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Fuentes P, Bernabeu E, Bertera F, Garces M, Oppezzo J, Zubillaga M, Evelson P, Jimena Salgueiro M, Moretton MA, Höcht C, Chiappetta DA. Dual strategy to improve the oral bioavailability of efavirenz employing nanomicelles and curcumin as a bio-enhancer. Int J Pharm 2024; 651:123734. [PMID: 38142017 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
The present investigation was focused on the development of Soluplus®-based nanomicelles (NMs) (10 % w/v) loaded with Efavirenz (EFV) (5 mg/mL) and Curcumin (natural bio-enhancer) (CUR) (5, 10 and 15 mg/mL) to improve the oral bioavalability of EFV. Micellar formulations were obtained employing an acetone-diffusion technique. Apparent aqueous solubility was increased up to ∼1250-fold and 25,000-fold for EFV and CUR, respectively. Drug-loaded nanoformulations showed an excellent colloidal stability with unimodal size distribution and PDI values < 0.30. In vitro drug release was 41.5 % (EFV) and 2.6 % (CUR) from EFV-CUR-NMs over 6 h in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. EFV-CUR-loaded NMs resulted as safe nanoformulations according to the in vitro cytocompatibility assays in Caco-2 cells. Furthermore, CUR bio-enhancer activity was demonstrated for those nanoformulations. A CUR concentration of 15 mg/mL produced a significant (p < 0.05) increment (2.64-fold) of relative EFV oral bioavailability. Finally, the active role of the lymphatic system in the absorption process of EFV, after its oral administration was assessed in a comparative pharmacokinetic study in presence and absence of cycloheximide, a lymphatic transport inhibitor. Overall our EFV-CUR-NMs denoted their potential as a novel nanotechnological platform, representing a step towards an optimized "nano-sized" therapy for AIDS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Fuentes
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Tecnología Farmacéutica I, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ezequiel Bernabeu
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Tecnología Farmacéutica I, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Facundo Bertera
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Garces
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Química General e Inorgánica, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular (IBIMOL), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Argentina
| | - Javier Oppezzo
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marcela Zubillaga
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Física, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pablo Evelson
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Química General e Inorgánica, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Instituto de Bioquímica y Medicina Molecular (IBIMOL), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Argentina
| | - María Jimena Salgueiro
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Física, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marcela A Moretton
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Tecnología Farmacéutica I, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina.
| | - Christian Höcht
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Diego A Chiappetta
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Tecnología Farmacéutica I, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología Farmacéutica y Biofarmacia (InTecFyB), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina
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Casado-Bedmar M, Heil SDS, Myrelid P, Söderholm JD, Keita ÅV. Upregulation of intestinal mucosal mast cells expressing VPAC1 in close proximity to vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in inflammatory bowel disease and murine colitis. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2019; 31:e13503. [PMID: 30407703 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.13503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mast cells (MCs) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) have been proposed as regulators of the intestinal barrier and inflammation. Our aim was to map the distribution in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and murine colitis. METHODS MCs, VIP, and VIP-receptors (VPACs) were quantified by immunofluorescence and enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) in ileal tissues (villus epithelium (VE) and adjacent VE, ie, VE next to the follicle-associated epithelium, (FAE)) from Crohn's disease (CD; n = 16) and non-IBD patients, and in colonic specimens of ulcerative colitis (UC; n = 12) and healthy controls (HCs). In addition, VIP levels were measured in plasma from HCs, non-IBD, and IBD in remission (CD n = 30; UC n = 30). Colon, ileum, and plasma from mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and control mice were analyzed likewise. KEY RESULTS FAE-adjacent VE in ileum of CD possessed more MCs (P < 0.05) and MCs expressing VPAC1 (P < 0.05), but not VPAC2, compared to controls. Both adjacent and regular VE of CD had more MCs co-localizing/in close proximity to VIP (P < 0.05). In UC colon, more MCs (P < 0.0005), MCs close to VIP (P < 0.0005), and MCs expressing VPAC1 (P < 0.05) were found compared to controls. VIP levels were elevated in plasma from CD and UC compared to controls (P < 0.0005). Colon of DSS mice showed more MCs and MCs close to VIP (P < 0.05) compared to control mice. In vitro experiments revealed MCs expressing VPACs and internalized VIP after 120 minutes of VIP-stimulation. CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES Communication between MCs and VIP is upregulated during IBD and mice colitis. In CD patients, the epithelium next to FAE seems to be more involved than the surrounding VE, suggesting increased MC-VIP-interactions in this intestinal region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maite Casado-Bedmar
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics & Oncology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Stéphanie D S Heil
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics & Oncology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Pär Myrelid
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics & Oncology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Surgery, County Council of Östergötland, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Johan D Söderholm
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics & Oncology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Surgery, County Council of Östergötland, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Åsa V Keita
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery, Orthopedics & Oncology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Liu G, Sun C, Liu H, Li F, Zhu Y, Li F. Effects of dietary supplement of vitamin B6 on growth performance and non-specific immune response of weaned rex rabbits. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2018.1512498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gongyan Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chaoran Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongli Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fan Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanli Zhu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fuchang Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an City, People’s Republic of China
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Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli pathogenesis: role of Long polar fimbriae in Peyer's patches interactions. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44655. [PMID: 28317910 PMCID: PMC5357955 DOI: 10.1038/srep44655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are major food-borne pathogens whose survival and virulence in the human digestive tract remain unclear owing to paucity of relevant models. EHEC interact with the follicle-associated epithelium of Peyer’s patches of the distal ileum and translocate across the intestinal epithelium via M-cells, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are still unknown. Here, we investigated the involvement of Long polar fimbriae (Lpf) in EHEC pathogenesis. Of the 236 strains tested, a significant association was observed between the presence of lpf operons and pathogenicity. In sophisticated in vitro models of the human gastro-intestinal tract, lpf expression was induced during transit through the simulated stomach and small intestine, but not in the colonic compartment. To investigate the involvement of Lpf in EHEC pathogenesis, lpf isogenic mutants and their relative trans-complemented strains were generated. Translocation across M-cells, interactions with murine ileal biopsies containing Peyer’s patches and the number of hemorrhagic lesions were significantly reduced with the lpf mutants compared to the wild-type strain. Complementation of lpf mutants fully restored the wild-type phenotypes. Our results indicate that (i) EHEC might colonize the terminal ileum at the early stages of infection, (ii) Lpf are an important player in the interactions with Peyer’s patches and M-cells, and could contribute to intestinal colonization.
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Lundquist P, Artursson P. Oral absorption of peptides and nanoparticles across the human intestine: Opportunities, limitations and studies in human tissues. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 106:256-276. [PMID: 27496705 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In this contribution, we review the molecular and physiological barriers to oral delivery of peptides and nanoparticles. We discuss the opportunities and predictivity of various in vitro systems with special emphasis on human intestine in Ussing chambers. First, the molecular constraints to peptide absorption are discussed. Then the physiological barriers to peptide delivery are examined. These include the gastric and intestinal environment, the mucus barrier, tight junctions between epithelial cells, the enterocytes of the intestinal epithelium, and the subepithelial tissue. Recent data from human proteome studies are used to provide information about the protein expression profiles of the different physiological barriers to peptide and nanoparticle absorption. Strategies that have been employed to increase peptide absorption across each of the barriers are discussed. Special consideration is given to attempts at utilizing endogenous transcytotic pathways. To reliably translate in vitro data on peptide or nanoparticle permeability to the in vivo situation in a human subject, the in vitro experimental system needs to realistically capture the central aspects of the mentioned barriers. Therefore, characteristics of common in vitro cell culture systems are discussed and compared to those of human intestinal tissues. Attempts to use the cell and tissue models for in vitro-in vivo extrapolation are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Lundquist
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Box 580, SE-752 37 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - P Artursson
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Box 580, SE-752 37 Uppsala, Sweden.
