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López-Ráez JA, Fernández I, García JM, Berrio E, Bonfante P, Walter MH, Pozo MJ. Differential spatio-temporal expression of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases regulates apocarotenoid fluxes during AM symbiosis. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 230:59-69. [PMID: 25480008 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Apocarotenoids are a class of compounds that play important roles in nature. In recent years, a prominent role for these compounds in arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis has been shown. They are derived from carotenoids by the action of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) enzyme family. In the present study, using tomato as a model, the spatio-temporal expression pattern of the CCD genes during AM symbiosis establishment and functioning was investigated. In addition, the levels of the apocarotenoids strigolactones (SLs), C13 α-ionol and C14 mycorradicin (C13/C14) derivatives were analyzed. The results suggest an increase in SLs promoted by the presence of the AM fungus at the early stages of the interaction, which correlated with an induction of the SL biosynthesis gene SlCCD7. At later stages, induction of SlCCD7 and SlCCD1 expression in arbusculated cells promoted the production of C13/C14 apocarotenoid derivatives. We show here that the biosynthesis of apocarotenoids during AM symbiosis is finely regulated throughout the entire process at the gene expression level, and that CCD7 constitutes a key player in this regulation. Once the symbiosis is established, apocarotenoid flux would be turned towards the production of C13/C14 derivatives, thus reducing SL biosynthesis and maintaining a functional symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan A López-Ráez
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain.
| | - Iván Fernández
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain; Plant-Microbe Interactions, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Juan M García
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain
| | - Estefanía Berrio
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain
| | - Paola Bonfante
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Viale Mattioli, Torino, Italy
| | - Michael H Walter
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Department of Cell & Metabolic Biology, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - María J Pozo
- Department of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC), Granada, Spain
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252
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Al-Babili S, Bouwmeester HJ. Strigolactones, a novel carotenoid-derived plant hormone. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2015; 66:161-86. [PMID: 25621512 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-043014-114759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 444] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Strigolactones (SLs) are carotenoid-derived plant hormones and signaling molecules. When released into the soil, SLs indicate the presence of a host to symbiotic fungi and root parasitic plants. In planta, they regulate several developmental processes that adapt plant architecture to nutrient availability. Highly branched/tillered mutants in Arabidopsis, pea, and rice have enabled the identification of four SL biosynthetic enzymes: a cis/trans-carotene isomerase, two carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases, and a cytochrome P450 (MAX1). In vitro and in vivo enzyme assays and analysis of mutants have shown that the pathway involves a combination of new reactions leading to carlactone, which is converted by a rice MAX1 homolog into an SL parent molecule with a tricyclic lactone moiety. In this review, we focus on SL biosynthesis, describe the hormonal and environmental factors that determine this process, and discuss SL transport and downstream signaling as well as the role of SLs in regulating plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salim Al-Babili
- Center for Desert Agriculture, Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia;
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253
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Beike AK, Lang D, Zimmer AD, Wüst F, Trautmann D, Wiedemann G, Beyer P, Decker EL, Reski R. Insights from the cold transcriptome of Physcomitrella patens: global specialization pattern of conserved transcriptional regulators and identification of orphan genes involved in cold acclimation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 205:869-81. [PMID: 25209349 PMCID: PMC4301180 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The whole-genome transcriptomic cold stress response of the moss Physcomitrella patens was analyzed and correlated with phenotypic and metabolic changes. Based on time-series microarray experiments and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, we characterized the transcriptomic changes related to early stress signaling and the initiation of cold acclimation. Transcription-associated protein (TAP)-encoding genes of P. patens and Arabidopsis thaliana were classified using generalized linear models. Physiological responses were monitored with pulse-amplitude-modulated fluorometry, high-performance liquid chromatography and targeted high-performance mass spectrometry. The transcript levels of 3220 genes were significantly affected by cold. Comparative classification revealed a global specialization of TAP families, a transcript accumulation of transcriptional regulators of the stimulus/stress response and a transcript decline of developmental regulators. Although transcripts of the intermediate to later response are from evolutionarily conserved genes, the early response is dominated by species-specific genes. These orphan genes may encode as yet unknown acclimation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Beike
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Lang
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas D Zimmer
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Institut für Humangenetik, Universitätsklinikum FreiburgBreisacherstr. 33, D-79106, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Florian Wüst
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Danika Trautmann
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
- Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique28 rue de Herrlisheim, F-68021, Colmar, France
| | - Gertrud Wiedemann
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter Beyer
- Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Eva L Decker
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Reski
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of FreiburgSchänzlestraße 1, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
- FRISYS - Freiburg Initiative for Systems Biology79104, Freiburg, Germany
- BIOSS–Centre for Biological Signaling Studies79104, Freiburg, Germany
- FRIAS– Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies79104, Freiburg, Germany
- TIP–Trinational Institute for Plant Research79104, Freiburg, Germany
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254
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Lv P, Li N, Liu H, Gu H, Zhao WE. Changes in carotenoid profiles and in the expression pattern of the genes in carotenoid metabolisms during fruit development and ripening in four watermelon cultivars. Food Chem 2014; 174:52-9. [PMID: 25529651 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Changes in carotenoid profiles during fruit ripening were investigated in four watermelon cultivars: red-fleshed "CN66", pink-fleshed "CN62", yellow-fleshed "ZXG381" and white-fleshed "ZXG507". The expression pattern of twelve genes (GGPS, PSY, PSY-A, PDS, ZDS, CRTISO, LCYB, CHYB, ZEP, NCED1, NCED2 and NCED3) was analysed. In "CN66" and "CN62", lycopene appeared at 12 DAP and became a main carotenoid increased at the later stages. The transcript levels of carotenogenic genes in "CN66" sharply increased during 18-30 DAP, and concomitantly, fruit accumulated the massive amounts of carotenoids. In "ZXG381", violaxanthin and lutein contents were positively correlated, respectively, with CHYB and ZEP transcript levels during fruit ripening. The trace amounts of carotenoids in "ZXG507" were accompanied with the low transcript levels of most biosynthetic genes. The results suggest that differential transcriptional regulation of carotenoid metabolic genes is very important in determining the amount and type of specific carotenoids accumulated during fruit development and ripening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin Lv
- School of Chemical Engineering and Energy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China
| | - Na Li
- School of Chemical Engineering and Energy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China
| | - Hui Liu
- Zhengzhou Fruit Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou, Henan 450009, PR China
| | - Huihui Gu
- School of Life Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China
| | - Wen-En Zhao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Energy, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, PR China.
