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Kim T, Hearn C, Heidari M. Efficacy of Recombinant Marek's Disease Virus Vaccine 301B/1 Expressing Membrane-Anchored Chicken Interleukin-15. Avian Dis 2024; 68:117-128. [PMID: 38885053 DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-d-23-00068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Cytokines are co-administrated with vaccines or co-expressed in the vaccine virus genome to improve protective efficacy by stimulating immune responses. Using glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchoring by attachment to the target cytokine, we constructed recombinant Marek's disease virus (MDV) vaccine strain 301B/1 (v301B/1-rtg-IL-15) that expresses chicken interleukin-15 (IL-15) as the membrane-bound form at the cell surface. We evaluated the vaccine efficacy of v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 given as a bivalent Marek's disease (MD) vaccine in combination with turkey herpesvirus (HVT) against a very virulent plus MDV strain 648A challenge. The efficacy was compared with that of conventional bivalent MD vaccine, as a mixture with HVT plus parental v301B/1 or v301B/1-IL-15, which expresses a natural form of IL-15. The membrane-bound IL-15 expression did not interfere with the virus growth of recombinant v301B/1-rtg-IL-15. However, the MD incidence in birds vaccinated with v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 was higher than that of birds given the conventional bivalent MD vaccine containing parental v301B/1 virus, although the v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 vaccinated group showed increased natural killer cell activation at day 5 postvaccination, the same day as challenge. Overall, the protection of v301B/1-rtg-IL-15 was not improved from that of v301B/1 against very virulent plus MDV challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taejoong Kim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605,
| | - Cari Hearn
- Avian Diseases and Oncology Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, East Lansing, MI 48823
| | - Mohammad Heidari
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605
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2
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Lee YS, Bang YJ, Yoo S, Park SI, Park HJ, Kwak HW, Bae SH, Park HJ, Kim JY, Youn SB, Roh G, Lee S, Kwon SP, Bang EK, Keum G, Nam JH, Hong SH. Analysis of the Immunostimulatory Effects of Cytokine-Expressing Internal Ribosome Entry Site-Based RNA Adjuvants and Their Applications. J Infect Dis 2024; 229:1408-1418. [PMID: 37711050 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing new adjuvants that can effectively induce humoral and cellular immune responses while broadening the immune response is of great value. In this study, we aimed to develop single-stranded RNA adjuvants expressing (1) granulocyte monocyte colony-stimulating factor or (2) interleukin 18 based on the encephalomyocarditis virus internal ribosome entry site; we also tested their efficacy in combination with ovalbumin or inactivated influenza vaccines. Notably, cytokine-expressing RNA adjuvants increased the expression of antigen-presenting cell activation markers in mice. Specifically, when combined with ovalbumin, RNA adjuvants expressing granulocyte monocyte colony-stimulating factor increased CD4+ T-cell responses, while those expressing interleukin 18 increased CD8+ T-cell responses. Cytokine-expressing RNA adjuvants further increased the frequency of polyclonal T cells with the influenza vaccine and reduced the clinical illness scores and weight loss of mice after viral challenge. Collectively, our results suggest that cytokine-expressing RNA adjuvants can be applied to protein-based or inactivated vaccines to increase their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Sun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - Yoo-Jin Bang
- Department of Biotechnology
- Central Research Institute, SML Biopharm, Gwangmyeong
| | - Soyeon Yoo
- Center for Brain Technology, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul
| | - Sang-In Park
- Central Research Institute, SML Biopharm, Gwangmyeong
| | - Hyo-Jung Park
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - Hye Won Kwak
- Central Research Institute, SML Biopharm, Gwangmyeong
| | - Seo-Hyeon Bae
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | | | - Jae-Yong Kim
- Department of Biotechnology
- Central Research Institute, SML Biopharm, Gwangmyeong
| | - Sue-Bean Youn
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - Gahyun Roh
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - Seonghyun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - Sung Pil Kwon
- Center for Brain Technology, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul
| | - Eun-Kyoung Bang
- Center for Brain Technology, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul
| | - Gyochang Keum
- Center for Brain Technology, Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul
| | - Jae-Hwan Nam
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon
| | - So-Hee Hong
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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3
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Cui Y, Ho M, Hu Y, Shi Y. Vaccine adjuvants: current status, research and development, licensing, and future opportunities. J Mater Chem B 2024; 12:4118-4137. [PMID: 38591323 PMCID: PMC11180427 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb02861e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Vaccines represent one of the most significant inventions in human history and have revolutionized global health. Generally, a vaccine functions by triggering the innate immune response and stimulating antigen-presenting cells, leading to a defensive adaptive immune response against a specific pathogen's antigen. As a key element, adjuvants are chemical materials often employed as additives to increase a vaccine's efficacy and immunogenicity. For over 90 years, adjuvants have been essential components in many human vaccines, improving their efficacy by enhancing, modulating, and prolonging the immune response. Here, we provide a timely and comprehensive review of the historical development and the current status of adjuvants, covering their classification, mechanisms of action, and roles in different vaccines. Additionally, we perform systematic analysis of the current licensing processes and highlights notable examples from clinical trials involving vaccine adjuvants. Looking ahead, we anticipate future trends in the field, including the development of new adjuvant formulations, the creation of innovative adjuvants, and their integration into the broader scope of systems vaccinology and vaccine delivery. The article posits that a deeper understanding of biochemistry, materials science, and vaccine immunology is crucial for advancing vaccine technology. Such advancements are expected to lead to the future development of more effective vaccines, capable of combating emerging infectious diseases and enhancing public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Cui