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The Pro-inflammatory Cytokine Interleukin-6 Regulates Nanoparticle Transport Across Model Follicle-Associated Epithelium Cells. J Pharm Sci 2016; 105:2099-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Mucosal physical and chemical innate barriers: Lessons from microbial evasion strategies. Semin Immunol 2015; 27:111-8. [PMID: 25936225 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system has evolved since millions of years under a selective pressure. Among the different host mechanisms selected and conserved as a first line of defense, the gastrointestinal mucus layer constitutes an efficient physical and chemical barrier against invading microbes. Mucin glycoproteins and antimicrobial peptides are the major components of the mucus barrier, and evidences prove that they form an effective protection against most microbes. However, successful pathogens have evolved evasion strategies to circumvent this defense barrier. Here, we discuss the interactions between pathogens, mucins, and antimicrobial peptides, and the mechanisms that pathogens have developed to evade the innate defense systems of the intestinal mucosal barrier.
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8
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Hernandez MO, Mantis NJ. Phenotypic Analysis of a Population of IgA+ Cells in the Follicle-Associated Epithelium of Mouse Peyer's Patches. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0124111. [PMID: 25894545 PMCID: PMC4404297 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) selectively transports prions, viruses, pathogenic bacteria, commensal microflora, and even secretory IgA (SIgA)-immune complexes from the intestinal lumen to underlying gut-associated lymphoid tissues like Peyer’s patches. The FAE consists of a single layer of columnar epithelial cells that includes enterocytes and M (microfold) cells, intermingled with dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and naïve and memory B and T lymphocytes. In this report we describe a population of IgA+ cells that reside within and immediately below the FAE in mouse Peyer’s patches. Immunofluorescence microscopy analysis indicated that the FAE-associated IgA+ cells were negative for surface antigen markers specific for B cells (B220), T cells (CD3), DCs (CD11c), and plasma cells (CD138). The IgA+ cells were also negative Ki-67 and IRF4, indicating that they are not mature B cells or plasma cells. The IgA+ cells were, however, often found in close proximity to DCs, leading us to speculate that the population of IgA+ cells in the FAE constitutes an atypical subset of B cells involved in mucosal antigen surveillance and/or immune recall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Olga Hernandez
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, 12208, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. Mantis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York, 12208, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany, Albany, New York, 12208, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Sakhon OS, Ross B, Gusti V, Pham AJ, Vu K, Lo DD. M cell-derived vesicles suggest a unique pathway for trans-epithelial antigen delivery. Tissue Barriers 2015; 3:e1004975. [PMID: 25838974 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2015.1004975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 12/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
M cells are a subset of mucosal epithelial cells with specialized capability to transport antigens across the mucosal barrier, but there is limited information on antigen transfer in the subepithelial zone due to the challenges in tracking microparticles and antigens that are transcytosed by this unique cell. Using transgenic reporter mice expressing dsRed in the cytoplasm of M cells and EGFP in myeloid cells, we observed that the M cell basolateral pocket hosts a close interaction between B lymphocytes and dendritic cells. Interestingly, we identified a population of previously undescribed M cell-derived vesicles (MCM) that are constitutively shed into the subepithelial space and readily taken up by CX3CR1(+)CD11b(+) CD11c(+) dendritic cells. These MCM are characterized by their cytoplasmic dsRed confirming their origin from the M cell cytoplasm. MCM showed preferential colocalization in dendritic cells with transcytosed bacteria but not transcytosed polystyrene beads, indicating a selective sorting of cargo fate in the subepithelial zone. The size and number of MCM were found to be upregulated by bacterial transcytosis and soluble toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonist, further pointing to dynamic regulation of this mechanism. These results suggest that MCM provide a unique function by delivering to dendritic cells, various materials such as M cell-derived proteins, effector proteins, toxins, and particles found in the M cell cytoplasm during infection or surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia S Sakhon
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
| | - Brittany Ross
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
| | - Veronica Gusti
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
| | - An Joseph Pham
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
| | - Kathy Vu
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
| | - David D Lo
- Division of Biomedical Sciences; School of Medicine ; University of California , Riverside; Riverside, CA USA
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Gupta PN. Mucosal Vaccine Delivery and M Cell Targeting. ADVANCES IN DELIVERY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-11355-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Feehley T, Nagler CR. Cellular and molecular pathways through which commensal bacteria modulate sensitization to dietary antigens. Curr Opin Immunol 2014; 31:79-86. [PMID: 25458998 PMCID: PMC4255329 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Food allergies are a growing public health concern. The rapidly increasing prevalence of allergic disease cannot be explained by genetic variation alone, suggesting a role for gene-by-environment interactions. The bacteria that colonize barrier surfaces, often referred to as the commensal microbiota, are dramatically affected by environmental factors and have a major impact on host health and homeostasis. Increasing evidence suggests that alterations in the composition of the microbiota, caused by factors such as antibiotic use and diet, are contributing to increased sensitization to dietary antigens. This review will discuss the cellular and molecular pathways activated by commensal bacteria to protect against allergic sensitization. By understanding the interplay between the environment, the microbiota, and the host, we may uncover novel therapeutic targets that will allow us to control the allergy epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor Feehley
- Committee on Immunology, Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, 924 E. 57th St. JFK R120, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Cathryn R Nagler
- Committee on Immunology, Department of Pathology, The University of Chicago, 924 E. 57th St. JFK R120, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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12
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Cao S, Feehley TJ, Nagler CR. The role of commensal bacteria in the regulation of sensitization to food allergens. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:4258-66. [PMID: 24791655 PMCID: PMC4216641 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of life-threatening anaphylactic responses to food is rising at an alarming rate. The emerging role of the gut microbiota in regulating food allergen sensitization may help explain this trend. The mechanisms by which commensal bacteria influence sensitization to dietary antigens are only beginning to be explored. We have found that a population of mucosa-associated commensal anaerobes prevents food allergen sensitization by promoting an IL-22-dependent barrier protective immune response that limits the access of food allergens to the systemic circulation. This early response is followed by an adaptive immune response mediated in part by an expansion of Foxp3(+) Tregs that fortifies the tolerogenic milieu needed to maintain non-responsiveness to food. Bacterial metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, may contribute to the process through their ability to promote Foxp3(+) Treg differentiation. This work suggests that environmentally induced alterations of the gut microbiota offset the regulatory signals conferred by protective bacterial species to promote aberrant responses to food. Our research presents exciting new possibilities for preventing and treating food allergies based on interventions that modulate the composition of the gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Severine Cao
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, 924 East 57th Street, JFK R120, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Taylor J Feehley
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, 924 East 57th Street, JFK R120, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Cathryn R Nagler
- Department of Pathology and Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, 924 East 57th Street, JFK R120, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