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255
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Zhang MK, Zhang MP, Mazourek M, Tadmor Y, Li L. Regulatory control of carotenoid accumulation in winter squash during storage. PLANTA 2014; 240:1063-74. [PMID: 25139277 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-014-2147-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Storage promotes carotenoid accumulation and converts amylochromoplasts into chromoplasts in winter squash. Such carotenoid enhancement is likely due to continuous biosynthesis along with reduced turnover and/or enhanced sequestration. Postharvest storage of fruits and vegetables is often required and frequently results in nutritional quality change. In this study, we investigated carotenoid storage plastids, carotenoid content, and its regulation during 3-month storage of winter squash butternut fruits. We showed that storage improved visual appearance of fruit flesh color from light to dark orange, and promoted continuous accumulation of carotenoids during the first 2-month storage. Such an increased carotenoid accumulation was found to be concomitant with starch breakdown, resulting in the conversion of amylochromoplasts into chromoplasts. The butternut fruits contained predominantly β-carotene, lutein, and violaxanthin. Increased ratios of β-carotene and violaxanthin to total carotenoids were noticed during the storage. Analysis of carotenoid metabolic gene expression and PSY protein level revealed a decreased expression of carotenogenic genes and PSY protein following the storage, indicating that the increased carotenoid level might not be due to increased biosynthesis. Instead, the increase likely resulted from a continuous biosynthesis with a possibly reduced turnover and/or enhanced sequestration, suggesting a complex regulation of carotenoid accumulation during fruit storage. This study provides important information to our understanding of carotenogenesis and its regulation during postharvest storage of fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ke Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
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256
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Rubio-Moraga A, Rambla JL, Fernández-de-Carmen A, Trapero-Mozos A, Ahrazem O, Orzáez D, Granell A, Gómez-Gómez L. New target carotenoids for CCD4 enzymes are revealed with the characterization of a novel stress-induced carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase gene from Crocus sativus. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 86:555-69. [PMID: 25204497 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-014-0250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Apocarotenoid compounds play diverse communication functions in plants, some of them being as hormones, pigments and volatiles. Apocarotenoids are the result of enzymatic cleavage of carotenoids catalyzed by carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD). The CCD4 family is the largest family of plant CCDs, only present in flowering plants, suggesting a functional diversification associated to the adaptation for specific physiological capacities unique to them. In saffron, two CCD4 genes have been previously isolated from the stigma tissue and related with the generation of specific volatiles involved in the attraction of pollinators. The aim of this study was to identify additional CCD4 members associated with the generation of other carotenoid-derived volatiles during the development of the stigma. The expression of CsCCD4c appears to be restricted to the stigma tissue in saffron and other Crocus species and was correlated with the generation of megastigma-4,6,8-triene. Further, CsCCD4c was up-regulated by wounding, heat, and osmotic stress, suggesting an involvement of its apocarotenoid products in the adaptation of saffron to environmental stresses. The enzymatic activity of CsCCD4c was determined in vivo in Escherichia coli and subsequently in Nicotiana benthamiana by analyzing carotenoids by HPLC-DAD and the volatile products by GC/MS. β-Carotene was shown to be the preferred substrate, being cleaved at the 9,10 (9',10') bonds and generating β-ionone, although β-cyclocitral resulting from a 7,8 (7',8') cleavage activity was also detected at lower levels. Lutein, neoxanthin and violaxanthin levels in Nicotiana leaves were markedly reduced when CsCCD4c is over expressed, suggesting that CsCCD4c recognizes these carotenoids as substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Rubio-Moraga
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología Agroforestal y Genética, Facultad de Farmacia, Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071, Albacete, Spain
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257
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Sapp AM, Mogen AB, Almand EA, Rivera FE, Shaw LN, Richardson AR, Rice KC. Contribution of the nos-pdt operon to virulence phenotypes in methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108868. [PMID: 25275514 PMCID: PMC4183505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is emerging as an important regulator of bacterial stress resistance, biofilm development, and virulence. One potential source of endogenous NO production in the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is its NO-synthase (saNOS) enzyme, encoded by the nos gene. Although a role for saNOS in oxidative stress resistance, antibiotic resistance, and virulence has been recently-described, insights into the regulation of nos expression and saNOS enzyme activity remain elusive. To this end, transcriptional analysis of the nos gene in S. aureus strain UAMS-1 was performed, which revealed that nos expression increases during low-oxygen growth and is growth-phase dependent. Furthermore, nos is co-transcribed with a downstream gene, designated pdt, which encodes a prephenate dehydratase (PDT) enzyme involved in phenylalanine biosynthesis. Deletion of pdt significantly impaired the ability of UAMS-1 to grow in chemically-defined media lacking phenylalanine, confirming the function of this enzyme. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the operon organization of nos-pdt appears to be unique to the staphylococci. As described for other S. aureus nos mutants, inactivation of nos in UAMS-1 conferred sensitivity to oxidative stress, while deletion of pdt did not affect this phenotype. The nos mutant also displayed reduced virulence in a murine sepsis infection model, and increased carotenoid pigmentation when cultured on agar plates, both previously-undescribed nos mutant phenotypes. Utilizing the fluorescent stain 4-Amino-5-Methylamino-2',7'-Difluorofluorescein (DAF-FM) diacetate, decreased levels of intracellular NO/reactive nitrogen species (RNS) were detected in the nos mutant on agar plates. These results reinforce the important role of saNOS in S. aureus physiology and virulence, and have identified an in vitro growth condition under which saNOS activity appears to be upregulated. However, the significance of the operon organization of nos-pdt and potential relationship between these two enzymes remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- April M. Sapp
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Austin B. Mogen
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Erin A. Almand
- Department of Microbiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Frances E. Rivera
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Lindsey N. Shaw
- Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Anthony R. Richardson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kelly C. Rice
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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258
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Kim SH, Kim JH, Lee BY, Lee PC. The astaxanthin dideoxyglycoside biosynthesis pathway in Sphingomonas sp. PB304. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 98:9993-10003. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6050-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2014] [Revised: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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259
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Rivera SM, Christou P, Canela-Garayoa R. Identification of carotenoids using mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2014; 33:353-372. [PMID: 24178708 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Revised: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The present review compiles positive MS fragmentation data of selected carotenoids obtained using various ionization techniques and matrices. In addition, new experimental data from the analysis of carotenoids in transgenic maize and rice callus are provided. Several carotenes and oxygen-functionalized carotenoids containing epoxy, hydroxyl, and ketone groups were ionized by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) in positive ion mode. Thus, on the basis of the information obtained from the literature and our own experiments, we identified characteristic carotenoid ions that can be associated to functional groups in the structures of these compounds. In addition, pigments with a very similar structure were differentiated through comparison of the intensities of their fragments. The data provide a basis for the structural elucidation of carotenoids by mass spectrometry (MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sol M Rivera
- Department of Chemistry, ETSEA, University of Lleida-Agrotecnio Center, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191, 25198, Lleida, Spain
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260
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Novel carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase catalyzes the first dedicated step in saffron crocin biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:12246-51. [PMID: 25097262 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1404629111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus stigmas are the source of the saffron spice and accumulate the apocarotenoids crocetin, crocins, picrocrocin, and safranal, responsible for its color, taste, and aroma. Through deep transcriptome sequencing, we identified a novel dioxygenase, carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2 (CCD2), expressed early during stigma development and closely related to, but distinct from, the CCD1 dioxygenase family. CCD2 is the only identified member of a novel CCD clade, presents the structural features of a bona fide CCD, and is able to cleave zeaxanthin, the presumed precursor of saffron apocarotenoids, both in Escherichia coli and in maize endosperm. The cleavage products, identified through high-resolution mass spectrometry and comigration with authentic standards, are crocetin dialdehyde and crocetin, respectively. In vitro assays show that CCD2 cleaves sequentially the 7,8 and 7',8' double bonds adjacent to a 3-OH-β-ionone ring and that the conversion of zeaxanthin to crocetin dialdehyde proceeds via the C30 intermediate 3-OH-β-apo-8'-carotenal. In contrast, zeaxanthin cleavage dioxygenase (ZCD), an enzyme previously claimed to mediate crocetin formation, did not cleave zeaxanthin or 3-OH-β-apo-8'-carotenal in the test systems used. Sequence comparison and structure prediction suggest that ZCD is an N-truncated CCD4 form, lacking one blade of the β-propeller structure conserved in all CCDs. These results constitute strong evidence that CCD2 catalyzes the first dedicated step in crocin biosynthesis. Similar to CCD1, CCD2 has a cytoplasmic localization, suggesting that it may cleave carotenoids localized in the chromoplast outer envelope.
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261
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Cimermancic P, Medema MH, Claesen J, Kurita K, Wieland Brown LC, Mavrommatis K, Pati A, Godfrey PA, Koehrsen M, Clardy J, Birren BW, Takano E, Sali A, Linington RG, Fischbach MA. Insights into secondary metabolism from a global analysis of prokaryotic biosynthetic gene clusters. Cell 2014; 158:412-421. [PMID: 25036635 PMCID: PMC4123684 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 617] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) have been discovered for hundreds of bacterial metabolites, our knowledge of their diversity remains limited. Here, we used a novel algorithm to systematically identify BGCs in the extensive extant microbial sequencing data. Network analysis of the predicted BGCs revealed large gene cluster families, the vast majority uncharacterized. We experimentally characterized the most prominent family, consisting of two subfamilies of hundreds of BGCs distributed throughout the Proteobacteria; their products are aryl polyenes, lipids with an aryl head group conjugated to a polyene tail. We identified a distant relationship to a third subfamily of aryl polyene BGCs, and together the three subfamilies represent the largest known family of biosynthetic gene clusters, with more than 1,000 members. Although these clusters are widely divergent in sequence, their small molecule products are remarkably conserved, indicating for the first time the important roles these compounds play in Gram-negative cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Cimermancic
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Marnix H Medema
- Department of Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands; Groningen Bioinformatics Centre, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Claesen
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Kenji Kurita
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | | | | | - Amrita Pati
- US Department of Energy, Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, CA 94598, USA
| | | | | | - Jon Clardy
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | | | - Eriko Takano
- Department of Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Roger G Linington
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Michael A Fischbach
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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262
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Priya R, Siva R. Phylogenetic analysis and evolutionary studies of plant carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase gene. Gene 2014; 548:223-33. [PMID: 25034662 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The oxidative breakdown of carotenoid evidences the formation of apocarotenoids through carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs). Numerous CCDs and apocarotenoids have been identified and characterized in plants. Using available sequence data, a study was performed to investigate the phylogenetic relationship among CCD genes and to statistically estimate the sequence conservation and functional divergence. In total, 77 genes were identified from 39 species belonging to 21 families. Our result of phylogenetic analysis indicated the existence of well-conserved subfamilies. Moreover, comparative genomic analysis showed that the gene structures of the CCDs were highly conserved across some different lineage species. Through functional divergence analysis, a substantial divergence was found between CCD subfamilies. In addition, examination of the site-specific profile revealed the critical amino acid residues accounting for functional divergence. This study mainly focused on the evolution of CCD genes and their functional divergence which may deliver an initial step for further experimental verifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Priya
- School of Bio Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ramamoorthy Siva
- School of Bio Sciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India.
