the brain.

Chemical sympathectomy alters regulation of body weight during prolonged ICV leptin infusion

To assess the importance of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating body weight during prolonged leptin infusion, we evaluated food intake, body weight, and physical activity in conscious, unrestrained rats. Initial studies illustrated that prolonged intracerebroventricular (ICV) infusion of leptin enhanced substrate oxidation so that adipose tissue lipid stores were completely ablated, and muscle triglyceride and liver glycogen stores were depleted. After neonatal chemical sympathectomy, changes in weight and food intake were compared in groups of sympathectomized (SYM) and control (CON) adult animals during ICV infusion of leptin. CON animals lost 60 +/- 9 g over 10 days vs. 25 +/- 3 g in the SYM animals when food intake was matched between the two groups. Greater weight loss despite similar energy intake points to an important role of the sympathetic nervous system in stimulating energy expenditure during ICV leptin infusion by increasing the resting metabolic rate, since no differences in physical activity were observed between CON and SYM groups. In conclusion, activation of the SNS by leptin increases energy expenditure by augmenting the resting metabolic rate.

Leptin mediates Clostridium difficile toxin A-induced enteritis in mice

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Leptin regulates energy homeostasis and participates in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Although hyperleptinemia is described in experimental colitis, its role in the pathophysiology of enterotoxin-mediated diarrhea and inflammation remains unclear. We examined the role of leptin in the inflammatory diarrhea induced by toxin A from Clostridium difficile, the causative agent of antibiotic-related colitis.

METHODS

Toxin A (10 microg) or buffer were administered in ileal loops of leptin-deficient (ob/ob), leptin-resistant (db/db), or wild-type mice and enterotoxic responses were measured.

RESULTS

In toxin A-treated wild-type mice, circulating leptin and corticosterone levels were increased compared with buffer-injected animals. Toxin A also stimulated increased mucosal expression of the Ob-Rb at the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein level. Ob/ob and db/db mice were partially protected against toxin A-induced intestinal secretion and inflammation, and this effect was reversed by leptin administration in ob/ob, but not db/db, mice. Basal- and toxin A-stimulated plasma corticosterone levels in ob/ob and db/db mice were higher compared with toxin A-treated wild-type mice. To assess whether the effect of leptin in intestinal inflammation is mediated by corticosteroids we performed adrenalectomy experiments in db/db and wild-type mice. Our results suggested that the diminished intestinal response to toxin A in db/db mice was related only in part to increased levels of corticosteroids.

CONCLUSIONS

Leptin plays an important role in regulating the severity of enterotoxin-mediated intestinal secretion and inflammation by activating both corticosteroid-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Effects of leptin on cat intestinal motility

In a previous study, we established that leptin controls food intake and immune responses by acting on intestinal vagal chemosensitive mechanoreceptors via a functional link with interleukin-1 beta (Il-1 beta). Since the control of intestinal motility is one of the main roles of the vagal afferent fibres, we investigated the effects of leptin on intestinal electromyographic (EMG) activity which reflects intestinal motility. For this purpose, the effects of locally injected leptin on small intestine spontaneous EMG activity were studied in 23 anaesthetised cats. The EMG activity was recorded using bipolar electrodes implanted in the proximal small intestine. Leptin and Il-1 beta (0.1, 1 and 10 microg), administered through the artery irrigating the upper part of the intestine 20 min after cholecystokinin (CCK, 10 microg, I.A.), had significant (P < 0.001) excitatory effects on intestinal EMG activity. The effects of both substances were blocked by the endogenous interleukin-1 beta receptor antagonist (Il-1ra, 250 microg, I.A.), by atropine (250 microg, I.A.) and by vagotomy. In the absence of CCK, leptin and Il-1 beta had no effect on intestinal electrical activity. It can therefore be concluded that: (1) leptin is effective only after the previous intervention of CCK, (2) the enhancement of the electrical activity induced by leptin involves Il-1 beta receptors and the cholinergic excitatory pathway, (3) the modes whereby the leptin-induced enhancement of EMG activity occurs strongly suggest that these effects are due to a long-loop reflex involving intestinal vagal afferent fibres and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Is metabolic syndrome X an inflammatory condition?

It is suggested that metabolic syndrome X is a low-grade systemic inflammatory condition.