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Kato K, Ishiwa A. The role of carbohydrates in infection strategies of enteric pathogens. Trop Med Health 2014; 43:41-52. [PMID: 25859152 PMCID: PMC4361345 DOI: 10.2149/tmh.2014-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteric pathogens cause considerable public health concerns worldwide including tropical regions. Here, we review the roles of carbohydrates in the infection strategies of various enteric pathogens including viruses, bacteria and protozoa, which infect the epithelial lining of the human and animal intestine. At host cell entry, enteric viruses, including norovirus, recognize mainly histo-blood group antigens. At the initial step of bacterial infections, carbohydrates also function as receptors for attachment. Here, we describe the function of carbohydrates in infection by Salmonella enterica and several bacterial species that produce a variety of fimbrial adhesions. During invasion by enteropathogenic protozoa, apicomplexan parasites utilize sialic acids or sulfated glycans. Carbohydrates serve as receptors for infection by these microbes; however, their usage of carbohydrates varies depending on the microbe. On the surface of the mucosal tissues of the gastrointestinal tract, various carbohydrate moieties are present and play a crucial role in infection, representing the site of infection or route of access for most microbes. During the infection and/or invasion process of the microbes, carbohydrates function as receptors for various microbes, but they can also function as a barrier to infection. One approach to develop effective prophylactic and therapeutic antimicrobial agents is to modify the drug structure. Another approach is to modify the mode of inhibition of infection depending on the individual pathogen by using and mimicking the interactions with carbohydrates. In addition, similarities in mode of infection may also be utilized. Our findings will be useful in the development of new drugs for the treatment of enteric pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Kato
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine , Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan ; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo , 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Akiko Ishiwa
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine , Inada-cho, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan ; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo , 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Efficient norovirus and reovirus replication in the mouse intestine requires microfold (M) cells. J Virol 2014; 88:6934-43. [PMID: 24696493 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00204-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Microfold (M) cells are specialized intestinal epithelial cells that internalize particulate antigens and aid in the establishment of immune responses to enteric pathogens. M cells have also been suggested as a portal for pathogen entry into the host. While virus particles have been observed in M cells, it is not known whether viruses use M cells to initiate a productive infection. Noroviruses (NoVs) are single-stranded RNA viruses that infect host organisms via the fecal-oral route. Murine NoV (MNV) infects intestinal macrophages and dendritic cells and provides a tractable experimental system for understanding how an enteric virus overcomes the intestinal epithelial barrier to infect underlying target cells. We found that replication of two divergent MNV strains was reduced in mice depleted of M cells. Reoviruses are double-stranded RNA viruses that infect hosts via respiratory or enteric routes. In contrast to MNV, reovirus infects enterocytes in the intestine. Despite differences in cell tropism, reovirus infection was also reduced in M cell-depleted mice. These data demonstrate that M cells are required for the pathogenesis of two unrelated enteric viruses that replicate in different cell types within the intestine. IMPORTANCE To successfully infect their hosts, pathogens that infect via the gastrointestinal tract must overcome the multilayered system of host defenses. Microfold (M) cells are specialized intestinal epithelial cells that internalize particulate antigens and aid in the establishment of immune responses to enteric pathogens. Virus particles have been observed within M cells. However, it is not known whether viruses use M cells to initiate a productive infection. To address this question, we use MNV and reovirus, two enteric viruses that replicate in different cell types in the intestine, intestinal epithelial cells for reovirus and intestinal mononuclear phagocytes for MNV. Interestingly, MNV- and reovirus-infected mice depleted of M cells showed reduced viral loads in the intestine. Thus, our work demonstrates the importance of M cells in the pathogenesis of enteric viruses irrespective of the target cell type in which the virus replicates.
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Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are key modulators that shape the immune system. In mucosal tissues, DCs act as surveillance systems to sense infection and also function as professional antigen-presenting cells that stimulate the differentiation of naive T and B cells. On the basis of their molecular expression, DCs can be divided into several subsets with unique functions. In this review, we focus on intestinal DC subsets and their function in bridging the innate signaling and adaptive immune systems to maintain the homeostasis of the intestinal immune environment. We also review the current strategies for manipulating mucosal DCs for the development of efficient mucosal vaccines to protect against infectious diseases.
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Laing B, Han DY, Ferguson LR. Candidate genes involved in beneficial or adverse responses to commonly eaten brassica vegetables in a New Zealand Crohn's disease cohort. Nutrients 2013; 5:5046-64. [PMID: 24352087 PMCID: PMC3875924 DOI: 10.3390/nu5125046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Crohn’s disease (CD) is one of the two manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. Particular foods are thought with CD to exacerbate their illness. Vegetables, especially Brassicaceae, are often shunned by people with CD because of the negative effects they are alleged to have on their symptoms. Brassicaceae supply key nutrients which are necessary to meet recommended daily intakes. We sought to identify the candidate genes involved in the beneficial or adverse effects of Brassicaceae most commonly eaten, as reported by the New Zealand adults from the “Genes and Diet in Inflammatory Bowel disease Study” based in Auckland. An analysis of associations between the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the beneficial or adverse effects of the ten most commonly eaten Brassicaceae was carried out. A total of 37 SNPs were significantly associated with beneficial effects (p = 0.00097 to 0.0497) and 64 SNPs were identified with adverse effects (p = 0.0000751 to 0.049). After correcting for multiple testing, rs7515322 (DIO1) and rs9469220 (HLA) remained significant. Our findings show that the tolerance of some varieties of Brassicaceae may be shown by analysis of a person’s genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobbi Laing
- Discipline of Nutrition, School of Medical Sciences, Auckland University, 85 Park Road, Grafton Campus, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
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Murine norovirus transcytosis across an in vitro polarized murine intestinal epithelial monolayer is mediated by M-like cells. J Virol 2013; 87:12685-93. [PMID: 24049163 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02378-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Noroviruses (NoVs) are the causative agent of the vast majority of nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. Due to the inability to culture human NoVs and the inability to orally infect a small animal model, little is known about the initial steps of viral entry. One particular step that is not understood is how NoVs breach the intestinal epithelial barrier. Murine NoV (MNV) is the only NoV that can be propagated in vitro by infecting murine macrophages and dendritic cells, making this virus an attractive model for studies of different aspects of NoV biology. Polarized murine intestinal epithelial mICcl2 cells were used to investigate how MNV interacts with and crosses the intestinal epithelium. In this in vitro model of the follicle-associated epithelium (FAE), MNV is transported across the polarized cell monolayer in the absence of viral replication or disruption of tight junctions by a distinct epithelial cell with microfold (M) cell properties. In addition to transporting MNV, these M-like cells also transcytose microbeads and express an IgA receptor. Interestingly, B myeloma cells cultured in the basolateral compartment underlying the epithelial monolayer did not alter the number of M-like cells but increased their transcytotic activity. Our data demonstrate that MNV can cross an intact intestinal epithelial monolayer in vitro by hijacking the M-like cells' intrinsic transcytotic pathway and suggest a potential mechanism for MNV entry into the host.
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Casteleyn C, Van den Broeck W, Gebert A, Tambuyzer BR, Van Cruchten S, Van Ginneken C. M cell specific markers in man and domestic animals: Valuable tools in vaccine development. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 36:353-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Probiotics, prebiotics and immunomodulation of gut mucosal defences: homeostasis and immunopathology. Nutrients 2013; 5:1869-912. [PMID: 23760057 PMCID: PMC3725482 DOI: 10.3390/nu5061869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 290] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Probiotics are beneficial microbes that confer a realistic health benefit on the host, which in combination with prebiotics, (indigestible dietary fibre/carbohydrate), also confer a health benefit on the host via products resulting from anaerobic fermentation. There is a growing body of evidence documenting the immune-modulatory ability of probiotic bacteria, it is therefore reasonable to suggest that this is potentiated via a combination of prebiotics and probiotics as a symbiotic mix. The need for probiotic formulations has been appreciated for the health benefits in "topping up your good bacteria" or indeed in an attempt to normalise the dysbiotic microbiota associated with immunopathology. This review will focus on the immunomodulatory role of probiotics and prebiotics on the cells, molecules and immune responses in the gut mucosae, from epithelial barrier to priming of adaptive responses by antigen presenting cells: immune fate decision-tolerance or activation? Modulation of normal homeostatic mechanisms, coupled with findings from probiotic and prebiotic delivery in pathological studies, will highlight the role for these xenobiotics in dysbiosis associated with immunopathology in the context of inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer and hypersensitivity.