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263
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Belefant-Miller H, Grunden E. Carotenoid metabolism is induced in rice bran during very high temperature stress. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2014; 94:1808-1815. [PMID: 24282164 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.6496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postharvest yellowing (PhY) causes yellowing in rice endosperm during conditions of high temperature and moisture. Rice bran was investigated as a model tissue for studying PhY and for determining the possibility of carotenoids as the source of the yellow color. RESULTS A survey of different colored rice and wild (non-sativa) rice lines resulted in the identification of several purple bran lines having very low or no bran carotenoids. Transcription levels of phytoene synthase, the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis, were higher in carotenoid-containing bran, indicating that carotogenesis is an ongoing process in mature bran. Bran and endosperm subjected to PhY conditions had a similar temperature optimum and color responses, so bran was utilized to investigate carotenoid levels and transcription levels of genes for carotogenesis during PhY. During PhY, total carotenoid levels in bran increased while levels of the predominant xanthophyll carotenoid, lutein, decreased. This difference could be explained by carotenoids being metabolized into apocarotenoids, which have high antioxidant activities and can be highly colored. This mechanism is further supported by the long-term transcription during PhY of CCD1, which encodes an enzyme in apocarotenoid production. CONCLUSION We propose that PhY is an active, metabolic response to a very high temperature stress and that the increase in total carotenoids in bran during PhY is a result of the production of colored apocarotenoids.
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264
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Ilg A, Bruno M, Beyer P, Al-Babili S. Tomato carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases 1A and 1B: Relaxed double bond specificity leads to a plenitude of dialdehydes, mono-apocarotenoids and isoprenoid volatiles. FEBS Open Bio 2014; 4:584-93. [PMID: 25057464 PMCID: PMC4096678 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthetic processes leading to many of the isoprenoid volatiles released by tomato fruits are still unknown, though previous reports suggested a clear correlation with the carotenoids contained within the fruit. In this study, we investigated the activity of the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (SlCCD1B), which is highly expressed in fruits, and of its homolog SlCCD1A. Using in vitro assays performed with purified recombinant enzymes and by analyzing products formed by the two enzymes in carotene-accumulating Escherichia coli strains, we demonstrate that SlCCD1A and, to a larger extent, SlCCD1B, have a very relaxed specificity for both substrate and cleavage site, mediating the oxidative cleavage of cis- and all-trans-carotenoids as well as of different apocarotenoids at many more double bonds than previously reported. This activity gives rise to a plenitude of volatiles, mono-apocarotenoids and dialdehyde products, including cis-pseudoionone, neral, geranial, and farnesylacetone. Our results provide a direct evidence for a carotenoid origin of these compounds and point to CCD1s as the enzymes catalyzing the formation of the vast majority of tomato isoprenoid volatiles, many of which are aroma constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Ilg
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mark Bruno
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter Beyer
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Salim Al-Babili
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Desert Agriculture, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), 23955-6900 Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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265
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Toledo-Ortiz G, Johansson H, Lee KP, Bou-Torrent J, Stewart K, Steel G, Rodríguez-Concepción M, Halliday KJ. The HY5-PIF regulatory module coordinates light and temperature control of photosynthetic gene transcription. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004416. [PMID: 24922306 PMCID: PMC4055456 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to interpret daily and seasonal alterations in light and temperature signals is essential for plant survival. This is particularly important during seedling establishment when the phytochrome photoreceptors activate photosynthetic pigment production for photoautotrophic growth. Phytochromes accomplish this partly through the suppression of PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORS (PIFs), negative regulators of chlorophyll and carotenoid biosynthesis. While the bZIP transcription factor LONG HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5), a potent PIF antagonist, promotes photosynthetic pigment accumulation in response to light. Here we demonstrate that by directly targeting a common promoter cis-element (G-box), HY5 and PIFs form a dynamic activation-suppression transcriptional module responsive to light and temperature cues. This antagonistic regulatory module provides a simple, direct mechanism through which environmental change can redirect transcriptional control of genes required for photosynthesis and photoprotection. In the regulation of photopigment biosynthesis genes, HY5 and PIFs do not operate alone, but with the circadian clock. However, sudden changes in light or temperature conditions can trigger changes in HY5 and PIFs abundance that adjust the expression of common target genes to optimise photosynthetic performance and growth. Plants, as sessile and photosynthetic organisms, have to constantly adjust their growth and development in response to the environment. While light and temperature are recognized as the most prominent environmental factors modulating plant photosynthetic metabolism, how the seasonal and daily adjustments are achieved is not understood. Global climate alterations will bring together the combination of light and temperature changes and will require an understanding of signal convergence. If we are to mitigate the impact of variable weather patterns on agriculture, it is critical to advance our understanding of the basis of plant responses to environmental variations. In our study we show that the antagonistic activity of key plant transcription factors involved in phytochrome red light photoreceptors signaling (PIFs and HY5) optimize photosynthetic pigment production in response to environmental cues. These light and temperature responsive transcription factors operate in cooperation with the circadian clock to regulate photosynthetic pigment production through a common gene promoter element.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Toledo-Ortiz
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (GTO); (KJH)
| | - Henrik Johansson
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Plant Physiology, Justus Liebig University, Senckernbergstr, Giessen, Germany
| | - Keun Pyo Lee
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jordi Bou-Torrent
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Kelly Stewart
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin Steel
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Manuel Rodríguez-Concepción
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Karen J. Halliday
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, SynthSys, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (GTO); (KJH)
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266
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Bruno M, Hofmann M, Vermathen M, Alder A, Beyer P, Al-Babili S. On the substrate- and stereospecificity of the plant carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 7. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:1802-7. [PMID: 24685691 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Strigolactones are phytohormones synthesized from carotenoids via a stereospecific pathway involving the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases 7 (CCD7) and 8. CCD7 cleaves 9-cis-β-carotene to form a supposedly 9-cis-configured β-apo-10'-carotenal. CCD8 converts this intermediate through a combination of yet undetermined reactions into the strigolactone-like compound carlactone. Here, we investigated the substrate and stereo-specificity of the Arabidopsis and pea CCD7 and determined the stereo-configuration of the β-apo-10'-carotenal intermediate by using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Our data unequivocally demonstrate the 9-cis-configuration of the intermediate. Both CCD7s cleave different 9-cis-carotenoids, yielding hydroxylated 9-cis-apo-10'-carotenals that may lead to hydroxylated carlactones, but show highest affinity for 9-cis-β-carotene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Bruno
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manuel Hofmann
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Martina Vermathen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Alder
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter Beyer
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Salim Al-Babili
- Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestr. 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany; Center for Desert Agriculture, BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), 23955-6900 Thuwal, Saudi Arabia.