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Megan Ho
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yongjie Hu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Yuan Shi
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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4
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Wang G, Wang Y, Ma F. Exploiting bacterial-origin immunostimulants for improved vaccination and immunotherapy: current insights and future directions. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:24. [PMID: 38368397 PMCID: PMC10874560 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01207-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is a valid strategy to prevent and control newly emerging and reemerging infectious diseases in humans and animals. However, synthetic and recombinant antigens are poor immunogenic to stimulate efficient and protective host immune response. Immunostimulants are indispensable factors of vaccines, which can promote to trigger fast, robust, and long-lasting immune responses. Importantly, immunotherapy with immunostimulants is increasing proved to be an effective and promising treatment of cancer, which could enhance the function of the immune system against tumor cells. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) play vital roles in inflammation and are central to innate and adaptive immune responses. Toll-like receptors (TLRs)-targeting immunostimulants have become one of the hotspots in adjuvant research and cancer therapy. Bacterial-origin immunoreactive molecules are usually the ligands of PRRs, which could be fast recognized by PRRs and activate immune response to eliminate pathogens. Varieties of bacterial immunoreactive molecules and bacterial component-mimicking molecules have been successfully used in vaccines and clinical therapy so far. This work provides a comprehensive review of the development, current state, mechanisms, and applications of bacterial-origin immunostimulants. The exploration of bacterial immunoreactive molecules, along with their corresponding mechanisms, holds immense significance in deepening our understanding of bacterial pathogenicity and in the development of promising immunostimulants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyu Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety/Key Laboratory of Grains and Oils Quality Control and Processing, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China
| | - Yongkang Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety/Key Laboratory of Grains and Oils Quality Control and Processing, Nanjing University of Finance and Economics, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210023, China
| | - Fang Ma
- Institute of Veterinary Immunology & Engineering, National Research Center of Engineering and Technology for Veterinary Biologicals, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing, 210014, China.
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
- GuoTai (Taizhou) Center of Technology Innovation for Veterinary Biologicals, Taizhou, 225300, China.
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5
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Rahman T, Das A, Abir MH, Nafiz IH, Mahmud AR, Sarker MR, Emran TB, Hassan MM. Cytokines and their role as immunotherapeutics and vaccine Adjuvants: The emerging concepts. Cytokine 2023; 169:156268. [PMID: 37320965 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines are a protein family comprising interleukins, lymphokines, chemokines, monokines and interferons. They are significant constituents of the immune system, and they act in accordance with specific cytokine inhibiting compounds and receptors for the regulation of immune responses. Cytokine studies have resulted in the establishment of newer therapies which are being utilized for the treatment of several malignant diseases. The advancement of these therapies has occurred from two distinct strategies. The first strategy involves administrating the recombinant and purified cytokines, and the second strategy involves administrating the therapeutics which inhibits harmful effects of endogenous and overexpressed cytokines. Colony stimulating factors and interferons are two exemplary therapeutics of cytokines. An important effect of cytokine receptor antagonist is that they can serve as anti-inflammatory agents by altering the treatments of inflammation disorder, therefore inhibiting the effects of tumour necrosis factor. In this article, we have highlighted the research behind the establishment of cytokines as therapeutics and vaccine adjuvants, their role of immunotolerance, and their limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanjilur Rahman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Ayan Das
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Mehedy Hasan Abir
- Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh
| | - Iqbal Hossain Nafiz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chattogram 4331, Bangladesh
| | - Aar Rafi Mahmud
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail 1902, Bangladesh
| | - Md Rifat Sarker
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail 1902, Bangladesh
| | - Talha Bin Emran
- Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chattogram 4381, Bangladesh; Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Mahmudul Hassan
- Department of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh; Queensland Alliance for One Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4343, Australia.