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Keita ÅV, Söderholm JD. Barrier dysfunction and bacterial uptake in the follicle-associated epithelium of ileal Crohn's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1258:125-34. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06502.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Mucosal vaccines to prevent porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome: a new perspective. Anim Health Res Rev 2012; 13:21-37. [PMID: 22717576 DOI: 10.1017/s1466252312000023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an economically important infectious disease of swine. Constant emergence of variant strains of PRRS virus (PPRSV) and virus-mediated immune evasion followed by viral persistence result in increased incidence and recurrence of PRRS in swine herds. Current live and killed PRRSV vaccines administered by a parenteral route are ineffective in inducing complete protection. Thus, new approaches in design and delivery of PRRSV vaccines are needed to reduce the disease burden of the swine industry. Induction of an effective mucosal immunity to several respiratory pathogens by direct delivery of a vaccine to mucosal sites has proven to be effective in a mouse model. However, there are challenges in eliciting mucosal immunity to PRRS due to our limited understanding of safe and potent mucosal adjuvants, which could potentiate the mucosal immune response to PRRSV. The purpose of this review is to discuss methods for induction of protective mucosal immune responses in the respiratory tract of pigs. The manuscript also discusses how PRRSV modulates innate, adaptive and immunoregulatory responses at both mucosal and systemic sites of infected and/or vaccinated pigs. This information may help in the design of innovative mucosal vaccines to elicit superior cross-protective immunity against divergent field strains of PRRSV.
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Giuliano EA, Finn K. Characterization of membranous (M) cells in normal feline conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue (CALT). Vet Ophthalmol 2012; 14 Suppl 1:60-6. [PMID: 21923825 DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2011.00917.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize conjunctival lymphoid nodules obtained from the nictitans of healthy cats to determine if the follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) of conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue (CALT) in this species contains membranous (M)-cells analogous to those described in other regions of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). METHODS Lymphoid follicles from nictitan bulbar surfaces of 10 healthy cats (20 eyes total) were examined. Nictitans from five cats were harvested immediately post-mortem and a minimum of 12 lymphoid nodules from each third eyelid were isolated using a Zeiss operating microscope. At least three lymphoid follicles from each eye were examined using light microscopy (LM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using standard fixation and embedding protocols. Nictitan-lymphoid follicles from another five healthy cats were processed for immunohistochemistry to characterize the distribution of T- and B-lymphocytes present beneath the FAE. RESULTS The FAE overlying CALT from 10 healthy cats demonstrated morphology characteristic of M-cells including attenuated apical cell surface with blunted microvilli and microfolds, invaginated basolateral membrane forming a cytoplasmic pocket, and diminished distance between the apical and pocket membrane. Immunohistochemistry of lymphoid tissue subtending the FAE demonstrated B-cell dependent regions in the germinal centers surrounded by T-cell dependent interfollicular zones. CONCLUSIONS Healthy feline CALT contains morphologic features analogous to those described in other regions of MALT. Documentation of feline conjunctival M-cells is of clinical relevance in the study of primary infectious, allergic, and autoimmune ocular diseases, as well as a potential means of vaccination or drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Giuliano
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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Tran HT, Barnich N, Mizoguchi E. Potential role of chitinases and chitin-binding proteins in host-microbial interactions during the development of intestinal inflammation. Histol Histopathol 2012; 26:1453-64. [PMID: 21938682 DOI: 10.14670/hh-26.1453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The small and large intestines contain an abundance of luminal antigens derived from food products and enteric microorganisms. The function of intestinal epithelial cells is tightly regulated by several factors produced by enteric bacteria and the epithelial cells themselves. Epithelial cells actively participate in regulating the homeostasis of intestine, and failure of this function leads to abnormal and host-microbial interactions resulting in the development of intestinal inflammation. Major determinants of host susceptibility against luminal commensal bacteria include genes regulating mucosal immune responses, intestinal barrier function and microbial defense. Of note, it has been postulated that commensal bacterial adhesion and invasion on/into host cells may be strongly involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). During the intestinal inflammation, the composition of the commensal flora is altered, with increased population of aggressive and detrimental bacteria and decreased populations of protective bacteria. In fact, some pathogenic bacteria, including Adherent-Invasive Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Vibrio cholerae are likely to initiate their adhesion to the host cells by expressing accessory molecules such as chitinases and/or chitin-binding proteins on themselves. In addition, several inducible molecules (e.g., chitinase 3-like 1, CEACAM6) are also induced on the host cells (e.g. epithelial cells, lamina proprial macrophages) under inflammatory conditions, and are actively participated in the host-microbial interactions. In this review, we will summarize and discuss the potential roles of these important molecules during the development of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H T Tran
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA
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McGuckin MA, Lindén SK, Sutton P, Florin TH. Mucin dynamics and enteric pathogens. Nat Rev Microbiol 2011. [PMID: 21407243 DOI: 10.1038/nrm] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The extracellular secreted mucus and the cell surface glycocalyx prevent infection by the vast numbers of microorganisms that live in the healthy gut. Mucin glycoproteins are the major component of these barriers. In this Review, we describe the components of the secreted and cell surface mucosal barriers and the evidence that they form an effective barricade against potential pathogens. However, successful enteric pathogens have evolved strategies to circumvent these barriers. We discuss the interactions between enteric pathogens and mucins, and the mechanisms that these pathogens use to disrupt and avoid mucosal barriers. In addition, we describe dynamic alterations in the mucin barrier that are driven by host innate and adaptive immune responses to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A McGuckin
- Immunity, Infection and Inflammation Program, Mater Medical Research Institute and The University of Queensland School of Medicine, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101, Australia.