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267
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Lao YM, Xiao L, Luo LX, Jiang JG. Hypoosmotic expression of Dunaliella bardawil ζ-carotene desaturase is attributed to a hypoosmolarity-responsive element different from other key carotenogenic genes. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 165:359-72. [PMID: 24632600 PMCID: PMC4012594 DOI: 10.1104/pp.114.235390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Some key carotenogenic genes (crts) in Dunaliella bardawil are regulated in response to salt stress partly due to salt-inducible cis-acting elements in their promoters. Thus, we isolated and compared the ζ-carotene desaturase (Dbzds) promoter with other crts promoters including phytoene synthase (Dbpsy), phytoene desaturase (Dbpds), and lycopene β-cyclase1 (DblycB1) to identify salt-inducible element(s) in the Dbzds promoter. In silico analysis of the Dbzds promoter found several potential cis-acting elements, such as abscisic acid response element-like sequence, myelocytomatosis oncogene1 recognition motif, AGC box, anaerobic motif2, and activation sequence factor1 binding site. Remarkably, instead of salt-inducible elements, we found a unique regulatory sequence architecture in the Dbzds promoter: a hypoosmolarity-responsive element (HRE) candidate followed by a potential hypoosmolarity-inducible factor GBF5 binding site. Deletion experiments demonstrated that only HRE, but not the GBF5 binding site, is responsible for hypoosmotic expression of the fusion of Zeocin resistance gene (ble) to the enhanced green fluorescent protein (egfp) chimeric gene under salt stress. Dbzds transcripts were in accordance with those of ble-egfp driven by the wild-type Dbzds promoter. Consequently, Dbzds is hypoosmotically regulated by its promoter, and HRE is responsible for this hypoosmotic response. Finally, the hypoosmolarity mechanism of Dbzds was studied by comparing transcript profiles and regulatory elements of Dbzds with those of Dbpsy, Dbpds, DblycB1, and DblycB2, revealing that different induction characteristics of crts may correlate with regulatory sequence architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Min Lao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China (Y.-M.L., J.-G.J.); and
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China (Y.-M.L., L.X., L.-X.L.)
| | - Lan Xiao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China (Y.-M.L., J.-G.J.); and
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China (Y.-M.L., L.X., L.-X.L.)
| | - Li-Xin Luo
- College of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China (Y.-M.L., J.-G.J.); and
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China (Y.-M.L., L.X., L.-X.L.)
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268
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Neuman H, Galpaz N, Cunningham FX, Zamir D, Hirschberg J. The tomato mutation nxd1 reveals a gene necessary for neoxanthin biosynthesis and demonstrates that violaxanthin is a sufficient precursor for abscisic acid biosynthesis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 78:80-93. [PMID: 24506237 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoid pigments are indispensable for plant life. They are synthesized within plastids where they provide essential functions in photosynthesis. Carotenoids serve as precursors for the synthesis of the strigolactone phytohormones, which are made from β-carotene, and of abscisic acid (ABA), which is produced from certain xanthophylls. Despite the significant progress that has been made in our understanding of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, the synthesis of the xanthophyll neoxanthin has remained unknown. We report here on the isolation of a tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) mutant, neoxanthin-deficient 1 (nxd1), which lacks neoxanthin, and on the cloning of a gene that is necessary for neoxanthin synthesis in both tomato and Arabidopsis. The locus nxd1 encodes a gene of unknown function that is conserved in all higher plants. The activity of NXD1 is essential but cannot solely support neoxanthin synthesis. Lack of neoxanthin does not significantly reduce the fitness of tomato plants in cultivated field conditions and does not impair the synthesis of ABA, suggesting that in tomato violaxanthin is a sufficient precursor for ABA production in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadar Neuman
- Department of Genetics, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
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269
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Van Norman JM, Zhang J, Cazzonelli CI, Pogson BJ, Harrison PJ, Bugg TDH, Chan KX, Thompson AJ, Benfey PN. Periodic root branching in Arabidopsis requires synthesis of an uncharacterized carotenoid derivative. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E1300-9. [PMID: 24639533 PMCID: PMC3977299 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1403016111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In plants, continuous formation of lateral roots (LRs) facilitates efficient exploration of the soil environment. Roots can maximize developmental capacity in variable environmental conditions through establishment of sites competent to form LRs. This LR prepattern is established by a periodic oscillation in gene expression near the root tip. The spatial distribution of competent (prebranch) sites results from the interplay between this periodic process and primary root growth; yet, much about this oscillatory process and the formation of prebranch sites remains unknown. We find that disruption of carotenoid biosynthesis results in seedlings with very few LRs. Carotenoids are further required for the output of the LR clock because inhibition of carotenoid synthesis also results in fewer sites competent to form LRs. Genetic analyses and a carotenoid cleavage inhibitor indicate that an apocarotenoid, distinct from abscisic acid or strigolactone, is specifically required for LR formation. Expression of a key carotenoid biosynthesis gene occurs in a spatially specific pattern along the root's axis, suggesting spatial regulation of carotenoid synthesis. These results indicate that developmental prepatterning of LRs requires an uncharacterized carotenoid-derived molecule. We propose that this molecule functions non-cell-autonomously in establishment of the LR prepattern.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jingyuan Zhang
- Department of Biology, Duke Center for Systems Biology and
| | - Christopher I. Cazzonelli
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Barry J. Pogson
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Peter J. Harrison
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom; and
| | - Timothy D. H. Bugg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom; and
| | - Kai Xun Chan
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Andrew J. Thompson
- Cranfield Soil and Agri-Food Institute, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - Philip N. Benfey
- Department of Biology, Duke Center for Systems Biology and
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
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270
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Enzymology of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases: Reaction mechanisms, inhibition and biochemical roles. Arch Biochem Biophys 2014; 544:105-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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271
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da Silva Messias R, Galli V, Dos Anjos E Silva SD, Rombaldi CV. Carotenoid biosynthetic and catabolic pathways: gene expression and carotenoid content in grains of maize landraces. Nutrients 2014; 6:546-63. [PMID: 24476639 PMCID: PMC3942716 DOI: 10.3390/nu6020546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant carotenoids have been implicated in preventing several age-related diseases, and they also provide vitamin A precursors; therefore, increasing the content of carotenoids in maize grains is of great interest. It is not well understood, however, how the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is regulated. Fortunately, the maize germplasm exhibits a high degree of genetic diversity that can be exploited for this purpose. Here, the accumulation of carotenoids and the expression of genes from carotenoid metabolic and catabolic pathways were investigated in several maize landraces. The carotenoid content in grains varied from 10.03, in the white variety MC5, to 61.50 μg·g−1, in the yellow-to-orange variety MC3, and the major carotenoids detected were lutein and zeaxanthin. PSY1 (phythoene synthase) expression showed a positive correlation with the total carotenoid content. Additionally, the PSY1 and HYD3 (ferredoxin-dependent di-iron monooxygenase) expression levels were positively correlated with β-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin, while CYP97C (cytochrome P450-type monooxygenase) expression did not correlate with any of the carotenoids. In contrast, ZmCCD1 (carotenoid dioxygenase) was more highly expressed at the beginning of grain development, as well as in the white variety, and its expression was inversely correlated with the accumulation of several carotenoids, suggesting that CCD1 is also an important enzyme to be considered when attempting to improve the carotenoid content in maize. The MC27 and MC1 varieties showed the highest HYD3/CYP97C ratios, suggesting that they are promising candidates for increasing the zeaxanthin content; in contrast, MC14 and MC7 showed low HYD3/CYP97C, suggesting that they may be useful in biofortification efforts aimed at promoting the accumulation of provitamin A. The results of this study demonstrate the use of maize germplasm to provide insight into the regulation of genes involved in the carotenoid pathway, which would thus better enable us to select promising varieties for biofortification efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vanessa Galli
- Embrapa Temperate Agriculture, BR 396, Km 78, P.O. Box 403, Pelotas-RS 96010-900, Brazil.
| | | | - Cesar Valmor Rombaldi
- Federal University of Pelotas, Eliseu Maciel Agronomy College, Campus Universitário s/n, P.O. Box 354, Pelotas-RS 96010-900, Brazil.