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6
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Bian Y, Walter DL, Zhang C. Efficiency of Interferon-γ in Activating Dendritic Cells and Its Potential Synergy with Toll-like Receptor Agonists. Viruses 2023; 15:v15051198. [PMID: 37243284 DOI: 10.3390/v15051198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) is a cytokine that plays an important role in immune regulation, especially in the activation and differentiation of immune cells. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern-recognition receptors that sense structural motifs related to pathogens and alert immune cells to the invasion. Both IFN-γ and TLR agonists have been used as immunoadjuvants to augment the efficacy of cancer immunotherapies and vaccines against infectious diseases or psychoactive compounds. In this study, we aimed to explore the potential of IFN-γ and TLR agonists being applied simultaneously to boost dendritic cell activation and the subsequent antigen presentation. In brief, murine dendritic cells were treated with IFN-γ and/or the TLR agonists, polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), or resiquimod (R848). Next, the dendritic cells were stained for an activation marker, a cluster of differentiation 86 (CD86), and the percentage of CD86-positive cells was measured by flow cytometry. From the cytometric analysis, IFN-γ efficiently stimulated a considerable number of the dendritic cells, while the TLR agonists by themselves could merely activate a few compared to the control. The combination of IFN-γ with poly I:C or R848 triggered a higher amount of dendritic cell activation than IFN-γ alone. For instance, 10 ng/mL IFN-γ with 100 µg/mL poly I:C achieved 59.1% cell activation, which was significantly higher than the 33.4% CD86-positive cells obtained by 10 ng/mL IFN-γ. These results suggested that IFN-γ and TLR agonists could be applied as complementary systems to promote dendritic cell activation and antigen presentation. There might be a synergy between the two classes of molecules, but further investigation is warranted to ascertain the interaction of their promotive activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanzhi Bian
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences & College of Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Debra L Walter
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences & College of Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Chenming Zhang
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences & College of Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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7
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He X, Chen X, Wang H, Du G, Sun X. Recent advances in respiratory immunization: A focus on COVID-19 vaccines. J Control Release 2023; 355:655-674. [PMID: 36787821 PMCID: PMC9937028 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
The development of vaccines has always been an essential task worldwide since vaccines are regarded as powerful weapons in protecting the global population. Although the vast majority of currently authorized human vaccinations are administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously, exploring novel routes of immunization has been a prominent area of study in recent years. This is particularly relevant in the face of pandemic diseases, such as COVID-19, where respiratory immunization offers distinct advantages, such as inducing systemic and mucosal responses to prevent viral infections in both the upper and lower respiratory tracts and also leading to higher patient compliance. However, the development of respiratory vaccines confronts challenges due to the physiological barriers of the respiratory tract, with most of these vaccines still in the research and development stage. In this review, we detail the structure of the respiratory tract and the mechanisms of mucosal immunity, as well as the obstacles to respiratory vaccination. We also examine the considerations necessary in constructing a COVID-19 respiratory vaccine, including the dosage form of the vaccines, potential excipients and mucosal adjuvants, and delivery systems and devices for respiratory vaccines. Finally, we present a comprehensive overview of the COVID-19 respiratory vaccines currently under clinical investigation. We hope this review can provide valuable insights and inspiration for the future development of respiratory vaccinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyue He
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xiaoyan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hairui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Guangsheng Du
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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8
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Yi Y, Yu M, Li W, Zhu D, Mei L, Ou M. Vaccine-like nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy. J Control Release 2023; 355:760-778. [PMID: 36822241 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
The successful clinical application of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapeutics has attracted extensive attention to immunotherapy, however, their drawbacks such as limited specificity, persistence and toxicity haven't met the high expectations on efficient cancer treatments. Therapeutic cancer vaccines which instruct the immune system to capture tumor specific antigens, generate long-term immune memory and specifically eliminate cancer cells gradually become the most promising strategies to eradicate tumor. However, the disadvantages of some existing vaccines such as weak immunogenicity and in vivo instability have restricted their development. Nanotechnology has been recently incorporated into vaccine fabrication and exhibited promising results for cancer immunotherapy. Nanoparticles promote the stability of vaccines, as well as enhance antigen recognition and presentation owing to their nanometer size which promotes internalization of antigens by phagocytic cells. The surface modification with targeting units further permits the delivery of vaccines to specific cells. Meanwhile, nanocarriers with adjuvant effect can improve the efficacy of vaccines. In addition to classic vaccines composed of antigens and adjuvants, the nanoparticle-mediated chemotherapy, radiotherapy and certain other therapeutics could induce the release of tumor antigens in situ, which therefore effectively simulate antitumor immune responses. Such vaccine-like nanomedicine not only kills primary tumors, but also prevents tumor recurrence and helps eliminate metastatic tumors. Herein, we introduce recent developments in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for antigen delivery and in situ antitumor vaccination. We will also discuss the remaining opportunities and challenges of nanovaccine in clinical translation towards cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfei Yi
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Mian Yu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Wen Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
| | - Dunwan Zhu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China.
| | - Lin Mei
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China.
| | - Meitong Ou
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Key Laboratory of Biomaterials and Nanotechnology for Cancer Immunotherapy, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China.