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Terahara K, Nochi T, Yoshida M, Takahashi Y, Goto Y, Hatai H, Kurokawa S, Jang MH, Kweon MN, Domino SE, Hiroi T, Yuki Y, Tsunetsugu-Yokota Y, Kobayashi K, Kiyono H. Distinct fucosylation of M cells and epithelial cells by Fut1 and Fut2, respectively, in response to intestinal environmental stress. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 404:822-8. [PMID: 21172308 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium contains columnar epithelial cells (ECs) and M cells, and fucosylation of the apical surface of ECs and M cells is involved in distinguishing the two populations and in their response to commensal flora and environmental stress. Here, we show that fucosylated ECs (F-ECs) were induced in the mouse small intestine by the pro-inflammatory agents dextran sodium sulfate and indomethacin, in addition to an enteropathogen derived cholera toxin. Although F-ECs showed specificity for the M cell-markers, lectin Ulex europaeus agglutinin-1 and our monoclonal antibody NKM 16-2-4, these cells also retained EC-phenotypes including an affinity for the EC-marker lectin wheat germ agglutinin. Interestingly, fucosylation of Peyer's patch M cells and F-ECs was distinctly regulated by α(1,2)fucosyltransferase Fut1 and Fut2, respectively. These results indicate that Fut2-mediated F-ECs share M cell-related fucosylated molecules but maintain distinctive EC characteristics, Fut1 is, therefore, a reliable marker for M cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutaka Terahara
- Department of Immunology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8640, Japan
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Salim SY, Söderholm JD. Importance of disrupted intestinal barrier in inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011; 17:362-81. [PMID: 20725949 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The current paradigm of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), both Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), involves the interaction between environmental factors in the intestinal lumen and inappropriate host immune responses in genetically predisposed individuals. The intestinal mucosal barrier has evolved to maintain a delicate balance between absorbing essential nutrients while preventing the entry and responding to harmful contents. In IBD, disruptions of essential elements of the intestinal barrier lead to permeability defects. These barrier defects exacerbate the underlying immune system, subsequently resulting in tissue damage. The epithelial phenotype in active IBD is very similar in CD and UC. It is characterized by increased secretion of chloride and water, leading to diarrhea, increased permeability via both the transcellular and paracellular routes, and increased apoptosis of epithelial cells. The main cytokine that seems to drive these changes is tumor necrosis factor alpha in CD, whereas interleukin (IL)-13 may be more important in UC. Therapeutic restoration of the mucosal barrier would provide protection and prevent antigenic overload due to intestinal "leakiness." Here we give an overview of the key players of the intestinal mucosal barrier and review the current literature from studies in humans and human systems on mechanisms underlying mucosal barrier dysfunction in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sa'ad Y Salim
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Division of Surgery and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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Yoo MK, Kang SK, Choi JH, Park IK, Na HS, Lee HC, Kim EB, Lee NK, Nah JW, Choi YJ, Cho CS. Targeted delivery of chitosan nanoparticles to Peyer’s patch using M cell-homing peptide selected by phage display technique. Biomaterials 2010; 31:7738-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 06/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gupta PN, Vyas SP. Investigation of lectinized liposomes as M-cell targeted carrier-adjuvant for mucosal immunization. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2010; 82:118-25. [PMID: 20843665 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2010] [Revised: 08/16/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
In the present investigation hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) encapsulated liposomes were developed and coupled with Ulex europaeus agglutinin 1 (UEA-1) to increase transmucosal uptake by M-cells of the Peyer's patches. The liposomes were characterized for shape, size, polydispersity and encapsulation efficiency. Bovine submaxillary mucin (BSM) was used as a biological model for the in vitro determination of lectin activity and specificity. Dual staining technique was used to investigate targeting of lectinized liposomes to the M-cells. Anti-HBsAg IgG response in serum and anti-HBsAg sIgA level in various mucosal fluids was estimated by using ELISA, following oral immunization with lectinized and non-lectinized liposomes in Balb/c mice. Additionally, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) level in the spleen homogenates was determined. The results suggest that lectinized liposomes were successfully developed, exhibited increased activity with BSM as compared to non-lectinized liposomes and α-l-fucose specificity of the lectinized liposomes was also maintained. The lectinized liposomes were predominantly targeted to the M-cells. The serum anti-HBsAg IgG titre obtained after 3 consecutive days oral immunizations with HBsAg encapsulated lectinized liposomes and boosting after third week was comparable with the titre recorded after single intramuscular prime and third week boosting with alum-HBsAg. Moreover, lectinized liposomes induced higher sIgA level in mucosal secretions and cytokines level in the spleen homogenates. The results showed that the developed surface modified liposomes could be a potential module for the development of effective mucosal vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prem N Gupta
- Drug Delivery Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar 470003, Madhya Pradesh, India.
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Casteleyn C, Cornelissen M, Simoens P, Van den Broeck W. Ultramicroscopic examination of the ovine tonsillar epithelia. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2010; 293:879-89. [PMID: 20225209 DOI: 10.1002/ar.21098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
As solid morphological knowledge of ovine tonsillar epithelia might contribute to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of several diseases including prion diseases, the epithelia of all tonsils of 7 one-year-old Texel sheep were examined using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Major parts of the pharyngeal and tubal tonsils were covered by pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelia that were interrupted by patches of epithelium containing cells with densely packed microfolds or microvilli, and cells with both microvilli and cilia. Smaller parts were covered by either flattened polygonal cells with densely packed microvilli or microfolds, squamous epithelial cells, or patches of reticular epithelium. The palatine and paraepiglottic tonsils were mainly lined by squamous epithelial cells with apical microplicae or short knobs. Additionally, regions of reticular epithelium containing epithelial cells with apical microvilli were seen. The lingual tonsil was uniformly covered by a keratinized squamous epithelium and devoid of microvillous cells and patches of reticular epithelium. The rostral half of the tonsil of the soft palate was lined by a pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with characteristics of the pharyngeal and tubal tonsils. The epithelium of the caudal part resembled the epithelia of the palatine and paraepiglottic tonsils. Putative M cells, mainly characterized by apical microvilli or microfolds and a close association with lymphoid cells, seem manifestly present on the nasopharyngeal tonsils. The reticular epithelium of the palatine and paraepiglottic tonsils also harbor cells with small apical microvilli. The exact nature of these presumptive M cells should, however, be elucidated in functional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Casteleyn
- Department of Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Keita AV, Söderholm JD, Ericson AC. Stress-induced barrier disruption of rat follicle-associated epithelium involves corticotropin-releasing hormone, acetylcholine, substance P, and mast cells. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2010; 22:770-8, e221-2. [PMID: 20149111 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01471.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) is specialized in uptake and sampling of luminal antigens and bacteria. We previously showed that stress increased FAE permeability in rats. An increased uptake may alter antigen exposure in Peyer's patches leading to intestinal disease. The aim of this study was to elucidate mechanisms involved in the acute stress-induced increase in FAE permeability. METHODS Rats were pretreated i.p. with corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor (CRH-R) antagonist, neurokinin receptor 1 (NK-1R) antagonist, atropine, the mast cell stabilizer doxantrazole (DOX), or NaCl, and submitted to 1-h acute water avoidance stress. FAE tissues were mounted in Ussing chambers for measurements of permeability to (51)Cr-EDTA, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and chemically killed Escherichia coli K-12. Further, FAE segments were exposed in vitro in chambers to CRH, substance P (SP), carbachol, and DOX. Neurotransmitter- and receptor distribution was studied by immunohistochemistry. KEY RESULTS Stress-induced increases in uptake across FAE of HRP and E. coli were reduced by DOX, CRH-R antagonist and atropine, whereas the NK-1R antagonist decreased (51)Cr-EDTA permeability. Exposure to CRH and carbachol increased HRP and E. coli passage, whereas SP increased bacterial and (51)Cr-EDTA permeability. DOX counteracted all of these effects. Immunohistochemistry revealed CRH, acetylcholine, SP, and their receptors on mast cells within the Peyer's patches, subepithelial dome, and adjacent villi. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES Corticotropin-releasing hormone and acetylcholine signaling affect mainly transcellular permeability while SP seems more selective toward the paracellular pathways. Our findings may be of importance for the understanding of the pathogenesis of stress-related intestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Keita