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272
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salim Al-Babili
- BESE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Eleanore T. Wurtzel
- The Graduate School and University Center, The City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehman College, The City University of New York, Bronx, New York, USA
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273
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case
Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Road, Cleveland, Ohio 44106-4965,
United States
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274
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Ibdah M, Dubey NK, Eizenberg H, Dabour Z, Abu-Nassar J, Gal-On A, Aly R. Cucumber Mosaic Virus as a carotenoid inhibitor reducing Phelipanche aegyptiaca infection in tobacco plants. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e972146. [PMID: 25482816 PMCID: PMC4621999 DOI: 10.4161/psb.32096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV) is a highly infectious cucumovirus, which infects more than 800 plant species and causes major diseases in greenhouse and field crops worldwide. Parasitic weeds such as Phelipanche aegyptiaca are a major constraint to the production of many crops in the world and the parasite's lifestyle makes control extremely difficult. The parasite seeds can germinate after conditioning and perceiving strigolactones secreted by the host roots. Strigolactones are rhizosphere signaling molecules in plants that are biosynthesized through carotenoid cleavage. In the present study we investigated the possibility of reducing β-carotene and then strigolactone production in the host roots by blocking carotenoid biosynthesis using CMV-infected tobacco. It was found that CMV downregulated the enzyme phytoene desaturase(PDS) and reduced significantly both carotenoid production and Phelipanche infection in tobacco host roots infected with both CMV and P. aegyptiaca. Based on our results (decrease of β-carotene and repression of PDS transcripts in tobacco roots), we hypothesized that the reduction of Phelipanche tubercles and shoots occurred due to an effect of CMV on secondary metabolite stimulators such as strigolacetones. Our study indicated that mass production of the host roots was not affected by CMV; however, most inflorescences of Phelipanche grown on CMV-infected tobacco developed abnormally (deformed shoots and short nodes). Carotenoid biosynthesis inhibitors such as CMV can be used to reduce the production of strigolactones, which will lead to decreased Phelipanche attachment. Interestingly, attenuated CMV strains may provide a safe means for enhancing crop resistance against parasitic weeds in a future plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mwafaq Ibdah
- Department of Plant Science; ARO; The Volcani Center; Newe-Yaar Research Center, Israel
| | - Neeraj Kumar Dubey
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research; ARO; The Volcani Center; Newe-Yaar Research Center, Ramat Yishay, Israel
| | - Hanan Eizenberg
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research; ARO; The Volcani Center; Newe-Yaar Research Center, Ramat Yishay, Israel
| | - Ziad Dabour
- Department of Biology; Zefat Academic College; Zefat, Israel
| | - Jacklin Abu-Nassar
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research; ARO; The Volcani Center; Newe-Yaar Research Center, Ramat Yishay, Israel
| | - Amit Gal-On
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research; ARO; The Volcani Center; Bet-Dagan, Israel
| | - Radi Aly
- Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research; ARO; The Volcani Center; Newe-Yaar Research Center, Ramat Yishay, Israel
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275
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Ruiz-Sola MÁ, Rodríguez-Villalón A, Rodríguez-Concepción M. Light-sensitive Phytochrome-Interacting Factors (PIFs) are not required to regulate phytoene synthase gene expression in the root. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e29248. [PMID: 25763615 PMCID: PMC4203534 DOI: 10.4161/psb.29248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are plastidial isoprenoids essential for the protection of photosynthetic tissues against excess light. They also serve as precursors of apocarotenoid hormones such as abscisic acid (ABA) and strigolactones. The first enzyme of the carotenoid pathway, phytoene synthase (PSY), is also the main rate-limiting step. Unlike that observed in most plants, PSY is encoded by a single gene in Arabidopsis thaliana. Whereas the PSY gene is induced by light in photosynthetic tissues, a root-specific upregulation of PSY expression by salt stress and ABA has been recently demonstrated. Here we report that transcription factors of the Phytochrome-Interacting Factor (PIF) family, previously shown to repress PSY expression in etiolated seedlings and mature leaves, do not influence PSY expression in roots. Together, our results suggest that organ-specific pathways regulate PSY expression and hence carotenoid production in response to different environmental cues.
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276
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Yahyaa M, Bar E, Dubey NK, Meir A, Davidovich-Rikanati R, Hirschberg J, Aly R, Tholl D, Simon PW, Tadmor Y, Lewinsohn E, Ibdah M. Formation of norisoprenoid flavor compounds in carrot (Daucus carota L.) roots: characterization of a cyclic-specific carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 1 gene. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:12244-52. [PMID: 24289159 DOI: 10.1021/jf404085k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Carotenoids are isoprenoid pigments that upon oxidative cleavage lead to the production of norisoprenoids that have profound effect on flavor and aromas of agricultural products. The biosynthetic pathway to norisoprenoids in carrots (Daucus carota L.) is still largely unknown. We found the volatile norisoprenoids farnesylacetone, α-ionone, and β-ionone accumulated in Nairobi, Rothild, and Purple Haze cultivars but not in Yellowstone and Creme de Lite in a pattern reflecting their carotenoid content. A cDNA encoding a protein with carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase activity, DcCCD1, was identified in carrot and was overexpressed in Escherichia coli strains previously engineered to produce different carotenoids. The recombinant DcCCD1 enzyme cleaves cyclic carotenes to generate α- and β-ionone. No cleavage products were found when DcCCD1 was co-expressed in E. coli strains accumulating non-cyclic carotenoids, such as phytoene or lycopene. Our results suggest a role for DcCCD1 in carrot flavor biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mosaab Yahyaa
- Newe Ya'ar Research Center, Agricultural Research Organization , Post Office Box 1021, Ramat Yishay 30095, Israel
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277
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Álvarez R, Vaz B, Gronemeyer H, de Lera ÁR. Functions, therapeutic applications, and synthesis of retinoids and carotenoids. Chem Rev 2013; 114:1-125. [PMID: 24266866 DOI: 10.1021/cr400126u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rosana Álvarez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Centro de Investigación Biomédica (CINBIO), and Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Vigo (IBIV), Universidade de Vigo , 36310 Vigo, Spain
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278
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Sui X, Kiser PD, von Lintig J, Palczewski K. Structural basis of carotenoid cleavage: from bacteria to mammals. Arch Biochem Biophys 2013; 539:203-13. [PMID: 23827316 PMCID: PMC3818509 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Carotenoids and their metabolic derivatives serve critical functions in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, including pigmentation, photoprotection and photosynthesis as well as cell signaling. These organic compounds are also important for visual function in vertebrate and non-vertebrate organisms. Enzymatic transformations of carotenoids to various apocarotenoid products are catalyzed by a family of evolutionarily conserved, non-heme iron-containing enzymes named carotenoid cleavage oxygenases (CCOs). Studies have revealed that CCOs are critically involved in carotenoid homeostasis and essential for the health of organisms including humans. These enzymes typically display a high degree of regio- and stereo-selectivity, acting on specific positions of the polyene backbone located in their substrates. By oxidatively cleaving and/or isomerizing specific double bonds, CCOs generate a variety of apocarotenoid isomer products. Recent structural studies have helped illuminate the mechanisms by which CCOs mobilize their lipophilic substrates from biological membranes to perform their characteristic double bond cleavage and/or isomerization reactions. In this review, we aim to integrate structural and biochemical information about CCOs to provide insights into their catalytic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuewu Sui
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA
| | - Philip D. Kiser
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA
| | - Johannes von Lintig
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 2109 Adelbert Rd, Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA
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Rodrigo MJ, Alquézar B, Alós E, Medina V, Carmona L, Bruno M, Al-Babili S, Zacarías L. A novel carotenoid cleavage activity involved in the biosynthesis of Citrus fruit-specific apocarotenoid pigments. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2013; 64:4461-78. [PMID: 24006419 PMCID: PMC3808326 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ert260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Citrus is the first tree crop in terms of fruit production. The colour of Citrus fruit is one of the main quality attributes, caused by the accumulation of carotenoids and their derivative C30 apocarotenoids, mainly β-citraurin (3-hydroxy-β-apo-8'-carotenal), which provide an attractive orange-reddish tint to the peel of oranges and Mandarins. Though carotenoid biosynthesis and its regulation have been extensively studied in Citrus fruits, little is known about the formation of C30 apocarotenoids. The aim of this study was to the identify carotenoid cleavage enzyme(s) [CCD(s)] involved in the peel-specific C30 apocarotenoids. In silico data mining revealed a new family of five CCD4-type genes in Citrus. One gene of this family, CCD4b1, was expressed in reproductive and vegetative tissues of different Citrus species in a pattern correlating with the accumulation of C30 apocarotenoids. Moreover, developmental processes and treatments which alter Citrus fruit peel pigmentation led to changes of β-citraurin content and CCD4b1 transcript levels. These results point to the involvement of CCD4b1 in β-citraurin formation and indicate that the accumulation of this compound is determined by the availability of the presumed precursors zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin. Functional analysis of CCD4b1 by in vitro assays unequivocally demonstrated the asymmetric cleavage activity at the 7',8' double bond in zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin, confirming its role in C30 apocarotenoid biosynthesis. Thus, a novel plant carotenoid cleavage activity targeting the 7',8' double bond of cyclic C40 carotenoids has been identified. These results suggest that the presented enzyme is responsible for the biosynthesis of C30 apocarotenoids in Citrus which are key pigments in fruit coloration.