Repeated ICV administration of oxyntomodulin causes a greater reduction in body weight gain than in pair-fed rats

Oxyntomodulin (OXM) is a product of proglucagon processing in the intestine and the central nervous system. We reported that intracerebroventricular (ICV) and intranuclear administration of OXM caused an inhibition of food intake in rats (Dakin CL, Gunn I, Small CJ, Edwards CM, Hay DL, Smith DM, Ghatei MA, and Bloom SR. Endocrinology 142: 4244-4250, 2001). In this study, we investigated the effect of twice-daily ICV administration of OXM, 1 nmol, for 7 days. A pair-fed control was included. These animals were restricted to the food intake of the OXM group but injected twice daily with saline. OXM-treated animals gained significantly less weight than either control group (day 8: OXM, 12.2 +/- 1.9 g vs. pair fed, 21.0 +/- 2.1 g; P < 0.005). OXM treatment caused a reduction in epididymal white adipose tissue (OXM, 1.13 +/- 0.03 g vs. pair fed, 1.29 +/- 0.04 g; P < 0.05) and interscapular brown adipose tissue (OXM, 0.15 +/- 0.01 g vs. pair fed, 0.18 +/- 0.01 g; P < 0.05) and increased core temperature compared with saline control, suggestive of enhanced energy expenditure. The food restriction-induced suppression in plasma TSH, seen in the pair-fed group, was prevented by OXM, potentially via increased release of hypothalamic TRH. In summary, ICV OXM causes reduced body weight gain and body adiposity following chronic administration.

Centrally administered galanin-like peptide modifies food intake in the rat: a comparison with galanin

Galanin-like peptide (GALP) is a recently identified neuropeptide that shares sequence homology with the orexigenic neuropeptide, galanin. In contrast to galanin, GALP is reported to bind preferentially to the galanin receptor 2 subtype (GalR2) compared to GalR1. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of GALP on feeding, body weight and core body temperature after central administration in rats compared to the effects of galanin. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of GALP (1 micro g-10 micro g) significantly stimulated feeding at 1 h in both satiated and fasted Sprague-Dawley rats. However, 24 h after GALP injection, body weight gain was significantly reduced and food intake was also usually decreased. In addition, i.c.v. GALP caused a dose-related increase in core body temperature, which lasted until 6-8 h after injection, and was reduced by peripheral administration of the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, flurbiprofen (1 mg/kg). Similar to GALP, i.c.v. injection of galanin (5 micro g) significantly increased feeding at 1 h in satiated rats. However, there was no difference in food intake and body weight at 24 h, and galanin only caused a transient rise in body temperature. Thus, similar to galanin, GALP has an acute orexigenic effect on feeding. However, GALP also has an anorectic action, which is apparent at a later time. Therefore, GALP has complex opposing actions on energy homeostasis.

Does body mass play a role in the regulation of food intake?

It is widely believed that body fatness (and hence total body mass) is regulated by a lipostatic feedback system. This system is suggested to involve at least one peripheral signalling compound, which signals to the brain the current size of body fat stores. In the brain the level of the signal is compared with a desirable target level, and food intake and energy expenditure are then regulated to effect changes in the size of body fat stores. There is considerable support for this theory at several different levels of investigation. Patterns of body-mass change in subjects forced into energy imbalance seem to demonstrate homeostasis, and long-term changes in body mass are minor compared with the potential changes that might result from energy imbalance. Molecular studies of signalling compounds have suggested a putative lipostatic signal (leptin) and a complex network of downstream processing events in the brain, polymorphisms of which lead to disruption of body-mass regulation. This network of neuropeptides provides a rich seam of potential pharmaceutical targets for the control of obesity. Despite this consistent explanation for the observed phenomena at several different levels of enquiry, there are alternative explanations. In the present paper we explore the possibility that the existence of lipostatic regulation of body fatness is an illusion generated by the links between body mass and energy expenditure and responses to energy imbalance that are independent of body mass. Using computer-based models of temporal patterns in energy balance we show that common patterns of change in body mass following perturbation can be adequately explained by this 'non-lipostatic' model. This model has some important implications for the interpretations that we place on the molecular events in the brain, and ultimately in the search for pharmaceutical agents for alleviation of obesity.

Microglia as a source and target of cytokines

Cytokines constitute a significant portion of the immuno- and neuromodulatory messengers that can be released by activated microglia. By virtue of potent effects on resident and invading cells, microglial cyto- and chemokines regulate innate defense mechanisms, help the initiation and influence the type of immune responses, participate in the recruitment of leukocytes to the CNS, and support attempts of tissue repair and recovery. Microglia can also receive cyto- and chemokine signals as part of auto- and paracrine communications with astrocytes, neurons, the endothelium, and leukocyte infiltrates. Strong responses and modulatory influences can be demonstrated, adding to the emerging view that microglial behavior is highly dependent on the (cytokine) environment and that reactions to a challenge may vary with the stimulation context. In principle, microglial activation aims at CNS protection. However, failed microglial engagement due to excessive or sustained activation could significantly contribute to acute and chronic neuropathologies. Dysregulation of microglial cytokine production could thereby promote harmful actions of the defense mechanisms, result in direct neurotoxicity, as well as disturb neural cell functions as they are sensitive to cytokine signaling.