- Division of Surgery and Clinical Oncology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Clinical and Experimental Research, Faculty of Health Science, University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden
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Lahiri A, Lahiri A, Iyer N, Das P, Chakravortty D. Visiting the cell biology of Salmonella infection. Microbes Infect 2010; 12:809-18. [PMID: 20538070 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2010] [Revised: 05/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella, a Gram-negative facultative intracellular pathogen is capable of infecting vast array of hosts. The striking ability of Salmonella to overcome every hurdle encountered in the host proves that they are true survivors. In the host, Salmonella infects various cell types and needs to survive and replicate by countering the defense mechanism of the specific cell. In this review, we will summarize the recent insights into the cell biology of Salmonella infection. Here, we will focus on the findings that deal with the specific mechanism of various cell types to control Salmonella infection. Further, the survival strategies of the pathogen in response to the host immunity will also be discussed in detail. Better understanding of the mechanisms by which Salmonella evade the host defense system and establish pathogenesis will be critical in disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Lahiri
- Center for Infectious Disease Research and Biosafety Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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Rajapaksa TE, Bennett KM, Hamer M, Lytle C, Rodgers VGJ, Lo DD. Intranasal M cell uptake of nanoparticles is independently influenced by targeting ligands and buffer ionic strength. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:23739-46. [PMID: 20511224 PMCID: PMC2911333 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.126359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In mucosal tissues, epithelial M cells capture and transport microbes across the barrier to underlying immune cells. Previous studies suggested that high affinity ligands targeting M cells may be used to deliver mucosal vaccines; here, we show that particle composition and dispersion buffer ionic strength can independently influence their uptake in vivo. First, addition of a poloxamer 188 to nanoparticle formulations increased uptake of intranasally administered nanoparticles in vivo, but the effect was dependent on the presence of the M cell-targeting ligand. Second, solvent ionic strength is known to effect electrostatic interactions; accordingly, reduced ionic strength increased the electrostatic potential between the epithelium and the particles. Interestingly, below a critical ionic strength, intranasal particle uptake in vivo significantly was increased even when controlled for osmolarity. Similar results were obtained for uptake of bacterial particles. Surprisingly, at low ionic strength, the specific enhancement effect by the targeting peptide was negligible. Modeling of the electrostatic forces predicted that the enhancing effects of the M cell-targeting ligand only are enabled at high ionic strength, as particle electrostatic forces are reduced through Debye screening. Thus, electrostatic forces can have a dramatic effect on the in vivo M cell particle uptake independent of the action of targeting ligands. Examination of these forces will be helpful to optimizing mucosal vaccine and drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thejani E Rajapaksa
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Brandtzaeg LHP. Development and Function of Intestinal B and T Cells. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/089106000750060378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lars Helgeland, Per Brandtzaeg
- From the Laboratory for Immunohistochemistry and Immunopathology (LIIPAT), Institute of Pathology, University of Oslo, Rikshospitalet, N-0027 Oslo, Norway
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Mohs AM, Duan H, Kairdolf BA, Smith AM, Nie S. Proton-Resistant Quantum Dots: Stability in Gastrointestinal Fluids and Implications for Oral Delivery of Nanoparticle Agents. NANO RESEARCH 2009; 2:500-508. [PMID: 20379372 PMCID: PMC2850447 DOI: 10.1007/s12274-009-9046-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/01/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have shown great promise as fluorescent probes for molecular, cellular and in-vivo imaging. However, the fluorescence of traditional polymer-encapsulated QDs is often quenched by proton-induced etching in acidic environments. This is a major problem for QD applications in the gastrointestinal tract because the gastric (stomach) environment is strongly acidic (pH 1-2). Here we report the use of proton-resistant surface coatings to stabilize QD fluorescence under acidic conditions. Using both hyperbranched polyethylenimine (PEI) and its polyethylene glycol derivative (PEG grafted PEI), we show that the fluorescence of core-shell CdSe/CdS/ZnS QDs is effectively protected from quenching in simulated gastric fluids. In comparison, amphiphilic lipid or polymer coatings provide no protection under similarly acidic conditions. The proton-resistant QDs are found to cause moderate membrane damage to cultured epithelial cells, but PEGylation (PEG grafting) can be used to reduce cellular toxicity and to improved nanoparticle stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Mohs
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Chemistry, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 101 Woodruff Circle NE, Suite 2001, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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Botteaux A, Hoste C, Dumont JE, Van Sande J, Allaoui A. Potential role of Noxes in the protection of mucosae: H(2)O(2) as a bacterial repellent. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:537-44. [PMID: 19298864 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2009.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Revised: 02/26/2009] [Accepted: 02/27/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Duox proteins are members of the NADPH oxidase (Nox) family and are responsible for hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production by various tissue types including bronchial and intestinal mucosae. The antimicrobial killing role of H(2)O(2) in leukocytes and macrophages is generally considered as the paradigm of its function. We investigated here the positive role of H(2)O(2) in the prevention of cellular invasion by Salmonella. We show that H(2)O(2), under conditions that preserved bacterial growth, has a repellent effect on Salmonella motility on agar plates. In addition, H(2)O(2) produced by PCCl3, a rat thyroid cell line, reduces bacterial invasion of the cells by around 40%. To test whether the observed phenotype is attributable to H(2)O(2) production, we constructed a CHO stable cell line expressing Duox2 protein at the cell surface (CHO-D2). The transfected cells produce a high amount of H(2)O(2). Upon infection with Salmonella, the invasion of CHO-D2 cells was reduced by up to 60%. In both PCCl3 and CHO expressing Duox2 cells, normal invasion was restored upon incubation with catalase. Our data suggest that H(2)O(2) at reduced concentrations acts as a repellent for bacteria, keeping them away from cells, a situation that could naturally prevent mucosal cells infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Botteaux
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie Moléculaire, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, Brussels, Belgium
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37
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Hapfelmeier S, Müller AJ, Stecher B, Kaiser P, Barthel M, Endt K, Eberhard M, Robbiani R, Jacobi CA, Heikenwalder M, Kirschning C, Jung S, Stallmach T, Kremer M, Hardt WD. Microbe sampling by mucosal dendritic cells is a discrete, MyD88-independent step in DeltainvG S. Typhimurium colitis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 205:437-50. [PMID: 18268033 PMCID: PMC2271026 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20070633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal dendritic cells (DCs) are believed to sample and present commensal bacteria to the gut-associated immune system to maintain immune homeostasis. How antigen sampling pathways handle intestinal pathogens remains elusive. We present a murine colitogenic Salmonella infection model that is highly dependent on DCs. Conditional DC depletion experiments revealed that intestinal virulence of S. Typhimurium SL1344 ΔinvG mutant lacking a functional type 3 secretion system-1 (ΔinvG)critically required DCs for invasion across the epithelium. The DC-dependency was limited to the early phase of infection when bacteria colocalized with CD11c+CX3CR1+ mucosal DCs. At later stages, the bacteria became associated with other (CD11c−CX3CR1−) lamina propria cells, DC depletion no longer attenuated the pathology, and a MyD88-dependent mucosal inflammation was initiated. Using bone marrow chimeric mice, we showed that the MyD88 signaling within hematopoietic cells, which are distinct from DCs, was required and sufficient for induction of the colitis. Moreover, MyD88-deficient DCs supported transepithelial uptake of the bacteria and the induction of MyD88-dependent colitis. These results establish that pathogen sampling by DCs is a discrete, and MyD88-independent, step during the initiation of a mucosal innate immune response to bacterial infection in vivo.