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Affiliation(s)
- María J. Rodrigo
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Berta Alquézar
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Enriqueta Alós
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Víctor Medina
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lourdes Carmona
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Mark Bruno
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Salim Al-Babili
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Lorenzo Zacarías
- Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IATA-CSIC), Av. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
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Qi J, Liu X, Shen D, Miao H, Xie B, Li X, Zeng P, Wang S, Shang Y, Gu X, Du Y, Li Y, Lin T, Yuan J, Yang X, Chen J, Chen H, Xiong X, Huang K, Fei Z, Mao L, Tian L, Städler T, Renner SS, Kamoun S, Lucas WJ, Zhang Z, Huang S. A genomic variation map provides insights into the genetic basis of cucumber domestication and diversity. Nat Genet 2013; 45:1510-5. [PMID: 24141363 DOI: 10.1038/ng.2801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Most fruits in our daily diet are the products of domestication and breeding. Here we report a map of genome variation for a major fruit that encompasses ~3.6 million variants, generated by deep resequencing of 115 cucumber lines sampled from 3,342 accessions worldwide. Comparative analysis suggests that fruit crops underwent narrower bottlenecks during domestication than grain crops. We identified 112 putative domestication sweeps; 1 of these regions contains a gene involved in the loss of bitterness in fruits, an essential domestication trait of cucumber. We also investigated the genomic basis of divergence among the cultivated populations and discovered a natural genetic variant in a β-carotene hydroxylase gene that could be used to breed cucumbers with enhanced nutritional value. The genomic history of cucumber evolution uncovered here provides the basis for future genomics-enabled breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Qi
- 1] Institute of Vegetables and Flowers of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticultural Crops of the Ministry of Agriculture, Sino-Dutch Joint Laboratory of Horticultural Genomics, Beijing, China. [2]
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Lashbrooke JG, Young PR, Dockrall SJ, Vasanth K, Vivier MA. Functional characterisation of three members of the Vitis vinifera L. carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase gene family. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:156. [PMID: 24106789 PMCID: PMC3854447 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In plants, carotenoids serve as the precursors to C13-norisoprenoids, a group of apocarotenoid compounds with diverse biological functions. Enzymatic cleavage of carotenoids catalysed by members of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase (CCD) family has been shown to produce a number of industrially important volatile flavour and aroma apocarotenoids including β-ionone, geranylacetone, pseudoionone, α-ionone and 3-hydroxy-β-ionone in a range of plant species. Apocarotenoids contribute to the floral and fruity attributes of many wine cultivars and are thereby, at least partly, responsible for the "varietal character". Despite their importance in grapes and wine; carotenoid cleavage activity has only been described for VvCCD1 and the mechanism(s) and regulation of carotenoid catabolism remains largely unknown. RESULTS Three grapevine-derived CCD-encoding genes have been isolated and shown to be functional with unique substrate cleavage capacities. Our results demonstrate that the VvCCD4a and VvCCD4b catalyse the cleavage of both linear and cyclic carotenoid substrates. The expression of VvCCD1, VvCCD4a and VvCCD4b was detected in leaf, flower and throughout berry development. VvCCD1 expression was constitutive, whereas VvCCD4a expression was predominant in leaves and VvCCD4b in berries. A transgenic population with a 12-fold range of VvCCD1 expression exhibited a lack of correlation between VvCCD1 expression and carotenoid substrates and/or apocarotenoid products in leaves, providing proof that the in planta function(s) of VvCCD1 in photosynthetically active tissue is distinct from the in vitro activities demonstrated. The isolation and functional characterisation of VvCCD4a and VvCCD4b identify two additional CCDs that are functional in grapevine. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our results indicate that the three CCDs are under various levels of control that include gene expression (spatial and temporal), substrate specificity and compartmentalisation that act individually and/or co-ordinately to maintain carotenoid and volatile apocarotenoid levels in plants. Altering the expression of VvCCD1 in a transgenic grapevine population illustrated the divergence between the in vitro enzyme activity and the in planta activity of this enzyme, thereby contributing to the efforts to understand how enzymatic degradation of carotenoids involved in photosynthesis occurs. The identification and functional characterisation of VvCCD4a and VvCCD4b suggest that these enzymes are primarily responsible for catalysing the cleavage of plastidial carotenoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin G Lashbrooke
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Philip R Young
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Samantha J Dockrall
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Krishnan Vasanth
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
- Current address: Department of Botany, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, TN, 641 046, India
| | - Melané A Vivier
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
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282
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283
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Tomato extract and the carotenoids lycopene and lutein improve endothelial function and attenuate inflammatory NF-κB signaling in endothelial cells. J Hypertens 2013; 31:521-9; discussion 529. [PMID: 23235359 DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0b013e32835c1d01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In our previous research the antihypertensive properties of lycopene-containing tomato oleoresin have been revealed. The present study was aimed to assess if oleoresin interferes in the inflammatory signalling in endothelial cells, imitating reduction of inflammatory processes in the vessel wall and in this way to propose the mechanism for the reduction of blood pressure by oleoresin. METHODS AND RESULTS A wide number of functional and inflammatory markers were investigated in two cultured endothelial cell models [EA.hy926 and human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC)], exposed to oleoresin and carotenoids lycopene and lutein. All the carotenoids significantly improved basic endothelial function as measured by increased nitric oxide and decreased endothelin (ET-1) release. They were effective in attenuation of inflammatory nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signalling: decrease of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced leukocytes adhesion, expression of adhesion molecules inter-cellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and nuclear translocation of NF-κB components as well as some revert of inhibitor of kappa B (IκB) ubiquitination. In addition, the carotenoids were able to inhibit NF-κB activation in transfected endothelial cells. When combined with lutein, oleoresin exerted synergistic effect on preclusion of leukocytes adhesion. CONCLUSIONS Prevention of over-expression of adhesion molecules through inhibition of NF-κB signalling may be one of the main mechanisms driving carotenoids to attenuate inflammatory leukocyte adhesion to endothelium. This is the first profound study on the mechanisms involved in the positive action of natural tomato products in endothelial cells.
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284
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Biochemistry and molecular biology of carotenoid biosynthesis in chili peppers (Capsicum spp.). Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:19025-53. [PMID: 24065101 PMCID: PMC3794819 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140919025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Capsicum species produce fruits that synthesize and accumulate carotenoid pigments, which are responsible for the fruits' yellow, orange and red colors. Chili peppers have been used as an experimental model for studying the biochemical and molecular aspects of carotenoid biosynthesis. Most reports refer to the characterization of carotenoids and content determination in chili pepper fruits from different species, cultivars, varieties or genotypes. The types and levels of carotenoids differ between different chili pepper fruits, and they are also influenced by environmental conditions. Yellow-orange colors of chili pepper fruits are mainly due to the accumulation of α- and β-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein and β-cryptoxanthin. Carotenoids such as capsanthin, capsorubin and capsanthin-5,6-epoxide confer the red colors. Chromoplasts are the sites of carotenoid pigment synthesis and storage. According to the most accepted theory, the synthesis of carotenoids in chili peppers is controlled by three loci: c1, c2 and y. Several enzymes participating in carotenoid biosynthesis in chili pepper fruits have been isolated and characterized, and the corresponding gene sequences have been reported. However, there is currently limited information on the molecular mechanisms that regulate this biosynthetic pathway. Approaches to gain more knowledge of the regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis are discussed.