Leptin regulates interleukin-1beta expression in the brain via the STAT3-independent mechanisms

Leptin is known to be an important circulating signal for regulation of food intake and body weight. These effects were suggested to be mediated through the hypothalamic center via the Ob-Rb receptor (long isoform of leptin receptor). Although short isoforms of leptin receptor exist in many regions of the brain, there has been little in vivo functional study of these areas such as for leptin's target site. We report here that peripherally applied leptin increased interleukin (IL)-1beta transcripts in many regions of the brain such as the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the cortex, the cerebellum and the brainstem. Although leptin did not induce STAT3 activation or suppressor of cytokine signaling3 (SOCS3) expression in the hypothalamus of the db/db mice, which lack a functional Ob-Rb receptor, leptin increased the IL-1beta levels to similar extents as normal mice. Therefore, a novel function of leptin is suggested as the induction of IL-1beta expression in many regions of the brain via STAT3-independent mechanisms.

Differential effects of leptin on thermoregulation and uncoupling protein abundance in the neonatal lamb

As the role of leptin in energy balance in neonate is unknown, we investigated the effect of acute (2 h) and chronic (7 days) administration of leptin (100 microg/day) on thermoregulation and mitochondrial protein abundance in adipose tissue. The concentration of uncoupling protein (UCP)1 and voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) located on the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, respectively, were measured. Administration of leptin prevented the normal decline in colonic temperature over the first few hours and days after birth. It subsequently accelerated the loss of both mRNA and protein for UCP1 but had no effect on VDAC abundance. At seven days of age, colonic temperature was correlated strongly with both mRNA abundance and thermogenic potential of UCP1 in leptin-treated but not control lambs, indicating more effective use of UCP1 for heat production following leptin administration. Leptin had no effect on weight gain or adipose tissue deposition; at one day of age only, leptin mRNA was correlated positively with adipose tissue weight. In conclusion, leptin administration to neonatal lambs improves thermoregulation and promotes the loss of UCP1 in brown adipose tissue.

Effects of leptin on cat intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors

Vagal afferent nerve fibres are involved in the transmission to the central nervous system of information relating to food intake and immune reactions. Leptin is involved in the control of food intake and has specific receptors in afferent vagal neurones. To investigate the role of these receptors, we studied the effects of leptin on single vagal afferent activities from intestinal mechanoreceptors in anaesthetized cats. The activity of 35 intestinal vagal mechanoreceptors was recorded by means of glass microelectrodes implanted in the nodose ganglion. Leptin (10 microg), administered into the artery irrigating the upper part of the intestine, induced activation in 17 units (P < 0.001), inhibition in 8 units (P < 0.05), and had no effect on 10 units. The excitatory effects of leptin were blocked by the endogenous interleukine-1beta receptor antagonist, (Il-1ra, 250 microg, I.A.). Cholecystokinin (CCK, 10 microg, I.A.) induced an activatory response only in the two types of units which were responsive to leptin alone. When leptin was administered after CCK, its excitatory effects were enhanced and its inhibitory effects were blocked, whereas it had no effect on the units which were not affected by leptin alone. The interactions between leptin and CCK are specific ones, since other substances (phenylbiguanide, a serotoninergic agonist; substance P) known to activate the mechanoreceptors did not modify the effects of leptin. These results indicate that leptin appears to play a role in the control of immune responses and food intake via intestinal vagal afferent nerve fibres and that there is a functional link between leptin and Il-1beta.

Immunomodulatory actions of leptin

Leptin, the adipocyte-secreted hormone, exerts its main function as regulator of food intake and energy expenditure through central effects at the hypothalamic level. However, it appeared that this cytokine-like peptide has also direct effects on other peripheral tissues and cell types. Remarkable effects have been demonstrated on the immune function in vivo and in vitro. Monocytes are one of the target cells of leptin, and we have demonstrated that secretion of L-1Ra, an IL-1 receptor antagonist, is induced by leptin. In human obesity leptin and IL-1Ra levels are elevated, and these levels are decreased after weight loss. It is discussed that IL-1Ra may contribute to central leptin resistance.

The type 1 interleukin-1 receptor is essential for the efficient activation of microglia and the induction of multiple proinflammatory mediators in response to brain injury

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is induced immediately after insults to the brain, and elevated levels of IL-1 have been strongly implicated in the neurodegeneration that accompanies stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis. In animal models, antagonizing IL-1 has been shown to reduce cell death; however, the basis for this protection has not been elucidated. Here we analyzed the response to penetrating brain injury in mice lacking the type 1 IL-1 receptor (IL-1R1) to determine which cellular and molecular mediators of tissue damage require IL-1 signaling. At the cellular level, fewer amoeboid microglia/macrophages appeared adjacent to the injured brain tissue in IL-1R1 null mice, and those microglia present at early postinjury intervals retained their resting morphology. Astrogliosis also was mildly abrogated. At the molecular level, cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) and IL-6 expression were depressed and delayed. Interestingly, basal levels of Cox-2, IL-1, and IL-6 were significantly lower in the IL-1R1 null mice. In addition, stimulation of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 mRNA was depressed in the IL-1R1 null mice, and correspondingly, there was reduced diapedesis of peripheral macrophages in the IL-1R1 null brain after injury. This observation correlated with a reduced number of Cox-2+ amoeboid phagocytes adjacent to the injury. In contrast, several molecular aspects of the injury response were normal, including expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and the production of nerve growth factor. Because antagonizing IL-1 protects neural cells in experimental models of stroke and multiple sclerosis, our data suggest that cell preservation is achieved by abrogating microglial/macrophage activation and the subsequent self-propagating cycle of inflammation.