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Takahashi Y, Misumi S, Muneoka A, Masuyama M, Tokado H, Fukuzaki K, Takamune N, Shoji S. Nonhuman primate intestinal villous M-like cells: an effective poliovirus entry site. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 368:501-7. [PMID: 18261987 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Accepted: 01/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Humans and some Old World monkeys, chimpanzees, and cynomolgus macaques, are susceptible to oral poliovirus (PV) infection. Interestingly, rhesus macaques, although sensitive to injected PV, are not susceptible to gut infection. Not much is known about the initial event of gut infection by PV in rhesus macaques so far. Here, we show that PV can efficiently enter the lamina propria (LP) by penetrating across intestinal villous M-like cells in rhesus macaques. We found by immunofluorescence analysis that PV effectively invades LP rather than germinal centers (GCs) in rhesus macaques despite expressing PV receptor CD155 on cells within GCs and LP. Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy demonstrated that gold-labeled PV is spatiotemporally internalized into villous M-like cells and engulfed by macrophage-like cells in LP. These results suggest that rhesus macaques may be resistant to productive gut PV infection owing to a defective translocation of PV to GCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshihiro Takahashi
- Shin Nippon Biomedical Laboratories, Ltd., 2438 Miyanoura, Kagoshima 891-1394, Japan
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) results from complex interactions between: host genome, immune system, mucosa, bacteria, and environment. SOURCES OF DATA Review of PubMed database using search terms 'bacteria and inflammatory bowel disease' and 'genetics and inflammatory bowel disease'. PubMed 'related reference' feature and references from retrieved articles were examined. AREAS OF AGREEMENT IBD results from interaction between the microbiota of the gut and the immune system. Key gene defects associated with IBD are involved in bacterial recognition and processing. The environment at least modifies and may determine pathogenesis. AREAS OF CONTROVERSY It has been disputed whether the primary defect in IBD is immunological or bacterial, and which bacteria are key. GROWING POINTS/AREAS FOR RESEARCH: 'M cells', the specialized epithelial cells that overlie Peyer's patches, are a major interface between gut bacteria and the immune system. Improved understanding is needed of the bacteria involved in IBD pathogenesis, their genotypes and phenotypes, their portal of entry and their mechanism for escaping attack from the immune system. Bacterial ligands involved in bacteria-epithelial adhesion are emerging, and molecular techniques are rapidly increasing our knowledge of the human intestinal microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Knight
- School of Clinical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Nuffield Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L693BX, UK
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40
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Riihimäki L, Galkin A, Finel M, Heikura J, Valkonen K, Virtanen V, Laaksonen R, Slotte JP, Vuorela P. Transport properties of bovine and reindeer β-lactoglobulin in the Caco-2 cell model. Int J Pharm 2008; 347:1-8. [PMID: 17658229 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2007] [Revised: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Beta-lactoglobulin (betaLG) is a protein that binds ligands like fatty acids and retinol into the hydrophobic pocket. Our purpose was to study bovine and reindeer betaLG as transporter molecules and compare their transport properties across Caco-2 cell membrane. The reindeer betaLG has more valuable binder characteristics than bovine betaLG because it has only one genetic phenotype and it seems to exhibit better immunological properties. The permeation of betaLG in Caco-2 cells was evaluated by immunoblotting, and the permeation of the model substances retinol, palmitic acid and cholesterol with and without betaLG was determined using [(3)H]-labelled ligands. Both bovine and reindeer betaLG were able to pass across a Caco-2 cell monolayer similarly. Unbound and betaLG-bound [(3)H]retinol and [(3)H]palmitic acid were equally transported across the Caco-2 cell layer, whereas [(3)H]cholesterol could not pass across Caco-2 cells with or without betaLG at any of the studied circumstances. Thus, the bovine and reindeer milk betaLG is not a suitable protein to enhance transport of ligands across the Caco-2 cell membrane, used for predicting intestinal absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Riihimäki
- Drug Discovery and Development Technology Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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41
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Linden SK, Sutton P, Karlsson NG, Korolik V, McGuckin MA. Mucins in the mucosal barrier to infection. Mucosal Immunol 2008; 1:183-97. [PMID: 19079178 PMCID: PMC7100821 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2008.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 809] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The mucosal tissues of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts, and the surface of the eye present an enormous surface area to the exterior environment. All of these tissues are covered with resident microbial flora, which vary considerably in composition and complexity. Mucosal tissues represent the site of infection or route of access for the majority of viruses, bacteria, yeast, protozoa, and multicellular parasites that cause human disease. Mucin glycoproteins are secreted in large quantities by mucosal epithelia, and cell surface mucins are a prominent feature of the apical glycocalyx of all mucosal epithelia. In this review, we highlight the central role played by mucins in accommodating the resident commensal flora and limiting infectious disease, interplay between underlying innate and adaptive immunity and mucins, and the strategies used by successful mucosal pathogens to subvert or avoid the mucin barrier, with a particular focus on bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Linden
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Mucosal Diseases Program, Mater Medical Research Institute and The University of Queensland, Level 3 Aubigny Place, Mater Hospitals, South Brisbane, Queensland Australia
| | - P Sutton
- grid.1008.90000 0001 2179 088XCentre for Animal Biotechnology, School of Veterinary Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
| | - N G Karlsson
- grid.6142.10000 0004 0488 0789Department of Chemistry, Centre for BioAnalytical Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - V Korolik
- grid.1022.10000 0004 0437 5432Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland Australia
| | - M A McGuckin
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Mucosal Diseases Program, Mater Medical Research Institute and The University of Queensland, Level 3 Aubigny Place, Mater Hospitals, South Brisbane, Queensland Australia
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Corr SC, Gahan CCGM, Hill C. M-cells: origin, morphology and role in mucosal immunity and microbial pathogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 52:2-12. [PMID: 18081850 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2007.00359.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
M-cells are specialized cells found in the follicle-associated epithelium of intestinal Peyer's patches of gut-associated lymphoid tissue and in isolated lymphoid follicles, appendix and in mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue sites outside the gastrointestinal tract. In the gastrointestinal tract, M-cells play an important role in transport of antigen from the lumen of the small intestine to mucosal lymphoid tissues, where processing and initiation of immune responses occur. Thus, M-cells act as gateways to the mucosal immune system and this function has been exploited by many invading pathogens. Understanding the mechanism by which M-cells sample antigen will inform the design of oral vaccines with improved efficacy in priming mucosal and systemic immune responses. In this review, the origin and morphology of M-cells, and their role in mucosal immunity and pathogenesis of infections are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinead C Corr
- Department of Microbiology, Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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43
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Zhong X, Liu H, Pu A, Xia X, Zhou X. M cells are involved in pathogenesis of human contact lens-associated giant papillary conjunctivitis. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2007; 55:173-7. [PMID: 17557145 PMCID: PMC2765629 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-007-0022-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2006] [Accepted: 02/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: The objective was to study the pathogenesis of contact lens-associated giant papillary conjunctivitis (CL-GPC). Materials and Methods: Twenty-one biopsies of conjunctival giant papillae were obtained from soft contact lens wearers. The tissues were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. Sections of 5 µm thickness were used for studies of histology and immunohistochemistry of pan-B and pan-T cell distributions. Results: Conjunctival epitheliums on the top of conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue typically lacked goblet cells. Lymphocytes from underlying lymphoid follicle were pressed into intra-epithelial “pockets” formed through epithelial invagination. Under the follicle-associated epithelium, pan-B cells were mostly gathered in the central folliclar area and intraepithelial pockets, while CD3-positive T cells were predominantly distributed in parafolliclar region, but only a few in the intraepithelial pockets. Conclusions: Membranous epithelial cells (M cells) play a key role in the pathogenesis of CL-GPC for the binding and translocation of antigen and pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingwu Zhong
- Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center and State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510060 China
| | - Hongshan Liu
- Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center and State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510060 China
| | - Aijun Pu
- Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center and State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510060 China
| | - Xuefeng Xia
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030 USA
| | - Xiaodong Zhou
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030 USA
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44
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Abstract
The neonatal adaptive immune system, relatively naïve to foreign antigens, requires synergy with the innate immune system to protect the intestine. Goblet cells provide mucins, Paneth cells produce antimicrobial peptides, and dendritic cells (DCs) present luminal antigens. Intracellular signaling by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) elicits chemokines and cytokines that modulate inflammation. Enteric neurons and lymphocytes provide paracrine and endocrine signaling. However, full protection requires human milk. Breast-feeding reduces enteric infection and may reduce chronic disease in later life. Although human milk contains significant secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), most of its protective factors are constitutively expressed. Multifunctional milk components are nutrients whose partial digestion products inhibit pathogens. Cytokines, cytokine receptors, TLR agonists and antagonists, hormones, anti-inflammatory agents, and nucleotides in milk modulate inflammation. Human milk is rich in glycans (complex carbohydrates): As prebiotics, indigestible glycans stimulate colonization by probiotic organisms, modulating mucosal immunity and protecting against pathogens. Through structural homology to intestinal cell surface receptors, glycans inhibit pathogen binding, the essential first step of pathogenesis. Bioactive milk components comprise an innate immune system of human milk whereby the mother protects her nursing infant. Interactions between human milk glycans, intestinal microflora, and intestinal mucosa surface glycans underlie ontogeny of innate mucosal immunity, pathobiology of enteric infection, and inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Newburg
- Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, MassGeneral Hospital for Children and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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45
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Chieppa M, Rescigno M, Huang AYC, Germain RN. Dynamic imaging of dendritic cell extension into the small bowel lumen in response to epithelial cell TLR engagement. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 203:2841-52. [PMID: 17145958 PMCID: PMC2118178 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20061884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 534] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cells lining the gastrointestinal tract serve as both a barrier to and a pathway for infectious agent entry. Dendritic cells (DCs) present in the lamina propria under the columnar villus epithelium of the small bowel extend processes across this epithelium and capture bacteria, but previous studies provided limited information on the nature of the stimuli, receptors, and signaling events involved in promoting this phenomenon. Here, we use immunohistochemical as well as dynamic explant and intravital two-photon imaging to investigate this issue. Analysis of CD11c–enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) or major histocompatibility complex CII-EGFP mice revealed that the number of trans-epithelial DC extensions, many with an unusual “balloon” shape, varies along the length of the small bowel. High numbers of such extensions were found in the proximal jejunum, but only a few were present in the terminal ileum. The extensions in the terminal ileum markedly increased upon the introduction of invasive or noninvasive Salmonella organisms, and chimeric mouse studies revealed the key role of MyD88-dependent Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling by nonhematopoietic (epithelial) elements in the DC extension response. Collectively, these findings support a model in which epithelial cell TLR signaling upon exposure to microbial stimuli induces active DC sampling of the gut lumen at sites distant from organized lymphoid tissues.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- CD11c Antigen/genetics
- CD11c Antigen/metabolism
- CX3C Chemokine Receptor 1
- Cell Surface Extensions/drug effects
- Cell Surface Extensions/physiology
- Chemokine CCL20
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Chemokines, CC/metabolism
- Dendritic Cells/cytology
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/microbiology
- Epithelial Cells/drug effects
- Epithelial Cells/immunology
- Gene Expression
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/genetics
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/genetics
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/metabolism
- Intestine, Small/cytology
- Intestine, Small/immunology
- Intestine, Small/microbiology
- Laser Scanning Cytometry
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/genetics
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mucous Membrane/cytology
- Mucous Membrane/immunology
- Mucous Membrane/microbiology
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88/genetics
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology
- Polysaccharides, Bacterial/pharmacology
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Salmonella Infections/immunology
- Salmonella Infections/microbiology
- Salmonella typhimurium/immunology
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Toll-Like Receptors/agonists
- Toll-Like Receptors/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Chieppa
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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46
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Barnes PD, Bergman MA, Mecsas J, Isberg RR. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis disseminates directly from a replicating bacterial pool in the intestine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 203:1591-601. [PMID: 16754724 PMCID: PMC2118325 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20060905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Dissemination of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis within mice after oral inoculation was analyzed. Y. pseudotuberculosis translocated to organs such as the liver and spleen shortly after oral inoculation, but was quickly cleared. In contrast, a second temporally distinct bacterial translocation event resulted in successful hepatosplenic replication of the bacteria. Replicating pools of bacteria could be established in these organs in mouse mutants that lacked Peyer's patches. These animals frequently had sterile mesenteric lymph nodes, a finding consistent with translocation taking place independently of regional lymph node colonization. In further contradiction to accepted models for dissemination of enteropathogens, clonal analysis revealed that bacteria causing disease in the spleen and liver of C57BL/6J mice were derived from populations located outside the intestinal lymph nodes. Replication of bacteria in the intestine before translocation appeared critical for dissemination, as transient selective suppression by streptomycin of bacterial growth in the intestine delayed dissemination of Y. pseudotuberculosis. These results collectively indicate that hepatosplenic colonization appears intimately connected with the ability of Y. pseudotuberculosis to successfully establish replication in the intestinal lumen and does not result from ordered spread leading from the intestine to regional lymph nodes before dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope D Barnes
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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47
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Keita AV, Gullberg E, Ericson AC, Salim SY, Wallon C, Kald A, Artursson P, Söderholm JD. Characterization of antigen and bacterial transport in the follicle-associated epithelium of human ileum. J Transl Med 2006; 86:504-16. [PMID: 16482102 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3700397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The follicle-associated epithelium (FAE), covering Peyer's patches, provides a route of entry for antigens and microorganisms. Animal studies showed enhanced antigen and bacterial uptake in FAE, but no study on barrier function of human FAE has been reported. Our aim was to characterize the normal barrier properties of human FAE. Specimens of normal ileum were taken from 30 patients with noninflammatory colonic disease. Villus epithelium (VE) and FAE were identified and mounted in Ussing chambers. Permeability to 51Cr-EDTA, transmucosal flux of the protein antigen, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), and transport of fluorescent Escherichia coli (chemically killed K-12 and live HB101) were measured. Uptake mechanisms were studied by confocal- and transmission electron microscopy, and by using pharmacological inhibitors in an in vitro coculture model of FAE and in human ileal FAE. HRP flux was substantially higher in FAE than in VE, and was reduced by an amiloride analog. Electron microscopy showed HRP-containing endosomes. Transport of E. coli K-12 and HB101 was also augmented in FAE and was confirmed by confocal microscopy. In vitro coculture experiments and electron microscopy revealed actin-dependent, mainly transcellular, uptake of E. coli K-12 into FAE. 51Cr-EDTA permeability was equal in FAE and VE. Augmented HRP flux and bacterial uptake but similar paracellular permeability, suggest functional variations of transcellular transport in the FAE. We show for the first time that FAE of human ileum is functionally distinct from regular VE, rendering the FAE more prone to bacterial-epithelial cell interactions and delivery of antigens to the mucosal immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asa V Keita
- Department of Biomedicine and Surgery, Division of Surgery, University Hospital, Linköping, Sweden
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48
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Koutsos E, Arias V. Intestinal Ecology: Interactions Among the Gastrointestinal Tract, Nutrition, and the Microflora. J APPL POULTRY RES 2006. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/15.1.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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49
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Rytkönen J, Valkonen KH, Virtanen V, Foxwell RA, Kyd JM, Cripps AW, Karttunen TJ. Enterocyte and M-cell transport of native and heat-denatured bovine beta-lactoglobulin: significance of heat denaturation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:1500-7. [PMID: 16478280 DOI: 10.1021/jf052309d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The three-dimensional structure, digestibility, and immunological properties of bovine beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg) are modified by heat treatments used in processing of liquid milk products. Because it is not known if such treatments also modify the intestinal transport properties of beta-lg, the transport of native and heat-denatured bovine beta-lg was investigated in experimental cell models using Caco-2 cells and M cells. Transport of beta-lg labeled with a fluorescent marker was followed with fluorometric measurements, electrophoretic analyses, and fluorescence microscopy. The data show that both cell types transported native beta-lg more efficiently than they did heat-denatured beta-lg. In addition, M cells transported native beta-lg more than Caco-2 cells. Transport of native and heat-denatured beta-lg was transcellular. The electrophoretic data also suggest that heat-denatured beta-lg may have degraded more than native beta-lg during the transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jani Rytkönen
- Biotechnology Laboratory, Kajaani University Consortium, University of Oulu, Sotkamo, Finland.
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50
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Shakweh M, Ponchel G, Fattal E. Particle uptake by Peyer's patches: a pathway for drug and vaccine delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2005; 1:141-63. [PMID: 16296726 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.1.1.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Particle uptake by Peyer's patches offers the possibility of tailoring vaccines that can be delivered orally. However, particle uptake by the follicle-associated epithelium in the gastrointestinal tract depends on several different factors that are the physicochemical properties of the particles, the physiopathological state of the animal, the analytical method used to evaluate the uptake and finally the experimental model. These parameters do not allow a clear idea about the optimal conditions to target the Peyer's patches. The goal of this review is to clarify the role of each factor in this uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monjed Shakweh
- University of Paris-South, Faculty of Pharmacy, UMR CNRS 8612, 5 rue Jean-Batiste Clement, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry Cedex, France
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