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285
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Rubio Moraga A, Ahrazem O, Rambla JL, Granell A, Gómez Gómez L. Crocins with high levels of sugar conjugation contribute to the yellow colours of early-spring flowering crocus tepals. PLoS One 2013; 8:e71946. [PMID: 24058441 PMCID: PMC3772802 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0071946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Crocus sativus is the source of saffron spice, the processed stigma which accumulates glucosylated apocarotenoids known as crocins. Crocins are found in the stigmas of other Crocuses, determining the colourations observed from pale yellow to dark red. By contrast, tepals in Crocus species display a wider diversity of colours which range from purple, blue, yellow to white. In this study, we investigated whether the contribution of crocins to colour extends from stigmas to the tepals of yellow Crocus species. Tepals from seven species were analysed by UPLC-PDA and ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS revealing for the first time the presence of highly glucosylated crocins in this tissue. β-carotene was found to be the precursor of these crocins and some of them were found to contain rhamnose, never before reported. When crocin profiles from tepals were compared with those from stigmas, clear differences were found, including the presence of new apocarotenoids in stigmas. Furthermore, each species showed a characteristic profile which was not correlated with the phylogenetic relationship among species. While gene expression analysis in tepals of genes involved in carotenoid metabolism showed that phytoene synthase was a key enzyme in apocarotenoid biosynthesis in tepals. Expression of a crocetin glucosyltransferase, previously identified in saffron, was detected in all the samples. The presence of crocins in tepals is compatible with the role of chromophores to attract pollinators. The identification of tepals as new sources of crocins is of special interest given their wide range of applications in medicine, cosmetics and colouring industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Rubio Moraga
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
- Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
| | - Oussama Ahrazem
- Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
- Fundación Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Castilla-La Mancha, Paseo de la Renovación 1, Albacete, Spain
| | - José Luis Rambla
- Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Granell
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lourdes Gómez Gómez
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
- Instituto Botánico, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, Albacete, Spain
- * E-mail:
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286
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Figueira J, Câmara H, Pereira J, Câmara JS. Evaluation of volatile metabolites as markers in Lycopersicon esculentum L. cultivars discrimination by multivariate analysis of headspace solid phase microextraction and mass spectrometry data. Food Chem 2013; 145:653-63. [PMID: 24128528 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.08.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To gain insights on the effects of cultivar on the volatile metabolomic expression of different tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) cultivars--Plum, Campari, Grape, Cherry and Regional, cultivated under similar edafoclimatic conditions, and to identify the most discriminate volatile marker metabolites related to the cultivar, the chromatographic profiles resulting from headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-qMS) analysis, combined with multivariate analysis were investigated. The data set composed by the 77 volatile metabolites identified in the target tomato cultivars, 5 of which (2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone, 2-methyl-6-methyleneoctan-2-ol, 4-octadecyl-morpholine, (Z)-methyl-3-hexenoate and 3-octanone) are reported for the first time in tomato volatile metabolomic composition, was evaluated by chemometrics. Firstly, principal component analysis was carried out in order to visualise data trends and clusters, and then, linear discriminant analysis in order to detect the set of volatile metabolites able to differentiate groups according to tomato cultivars. The results obtained revealed a perfect discrimination between the different Lycopersicon esculentum L. cultivars considered. The assignment success rate was 100% in classification and 80% in prediction ability by using "leave-one-out" cross-validation procedure. The volatile profile was able to differentiate all five cultivars and revealed complex interactions between them including the participation in the same biosynthetic pathway. The volatile metabolomic platform for tomato samples obtained by HS-SPME/GC-qMS here described, and the interrelationship detected among the volatile metabolites can be used as a roadmap for biotechnological applications, namely to improve tomato aroma and their acceptance in the final consumer, and for traceability studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Figueira
- Centro de Química da Madeira, Centro de Ciências Exactas e da Engenharia da Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9000-390 Funchal, Portugal
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287
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Rodriguez-Concepcion M, Stange C. Biosynthesis of carotenoids in carrot: an underground story comes to light. Arch Biochem Biophys 2013; 539:110-6. [PMID: 23876238 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Revised: 06/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Carrot (Daucus carota) is a biannual plant that accumulates massive amounts of carotenoid pigments in the storage root. Although the root of carrot plants was white before domestication, intensive breeding generated the currently known carotenoid-rich varieties, including the widely popular orange carrots that accumulate very high levels of the pro-vitamin A carotenoids β-carotene and, to a lower extent, α-carotene. Recent studies have shown that the developmental program responsible for the accumulation of these health-promoting carotenes in underground roots can be completely altered when roots are exposed to light. Illuminated root sections do not enlarge as much as dark-grown roots, and they contain chloroplasts with high levels of lutein instead of the β-carotene-rich chromoplasts found in underground roots. Analysis of carotenoid gene expression in roots either exposed or not to light has contributed to better understand the contribution of developmental and environmental cues to the root carotenoid profile. In this review, we summarize the main conclusions of this work in the context of our current knowledge of how carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation is regulated at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels in carrot roots and other model systems for the study of plant carotenogenesis such as Arabidopsis de-etiolation and tomato fruit ripening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Rodriguez-Concepcion
- Centre for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
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288
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Chromoplast biogenesis and carotenoid accumulation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2013; 539:102-9. [PMID: 23851381 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2013.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Chromoplasts are special organelles that possess superior ability to synthesize and store massive amounts of carotenoids. They are responsible for the distinctive colors found in fruits, flowers, and roots. Chromoplasts exhibit various morphologies and are derived from either pre-existing chloroplasts or other non-photosynthetic plastids such as proplastids, leucoplasts or amyloplasts. While little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying chromoplast biogenesis, research progress along with proteomics study of chromoplast proteomes signifies various processes and factors important for chromoplast differentiation and development. Chromoplasts act as a metabolic sink that enables great biosynthesis and high storage capacity of carotenoids. The formation of chromoplasts enhances carotenoid metabolic sink strength and controls carotenoid accumulation in plants. The objective of this review is to provide an integrated view on our understanding of chromoplast biogenesis and carotenoid accumulation in plants.