Long-term modulation of glucose utilization by IL-1 alpha and TNF-alpha in astrocytes: Na+ pump activity as a potential target via distinct signaling mechanisms

Interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) markedly stimulate glucose utilization in primary cultures of mouse cortical astrocytes. The mechanism that gives rise to this effect, which takes place several hours after application of cytokine, has remained unclear. Experiments were conducted to identify the major signaling cascades involved in the metabolic action of cytokine. First, the selective IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) prevents the effect of IL-1alpha on glucose utilization in a concentration-dependent manner, whereas it has no effect on the action of TNF-alpha. Then, using inhibitors of three classical signaling cascades known to be activated by cytokines, it appears that the PI3 kinase is essential for the effect of both IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha, whereas the action of IL-1alpha also requires activation of the MAP kinase pathway. Participation of a phospholipase C-dependent pathway does not appear critical for both IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha. Inhibition of NO synthase by L-NAME did not prevent the metabolic response to both IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha, indicating that nitric oxide is probably not involved. In contrast, the Na(+)/K(+) ATPase inhibitor ouabain prevents the IL-1alpha- and TNF-alpha-stimulated 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) uptake. When treatment of astrocytes with a cytokine was followed 24 h later by an acute application of glutamate, a synergistic enhancement in glucose utilization was observed. This effect was greatly reduced by ouabain. These data suggest that Na(+) pump activity is a common target for both the long-term metabolic action of cytokines promoted by the activation of distinct signaling pathways and the enhanced metabolic response to glutamate.

Melatonin regulates energy balance and attenuates fever in Siberian hamsters

Fever is considered an important host defense response but requires significant metabolic energy. During winter many animals must balance immune function with competing physiological demands (i.e. thermoregulation) to survive. Winterlike patterns of melatonin secretion induce a number of energy-saving adaptations. For instance, Siberian hamsters attenuate the duration of fever during simulated short winter day lengths, presumably to conserve energy. To determine the proximate role of melatonin in mediating this photoperiodic response, hamsters housed in long days were injected with saline or melatonin 4 h before lights off for either 1 or 6 wk and assessed for fever following injections of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Fever duration was attenuated (32%) only in hamsters that decreased body mass, increased cortisol, and exhibited gonadal regression in response to 6 wk of melatonin. Because melatonin-treated hamsters lost significant body mass, fever was assessed in a second long-day group following ad libitum food intake, food restriction, or 24-h food deprivation. Food restriction sufficient to reduce body mass by approximately 25%, but not to reduce leptin, did not influence fever, and 24-h food deprivation virtually abolished fever. Our data suggest that long-term exposure to long-duration melatonin signals is required to induce the physiological changes necessary for short-day immune responses, perhaps involving interactions with hormones such as cortisol and leptin.

Serum leptin concentrations after surgery in young rats

OBJECTIVES

We describe changes in serum leptin concentrations after surgery (laparotomy, partial hepatectomy, splenectomy, and unilateral nephrectomy) in young male rats. Because we presumed that pain and inflammation would influence food intake and subsequent leptin release, laparotomized and partially hepatectomized rats were treated with ibuprofen.

METHODS

Preoperative blood samples were taken from the retroorbital sinuses, and postoperative blood samples were taken from the aorta, vena portae, and vena cava 18 h after surgery. Serum leptin concentrations were estimated by radioimmunoassay.

RESULTS

Pre- and postoperative serum leptin concentrations did not differ significantly in rats with partial hepatectomy (5.1 +/- 0.4 versus 4.2 +/- 1.1 microg/L), splenectomy (6.1 +/- 0.4 versus 5.0 +/- 0.6 microg/L), or unilateral nephrectomy (4.1 +/- 0.7 versus 5.0 +/- 1.3 microg/L). Significant decreases in serum leptin were observed after laparotomy (8.1 +/- 0.9 versus 3.7 +/- 0.5 microg/L), laparotomy plus ibuprofen treatment (8.9 +/- 1.6 versus 3.1 +/- 0.4 microg/L), and partial hepatectomy plus ibuprofen treatment (5.4 +/- 0.6 versus 3.2 +/- 0.3 microg/L). We observed no significant differences in serum leptin concentrations measured in different regions of the body.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical interventions in young rats are accompanied by decreases in serum leptin. The liver, spleen, and kidney may participate in leptin clearance. Ibuprofen treatment leads to additional decreases in serum leptin concentrations.