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9
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Ou B, Yang Y, Lv H, Lin X, Zhang M. Current Progress and Challenges in the Study of Adjuvants for Oral Vaccines. BioDrugs 2023; 37:143-180. [PMID: 36607488 PMCID: PMC9821375 DOI: 10.1007/s40259-022-00575-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, a variety of potential adjuvants have been studied to enhance the effect of oral vaccines in the intestinal mucosal immune system; however, no licensed adjuvant for clinical application in oral vaccines is available. In this review, we systematically updated the research progress of oral vaccine adjuvants over the past 2 decades, including biogenic adjuvants, non-biogenic adjuvants, and their multi-type composite adjuvant materials, and introduced their immune mechanisms of adjuvanticity, aiming at providing theoretical basis for developing feasible and effective adjuvants for oral vaccines. Based on these insights, we briefly discussed the challenges in the development of oral vaccine adjuvants and prospects for their future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingming Ou
- School of Life Sciences, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Ying Yang
- College of Animal Science, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Haihui Lv
- School of Life Sciences, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Xin Lin
- School of Life Sciences, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing, China
| | - Minyu Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Zhaoqing University, Zhaoqing, China. .,School of Physical Education and Sports Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
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10
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Advances in Infectious Disease Vaccine Adjuvants. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10071120. [PMID: 35891284 PMCID: PMC9316175 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10071120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the most significant medical interventions in the fight against infectious diseases. Since their discovery by Edward Jenner in 1796, vaccines have reduced the worldwide transmission to eradication levels of infectious diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria, hepatitis, malaria, and influenza. However, the complexity of developing safe and effective vaccines remains a barrier for combating many more infectious diseases. Immune stimulants (or adjuvants) are an indispensable factor in vaccine development, especially for inactivated and subunit-based vaccines due to their decreased immunogenicity compared to whole pathogen vaccines. Adjuvants are widely diverse in structure; however, their overall function in vaccine constructs is the same: to enhance and/or prolong an immunological response. The potential for adverse effects as a result of adjuvant use, though, must be acknowledged and carefully managed. Understanding the specific mechanisms of adjuvant efficacy and safety is a key prerequisite for adjuvant use in vaccination. Therefore, rigorous pre-clinical and clinical research into adjuvant development is essential. Overall, the incorporation of adjuvants allows for greater opportunities in advancing vaccine development and the importance of immune stimulants drives the emergence of novel and more effective adjuvants. This article highlights recent advances in vaccine adjuvant development and provides detailed data from pre-clinical and clinical studies specific to infectious diseases. Future perspectives into vaccine adjuvant development are also highlighted.