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289
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290
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Trautmann D, Beyer P, Al-Babili S. The ORF slr0091 of Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 encodes a high-light induced aldehyde dehydrogenase converting apocarotenals and alkanals. FEBS J 2013; 280:3685-96. [PMID: 23734995 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Revised: 05/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative cleavage of carotenoids and peroxidation of lipids lead to apocarotenals and aliphatic aldehydes called alkanals, which react with vitally important compounds, promoting cytotoxicity. Although many enzymes have been reported to deactivate alkanals by converting them into fatty acids, little is known about the mechanisms used to detoxify apocarotenals or the enzymes acting on them. Cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic organisms must cope with both classes of aldehydes. Here we report that the Synechocystis enzyme SynAlh1, encoded by the ORF slr0091, is an aldehyde dehydrogenase that mediates oxidation of both apocarotenals and alkanals into the corresponding acids. Using a crude lysate of SynAlh1-expressing Escherichia coli cells, we show that SynAlh1 converts a wide range of apocarotenals and alkanals, with a preference for apocarotenals with defined chain lengths. As suggested by in vitro incubations and using engineered retinal-forming E. coli cells, we found that retinal is not a substrate for SynAlh1, making involvement in Synechocystis retinoid metabolism unlikely. The transcript level of SynAlh1 is induced by high light and cold treatment, indicating a role in the stress response, and the corresponding gene is a constituent of a stress-related operon. The assumptions regarding the function of SynAlh are further supported by the surprisingly high homology to human and plant aldehyde dehydrogenase that have been assigned to aldehyde detoxification. SynAlh1 is the first aldehyde dehydrogenase that has been shown to form both apocarotenoic and fatty acids. This dual function suggests that its eukaryotic homologs may also be involved in apocarotenal metabolism, a function that has not been considered so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danika Trautmann
- Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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291
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Hussain N, Irshad F, Jabeen Z, Shamsi IH, Li Z, Jiang L. Biosynthesis, structural, and functional attributes of tocopherols in planta; past, present, and future perspectives. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:6137-49. [PMID: 23713813 DOI: 10.1021/jf4010302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Tocopherols are lipophilic molecules, ubiquitously synthesized in all photosynthetic organisms. Being a group of vitamin E compounds, they play an essential role in human nutrition and health. Despite their structural and functional attributes as important antioxidants in plants, it would be misleading to ignore the potential roles of tocopherols beyond their antioxidant properties in planta. Detailed characterization of mutants and transgenic plants, including Arabidopsis (vte1, vte2, vte4, and so on), maize (sxd1) mutants, and transgenic potato and tobacco lines altered in tocopherol biosynthesis and contents, has led to surprising outcomes regarding the additional functions of these molecules. Thus, the aim of this review is to highlight the past and present research findings on tocopherols' structural, biosynthesis, and functional properties in plants. Special emphasis is given to their suggested functions in planta, such as cell signaling, hormonal interactions, and coordinated response of tocopherols to other antioxidants under abiotic stresses. Moreover, some important questions about possible new functions of tocopherols will be discussed as future prospects to stimulate further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazim Hussain
- Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm Resources of Zhejiang Province, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, 866 Yu-Hang-Tang Road, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
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Wriessnegger T, Pichler H. Yeast metabolic engineering – Targeting sterol metabolism and terpenoid formation. Prog Lipid Res 2013; 52:277-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2012] [Revised: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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293
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Lipkie TE, De Moura FF, Zhao ZY, Albertsen MC, Che P, Glassman K, Ferruzzi MG. Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from transgenic provitamin A biofortified sorghum. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:5764-71. [PMID: 23692305 DOI: 10.1021/jf305361s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Biofortified sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) lines are being developed to target vitamin A deficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa, but the delivery of provitamin A carotenoids from such diverse germplasms has not been evaluated. The purpose of this study was to screen vectors and independent transgenic events for the bioaccessibility of provitamin A carotenoids using an in vitro digestion model. The germplasm background and transgenic sorghum contained 1.0-1.5 and 3.3-14.0 μg/g β-carotene equivalents on a dry weight basis (DW), respectively. Test porridges made from milled transgenic sorghum contained up to 250 μg of β-carotene equivalents per 100 g of porridge on a fresh weight basis (FW). Micellarization efficiency of all-trans-β-carotene was lower (p < 0.05) from transgenic sorghum (1-5%) than from null/nontransgenic sorghum (6-11%) but not different between vector constructs. Carotenoid bioaccessibility was significantly improved (p < 0.05) by increasing the amount of coformulated lipid in test porridges from 5% w/w to 10% w/w. Transgenic sorghum event Homo188-A contained the greatest bioaccessible β-carotene content, with a 4-8-fold increase from null/nontransgenic sorghum. While the bioavailability and bioconversion of provitamin A carotenoids from these grains must be confirmed in vivo, these data support the notion that biofortification of sorghum can enhance total and bioaccessible provitamin A carotenoid levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan E Lipkie
- Department of Food Science, Purdue University, 745 Agriculture Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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294
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Heo J, Kim SH, Lee PC. New insight into the cleavage reaction of Nostoc sp. strain PCC 7120 carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase in natural and nonnatural carotenoids. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:3336-45. [PMID: 23524669 PMCID: PMC3648047 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00071-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs) are enzymes that catalyze the oxidative cleavage of carotenoids at a specific double bond to generate apocarotenoids. In this study, we investigated the activity and substrate preferences of NSC3, a CCD of Nostoc sp. strain PCC 7120, in vivo and in vitro using natural and nonnatural carotenoid structures. NSC3 cleaved β-apo-8'-carotenal at 3 positions, C-13 C-14, C-15 C-15', and C-13' C-14', revealing a unique cleavage pattern. NSC3 cleaves the natural structure of carotenoids 4,4'-diaponeurosporene, 4,4'-diaponeurosporen-4'-al, 4,4'-diaponeurosporen-4'-oic acid, 4,4'-diapotorulene, and 4,4'-diapotorulen-4'-al to generate novel cleavage products (apo-14'-diaponeurosporenal, apo-13'-diaponeurosporenal, apo-10'-diaponeurosporenal, apo-14'-diapotorulenal, and apo-10'-diapotorulenal, respectively). The study of carotenoids with natural or nonnatural structures produced by using synthetic modules could provide information valuable for understanding the cleavage reactions or substrate preferences of other CCDs in vivo and in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinsol Heo
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology and Department of Applied Chemistry and Biological Engineering, Ajou University, Woncheon-Dong, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, South Korea
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295
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Immethun CM, Hoynes-O'Connor AG, Balassy A, Moon TS. Microbial production of isoprenoids enabled by synthetic biology. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:75. [PMID: 23577007 PMCID: PMC3616241 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms transform inexpensive carbon sources into highly functionalized compounds without toxic by-product generation or significant energy consumption. By redesigning the natural biosynthetic pathways in an industrially suited host, microbial cell factories can produce complex compounds for a variety of industries. Isoprenoids include many medically important compounds such as antioxidants and anticancer and antimalarial drugs, all of which have been produced microbially. While a biosynthetic pathway could be simply transferred to the production host, the titers would become economically feasible when it is rationally designed, built, and optimized through synthetic biology tools. These tools have been implemented by a number of research groups, with new tools pledging further improvements in yields and expansion to new medically relevant compounds. This review focuses on the microbial production of isoprenoids for the health industry and the advancements though synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M Immethun
- Department of Energy, Environmental & Chemical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis Saint Louis, MO, USA
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296
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Ruyter-Spira C, Al-Babili S, van der Krol S, Bouwmeester H. The biology of strigolactones. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013. [PMID: 23182342 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The strigolactones are rhizosphere signaling molecules as well as a new class of plant hormones with a still increasing number of biological functions being uncovered. Here, we review a recent major breakthrough in our understanding of strigolactone biosynthesis, which has revealed the unexpected simplicity of the originally postulated complex pathway. Moreover, the discovery and localization of a strigolactone exporter sheds new light on putative strigolactone fluxes to the rhizosphere as well as within the plant. The combination of these data with information on the expression and regulation of strigolactone biosynthetic and downstream signaling genes provides new insights into how strigolactones control the many different aspects of plant development and how their rhizosphere signaling role may have evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolien Ruyter-Spira
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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297
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González-Delgado JA, Arteaga JF, Herrador MM, Barrero AF. First total synthesis of (+)-apotrisporin E and (+)-apotrientriols A–B: a cyclization approach to apocarotenoids. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:5404-8. [PMID: 23863958 DOI: 10.1039/c3ob41226a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- José A González-Delgado
- Department of Organic Chemistry, and Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, Avda Fuentenueva, 18071 Granada, Spain
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298
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Sergeant MJ, Harrison PJ, Jenkins R, Moran GR, Bugg TDH, Thompson AJ. Phytotoxic effects of selected N-benzyl-benzoylhydroxamic acid metallo-oxygenase inhibitors: investigation into mechanism of action. NEW J CHEM 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3nj00491k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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299
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Kachanovsky DE, Filler S, Isaacson T, Hirschberg J. Epistasis in tomato color mutations involves regulation of phytoene synthase 1 expression by cis-carotenoids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:19021-6. [PMID: 23112190 PMCID: PMC3503155 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1214808109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit accumulate the red carotenoid pigment lycopene. The recessive mutation yellow-flesh (locus r) in tomato eliminates fruit carotenoids by disrupting the activity of the fruit-specific phytoene synthase (PSY1), the first committed step in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. Fruits of the recessive mutation tangerine (t) appear orange due to accumulation of 7,9,7',9'-tetra-cis-lycopene (prolycopene) as a result of a mutation in the carotenoid cis-trans isomerase. It was established 60 y ago that tangerine is epistatic to yellow-flesh. This uncharacteristic epistasis interaction defies a paradigm in biochemical genetics arguing that mutations that disrupt enzymes acting early in a biosynthetic pathway are epistatic to other mutations that block downstream steps in the same pathway. To explain this conundrum, we have investigated the interaction between tangerine and yellow-flesh at the molecular level. Results presented here indicate that allele r(2997) of yellow-flesh eliminates transcription of PSY1 in fruits. In a genetic background of tangerine, transcription of PSY1 is partially restored to a level sufficient for producing phytoene and downstream carotenoids. Our results revealed the molecular mechanism underlying the epistasis of t over r and suggest the involvement of cis-carotenoid metabolites in a feedback regulation of PSY1 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Joseph Hirschberg
- Department of Genetics, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
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300
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