Innate immune responses in viral encephalitis

The innate immune system is multifaceted, comprised of preformed factors, cells, and many proteins and lipid mediators produced by those cells. In the CNS these are critical in initiation and amplification of the inflammatory response and in the subsequent elicitation of the specific T cell response to viral encephalitis. Cells that are resident in brain parenchyma and peripheral cells that are recruited both play key roles in the hosts's responses. Unlike the peripheral compartments, in the CNS, non-cytolytic means of eliminating viral infections have been critical, since, in contrast to columnar epithelial cells, neurons are non-renewing. When the innate immune responses are inefficient or absent in viral encephalitis, pathology is more likely. Much more work remains to elucidate all of the critical cells and their mediators, as well as to develop new therapies for infections of the CNS.

Leptin induces IL-1 receptor antagonist expression in the brain

The ob gene product, leptin, is known to be an important circulating signal for regulation of food intake and body weight. We report here that peripherally applied leptin increased interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) transcripts in the hypothalamus. Interestingly, we observed leptin-induced increase in IL-1ra transcripts not only in the hypothalamus but also in other brain regions such as the hippocampus, the cortex, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. Moreover, leptin applied to the db/db mice, which lack functional Ob-Rb receptor, increased IL-1ra mRNA levels in the hyothalamus to a similar extent as in normal mice. These results indicate that the leptin-induced IL-1ra expression in the brain may be mediated through STAT3 independent mechanisms.

Breastfeeding attenuates reductions in energy intake induced by a mild immunologic stimulus represented by DPTH immunization: possible roles of interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and leptin

An attenuated severity of infections is among the well-documented benefits of breast-feeding. The degree to which this attenuated severity extends to the amelioration of anorexia is understood incompletely, and possible underlying mechanisms have received limited evaluation. This study was designed to test whether breast-feeding attenuates reductions in energy intake associated with a mild immunologic stimulus and to assess poststimulus relationships among putative reductions in energy intake and serum interleukin (IL)-1beta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and leptin concentrations. A quasi-experimental, hospital-based study was conducted in 23 healthy fully breast- (BF) and formula-fed (FF) infants who received the quadruple diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus and hemophilus influenza (DPTH) immunization as an immunologic challenge. Only FF infants had decreased energy intakes (12 +/- 2%, P = 0.001) after immunization. Leptin concentrations increased after immunization only in FF infants (30 +/- 7%, P = 0.03). Correlations between postimmunization increases in IL-beta and reductions in energy intake were of borderline significance (r = -0.56, P = 0.08). These findings support the view that breast-feeding protects against anorectic responses to mild immunologic stimuli. Increases in leptin are associated with reductions in energy consumption in the postimmunization period in FF infants and postimmunization changes in IL-1beta concentrations likely are related to reductions in energy intake in response to immunologic stimuli.

Short day lengths attenuate the symptoms of infection in Siberian hamsters

Symptoms of infection, such as fever, anorexia and lethargy, are ubiquitous among vertebrates. Rather than nonspecific manifestations of illness, these responses are organized, adaptive strategies that are often critical to host survival. During times of energetic shortage such as winter, however, it may be detrimental for individuals to prolong energetically demanding symptoms such as fever. Individuals may adjust their immune responses prior to winter by using day length to anticipate energetically-demanding conditions. If the expression of sickness behaviours is constrained by energy availability, then cytokine production, fever, and anorexia should be attenuated in infected Siberian hamsters housed under simulated winter photoperiods. We housed hamsters in either long (14 L : 10 D) or short (10 L : 14 D) day lengths and assessed cytokines, anorexia and fever following injections of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Short days attenuated the response to lipopolysaccharide, by decreasing the production of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1beta, and diminishing the duration of fever and anorexia. Short-day exposure in hamsters also decreased the ingestion of dietary iron, a nutrient vital to bacterial replication. Taken together, short day lengths attenuated the symptoms of infection, presumably to optimize energy expenditure and survival outcome.

Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy fails to inhibit intravenous leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus

Leptin is known to be an important circulating signal for regulation of food intake and body weight. Recent evidence has suggested that leptin is involved in infection and inflammation. The afferent vagus nerve is known to be an important component for transmitting peripheral immune signals to the brain, such as interleukin (IL)-1beta expression in the brain, anorexia, and fever responses. In the present study, we investigated whether intravenous leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus is mediated via afferent vagus nerve. IL-1beta transcripts in the hypothalamus were significantly increased on RT-PCR assessment 1 h after the administration of leptin (1 mg/kg iv) to mice. Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy did not significantly modify intravenous leptin-induced IL-1beta expression in the hypothalamus compared with that in sham-treated mice. These data suggest that circulating leptin directly acts in the brain independently of afferent vagus nerve input originating from the subdiaphragmatic organs.

IL-6-like cytokines and cancer cachexia: consequences of chronic inflammation

An estimated 30% of cancer deaths are attributed to cachexia and its consequences. Cachexia (wasting syndrome) is the hypercatabolism of the body's carbon sources, proteins and lipids, for conversion into energy. It is induced by a variety of pathological conditions, including cancer. Among the inflammatory responses to cancer is the synthesis of cytokines, including IL-6 and related cytokines. These cytokines have been found to induce cachexia by altering metabolism of lipids and proteins. IL-6-like cytokines have been found to inhibit lipid biosynthesis by adipocytes, which increased the rate of lipid catabolism. Others have described the atrophy and increased catabolism of muscle protein due to IL-6. A cytokine closely-related to IL-6 is leptin, which plays a major role in lipid metabolism under normal conditions. The role of leptin in pathological conditions such as cancer cachexia has not yet been fully elucidated. Detailed mechanistic information about the induction of cancer cachexia by IL-6-like cytokines requires more research.

Interleukin-6-deficient mice develop mature-onset obesity

The immune-modulating cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) is expressed both in adipose tissue and centrally in hypothalamic nuclei that regulate body composition. We investigated the impact of loss of IL-6 on body composition in mice lacking the gene encoding IL-6 (Il6-/- mice) and found that they developed mature-onset obesity that was partly reversed by IL-6 replacement. The obese Il6-/- mice had disturbed carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, increased leptin levels and decreased responsiveness to leptin treatment. To investigate the possible mechanism and site of action of the anti-obesity effect of IL-6, we injected rats centrally and peripherally with IL-6 at low doses. Intracerebroventricular, but not intraperitoneal IL-6 treatment increased energy expenditure. In conclusion, centrally acting IL-6 exerts anti-obesity effects in rodents.

Fever responses of Zucker rats with and without fatty mutation of the leptin receptor

Leptin is thought to be involved in febrigenic signaling from the periphery to the brain. Zucker obese rats have a so-called fatty mutation in the leptin receptor gene and express a dysfunctional protein. Studies comparing the fever responses of fatty (fa/fa) rats and of their lean (Fa/Fa and Fa/fa) counterparts yield contradictory results. To resolve these contradictions, we evaluated the effect of fatty mutation on infectious and stress-associated fevers at thermoneutrality (29 degrees C) and in a cool environment (20 degrees C). Zucker fa/fa and Fa/? rats were infused with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 10 microg/kg) through a jugular catheter (infectious fever) or with saline through the catheter (control) or received a painful intramuscular injection of saline (stress fever). At thermoneutrality, the colonic temperature (T(c)) responses of fatty rats to all stimuli tested were no different from the responses of lean rats. In a cool environment, T(c) responses of fatty rats to all stimuli were ~0.5 degrees C lower than those of lean rats. The observed attenuation of LPS-induced and stress-associated fevers in Zucker fatty rats in the cold agrees with the literature data showing that brown adipose tissue (the major heat production effector) is morphologically and functionally defective in these rats. The normal febrile responses of fatty Zucker rats to pyrogenic stimuli at thermoneutrality indicate that fatty mutation does not interrupt febrigenic signaling from the periphery to the brain.

Leptin and the regulation of food intake, energy homeostasis and immunity with special focus on periparturient ruminants

The biology of leptin has been studied most extensively in rodents and in humans. Leptin is involved in the regulation of food intake, energy homeostasis and immunity. Leptin is primarily produced in white adipose tissue and acts via a family of membrane bound receptors, including an isoform with a long intracellular domain (OB-Rb), and many isoforms with short intracellular domains (Ob-Rs). OB-Rb is predominantly expressed in the hypothalamic regions involved in the regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis. The other isoforms are distributed ubiquitously and are found in most peripheral tissues in far greater abundance than OB-Rb. The effects of leptin on food intake and energy homeostasis are central and are mediated via a network of orexigenic neuropeptides (neuropeptide Y, galanin, galanin-like peptide, melanin-concentrating hormone, orexins, agouti-related peptide) and anorexigenic neuropeptides (corticotropin-releasing hormone, pro-opiomelanocortin, alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript). In addition, leptin acts directly on immune cells to stimulate hematopoesis, T-cell immunity, phagocytosis, cytokine production, and to attenuate susceptibility to infectious insults. Emerging data in ruminants suggest that leptin is dynamically regulated by many factors and physiological states. Thus, leptin is secreted in a pulsatile fashion, but without a marked diurnal rhythm. A positive relationship between adiposity and plasma leptin concentration exists in growing and lactating ruminants. The concentration of plasma leptin increases during pregnancy, starts to decline 1--2 wk before parturition, and reaches a nadir in early lactation. The reduction of plasma leptin at parturition is likely to promote centrally mediated adaptations required in periods of energy deficit, but could have negative effects on immune cell function. Future research is needed in ruminants to address the roles played by leptin and the central nervous system in orchestrating metabolism during the periparturient period and during infectious diseases.

Is obesity an inflammatory condition?

Obesity may be a low-grade systemic inflammatory disease. Overweight and obese children and adults have elevated serum levels of C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and leptin, which are known markers of inflammation and closely associated with cardiovascular risk factors and cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular causes of death. This may explain the increased risk of diabetes, heart disease, and many other chronic diseases in the obese. The complex interaction between several neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, neuropeptide Y, leptin, acetylcholine, melanin-concentrating hormone, ghrelin, nitric oxide, and cytokines and insulin and insulin receptors in the brain ultimately determines and regulates food intake. Breast-feeding of more than 12 mo is associated with decreased incidence of obesity. Breast milk is a rich source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) and brain is especially rich in these fatty acids. LCPUFAs inhibit the production of proinflammatory cytokines and enhance the number of insulin receptors in various tissues and the actions of insulin and several neurotransmitters. LCPUFAs may enhance the production of bone morphogenetic proteins, which participate in neurogenesis, so these fatty acids might play an important role in brain development and function. It is proposed that obesity is a result of inadequate breast feeding, which results in marginal deficiency of LCPUFAs during the critical stages of brain development. This results in an imbalance in the structure, function, and feedback loops among various neurotransmitters and their receptors, which ultimately leads to a decrease in the number of dopamine and insulin receptors in the brain. Hence, promoting prolonged breast feeding may decrease the prevalence of obesity. Exercise enhances parasympathetic tone, promotes antiinflammation, and augments brain acetylcholine and dopamine levels, events that suppress appetite. Acetylcholine and insulin inhibit the production of proinflammatory cytokines and provide a negative feedback loop for postprandial inhibition of food intake, in part, by regulating leptin action. Statins, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma binding agents, non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs, and infant formulas supplemented with LCPUFAs, and LCPUFAs themselves, which suppress inflammation, may be beneficial in obesity.

Signals of adiposity

Adipose tissue, a reserve of energy, has played an essential role in mammalian evolution. Adipose tissue differs from other tissues in that its mass has considerable capacity to expand, which while beneficial in decreasing the risk of starvation, increases the risk of predation. Adipose tissue mass is thus under tight control in nondomestic species. Adipose tissue secretes a variety of factors, some of which (leptin, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha, resistin) are thought to be involved in modulation of adipose mass. Leptin has a variety of functions, primarily targetting the hypothalamus where it acts to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure. Leptin is also involved in the adaptations to fasting, and leptin is also required for normal reproductive and immune function. TNF alpha and resistin appear to have key paracrine roles, attenuating the anabolic effects of insulin on adipose tissue metabolism.

High-dose leptin activates human leukocytes via receptor expression on monocytes

Leptin is capable of modulating the immune response. Proinflammatory cytokines induce leptin production, and we now demonstrate that leptin can directly activate the inflammatory response. RNA expression for the leptin receptor (Ob-R) was detectable in human PBMCs. Ob-R expression was examined at the protein level by whole blood flow cytometry using an anti-human Ob-R mAb 9F8. The percentage of cells expressing leptin receptor was 25 +/- 5% for monocytes, 12 +/- 4% for neutrophils, and 5 +/- 1% for lymphocytes (only B lymphocytes). Incubation of resting PBMCs with leptin induced rapid expression of TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA and a dose-dependent production of TNF-alpha and IL-6 by monocytes. Incubation of resting PBMCs with high-dose leptin (250 ng/ml, 3-5 days) induced proliferation of resting cultured PBMCs and their secretion of TNF-alpha (5-fold), IL-6 (19-fold), and IFN-gamma (2.5-fold), but had no effect on IL-4 secretion. The effect of leptin was distinct from, and additive to, that seen after exposure to endotoxin or activation by the mixed lymphocyte reaction. In conclusion, Ob-R is expressed on human circulating leukocytes, predominantly on monocytes. At high doses, leptin induces proinflammatory cytokine production by resting human PBMCs and augments the release of these cytokines from activated PBMCs in a pattern compatible with the induction of Th1 cytokines. These results demonstrate that leptin has a direct effect on the generation of an inflammatory response. This is of relevance when considering leptin therapy and may partly explain the relationship among leptin, proinflammatory cytokines, insulin resistance, and obesity.

Leptin-induced nuclear translocation of STAT3 immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei involved in body weight regulation

Leptin is involved in the hypothalamic control of food intake and body weight. Fos immunohistochemistry has been used to functionally map leptin target neurons involved in these regulatory processes. However, only a subset of hypothalamic neurons expressing the long form of the leptin receptor (Ob-Rb) also coexpress the neuronal activation marker Fos after leptin stimulation. To functionally map all leptin target neurons, regardless of whether leptin-mediated neuronal activation or inhibition occurs, we immunohistochemically investigated the leptin-induced nuclear translocation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription molecule STAT3, which represents a crucial step in the regulation of leptin-dependent gene expression. As proven by colocalization studies with the nuclear 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dilactate stain, intracerebroventricular leptin treatment, but not intracerebroventricular application of pyrogen-free saline, induced a time-dependent nuclear translocation of STAT3 immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei, with strong nuclear STAT3 signals detectable in the arcuate nucleus, the lateral hypothalamus, and the ventromedial and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei. This leptin-induced STAT3 translocation pattern proved to be distinct from that induced by interleukin-6, another cytokine using STAT3 in its signaling pathway. Combined immunohistochemical STAT3 and Fos detection after leptin treatment revealed a higher number of STAT3-positive than Fos-positive cell nuclei in the aforementioned hypothalamic structures and showed that Fos immunoreactivity colocalized only in a subset of all leptin-responsive STAT3 nuclei. These results suggest that the detection of nuclear STAT3 immunoreactivity represents a new neuroanatomical tool to functionally map central leptin actions. They further support the importance of ventrally located caudal hypothalamic structures representing the main leptin targets involved in body weight regulation.

Involvement of protein kinase C and tyrosine kinase in lipopolysaccharide-induced anorexia

Injections of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 3 microg) into the lateral ventricle elicited anorexia with fever and also decreased body weight in rats. The LPS-induced anorexia was inhibited by intracerebroventicular (i.c.v.) injections of anti-interleukin (IL)-1beta antibody (Ab), chelerythrine, genistein and tyrphostin 46, but not by injections of indomethacin. Consecutive injections of orthovanadate and LPS (0.3 microg, a dose of LPS that did not show any effect on food intake, body weight or body temperature) reduced body weight, but did not induce anorexia. On the other hand, injections of IL-1beta (50 ng) did not influence food intake, although they decreased body weight and produced fever. The IL-1beta-induced decrease in body weight was inhibited by injections of genistein, but not by injections of chelerythrine or indomethacin. These findings suggest that the LPS-induced anorexia is independent of hyperthermia and involves IL-1beta generation, tyrosine kinase (TK) and protein kinase C (PKC). This is the first in vivo evidence that activation of TK and PKC induced by LPS is linked to anorexia.

Leptin in obstetrics and gynecology: a review

Leptin, a recently described type-1 cytokine, is involved in cellular maturation and growth and appears to have a relationship to some obstetrical and gynecologic diseases. The MEDLINE database was accessed, and leptin-related articles published during the past 6 years were reviewed for their relevance to gynecologic and obstetrical diseases. The relationships between this cytokine and obesity, puberty, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, assisted fertility, and menopause are discussed. The role of leptin in fetal physiology and in normal and abnormal fetal growth as well as its role in diabetes, pregnancy, and pregnancy-induced hypertension are reviewed.

Leptin-induced nuclear translocation of STAT3 immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei involved in body weight regulation

Leptin is involved in the hypothalamic control of food intake and body weight. Fos immunohistochemistry has been used to functionally map leptin target neurons involved in these regulatory processes. However, only a subset of hypothalamic neurons expressing the long form of the leptin receptor (Ob-Rb) also coexpress the neuronal activation marker Fos after leptin stimulation. To functionally map all leptin target neurons, regardless of whether leptin-mediated neuronal activation or inhibition occurs, we immunohistochemically investigated the leptin-induced nuclear translocation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription molecule STAT3, which represents a crucial step in the regulation of leptin-dependent gene expression. As proven by colocalization studies with the nuclear 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dilactate stain, intracerebroventricular leptin treatment, but not intracerebroventricular application of pyrogen-free saline, induced a time-dependent nuclear translocation of STAT3 immunoreactivity in hypothalamic nuclei, with strong nuclear STAT3 signals detectable in the arcuate nucleus, the lateral hypothalamus, and the ventromedial and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei. This leptin-induced STAT3 translocation pattern proved to be distinct from that induced by interleukin-6, another cytokine using STAT3 in its signaling pathway. Combined immunohistochemical STAT3 and Fos detection after leptin treatment revealed a higher number of STAT3-positive than Fos-positive cell nuclei in the aforementioned hypothalamic structures and showed that Fos immunoreactivity colocalized only in a subset of all leptin-responsive STAT3 nuclei. These results suggest that the detection of nuclear STAT3 immunoreactivity represents a new neuroanatomical tool to functionally map central leptin actions. They further support the importance of ventrally located caudal hypothalamic structures representing the main leptin targets involved in body weight regulation.

An update on the science and therapy of obesity and its relationship to osteoarthritis

Obesity and osteoarthritis are two commonly encountered clinical problems that can lead to significant physical and emotional disability. This report examines the association between obesity and osteoarthritis, and discusses potential mechanisms by which obesity influences osteoarthritis. Special attention is devoted to reviewing the molecular and genetic mechanisms that underlie the development of clinical obesity. Improved understanding of obesity will hopefully lead to improved treatment and subsequent amelioration of this important risk factor for osteoarthritis.