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11
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Escalante-Sansores AR, Absalón AE, Cortés-Espinosa DV. Improving immunogenicity of poultry vaccines by use of molecular adjuvants. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2022.2091502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Angel E. Absalón
- Vaxbiotek SC Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo, Cuautlancingo, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Diana V. Cortés-Espinosa
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología Aplicadla, Tlaxcala, Mexico
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12
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Seaver K, Kourko O, Gee K, Greer PA, Basta S. IL-27 Improves Prophylactic Protection Provided by a Dead Tumor Cell Vaccine in a Mouse Melanoma Model. Front Immunol 2022; 13:884827. [PMID: 35529885 PMCID: PMC9069009 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.884827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The protocol used to induce cell death for generating vaccines from whole tumor cells is a critical consideration that impacts vaccine efficacy. Here we compared how different protocols used to induce cell death impacted protection provided by a prophylactic whole tumor cell vaccine in a mouse melanoma model. We found that melanoma cells exposed to γ-irradiation or lysis combined with UV-irradiation (LyUV) provided better protection against tumor challenge than lysis only or cells exposed to UV-irradiation. Furthermore, we found that the immunoregulatory cytokine, IL-27 enhanced protection against tumor growth in a dose-dependent manner when combined with either LyUV or γ-irradiated whole tumor cell vaccine preparations. Taken together, this data supports the use of LyUV as a potential protocol for developing whole tumor cell prophylactic cancer vaccines. We also showed that IL-27 can be used at low doses as a potent adjuvant in combination with LyUV or γ-irradiation treated cancer cells to improve the protection provided by a prophylactic cancer vaccine in a mouse melanoma model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle Seaver
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Olena Kourko
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Katrina Gee
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Peter A. Greer
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sameh Basta
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Sameh Basta,
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13
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Andreeva A, Nikolaeva O, Altynbekov O, Arslanova Y. Comparative effectiveness of immune system stimulators in calves' vaccination. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 337:221-226. [PMID: 34813184 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The work aimed to study the comparative effectiveness of the immunostimulants "Roncoleukin" and propolis milk for increasing the nonspecific and specific resistance and immunological reactivity of calves during vaccination against salmonellosis. A study of the "Roncoleukin" effect combined with propolis milk on the biochemical, immunological, and serological parameters of calves during vaccination against salmonellosis was carried out. The objects of research were calves from birth to 2 months of age of the Simmental breed. According to the principle of analogs, they were divided into four groups (control and three experimental), six heads each. All animals at 10 days of age were vaccinated against salmonellosis. The animals of the first experimental group were injected subcutaneously with "Roncoleukin" at birth. Then "Roncoleukin" was injected during vaccination against salmonellosis. The calves of the second experimental group were drunk with propolis milk before feeding. The animals of the third experimental group were drunk with propolis milk before feeding; "Roncoleukin" was injected during vaccination. The use of "Roncoleukin" and propolis milk contributes to correcting immunological parameters and the protein spectrum of the blood during vaccination. The most pronounced changes are observed in calves of the first and third experimental groups. "Roncoleukin" and propolis milk contribute to forming an active specific immune response in calves during vaccination against salmonellosis, which is expressed in an increase in the titer of anti-salmonella antibodies. The maximum antibody titer level was established in calves of the first and third experimental groups, three times higher than the control value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfia Andreeva
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zoohygiene and Veterinary Sanitary Inspection, Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of Higher Education "Bashkir State Agrarian University", Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Oksana Nikolaeva
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zoohygiene and Veterinary Sanitary Inspection, Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of Higher Education "Bashkir State Agrarian University", Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Oleg Altynbekov
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zoohygiene and Veterinary Sanitary Inspection, Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of Higher Education "Bashkir State Agrarian University", Ufa, Russian Federation
| | - Yulia Arslanova
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Zoohygiene and Veterinary Sanitary Inspection, Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of Higher Education "Bashkir State Agrarian University", Ufa, Russian Federation
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14
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Yuan H, Zheng Y, Yan X, Wang H, Zhang Y, Ma J, Fu J. Direct cloning of a herpesvirus genome for rapid generation of infectious BAC clones. J Adv Res 2022; 43:97-107. [PMID: 36585118 PMCID: PMC9811322 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2022.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The herpesviridae are DNA viruses with large and complicated genomes. The herpesvirus bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) have been useful for generating recombinant viruses to study the biology and pathogenesis. However, the conventional method using homologous recombination is not only time consuming but also prone to accumulate attenuating mutations during serial passage of the virus in cells. Elimination of the BAC vector from the recombinant viral genome requires additional step for phenotypically consistence with the original strain. OBJECTIVES To generate a streamlined approach for generating infectious BAC clones of herpesvirus. METHODS The 142-kb pseudorabies virus genome was directly cloned into a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in Escherichia coli by Exonuclease Combined with RecET recombination (ExoCET). Placement of the BAC vector at the terminus of the linear virus genome enabled excision of the BAC backbone from the viral genome by restriction endonuclease for delivery into mammalian cells, with the subsequent rapid rescue of virus that was genetically identical to the original strain. RESULTS This new approach for molecular cloning of the genome from a large DNA virus and isolation of pure virus lacking the BAC vector from transfected mammalian cells bypass the tedious and time-consuming method of multiple rounds of plaque purification. The viral BAC was stable in E. coli, allowing further mutagenesis mediated by the Red system or various site-specific recombination methods. CONCLUSION An efficient method for construction of infectious clones of herpesvirus was established. It is expected to be potentially useful for other viruses with large double-stranded DNA genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hengxing Yuan
- Shandong University–Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Yaoyao Zheng
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiaoling Yan
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Hailong Wang
- Shandong University–Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Youming Zhang
- Shandong University–Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China,Corresponding authors.
| | - Jingyun Ma
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China,Corresponding authors.
| | - Jun Fu
- Shandong University–Helmholtz Institute of Biotechnology, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China,Corresponding authors.
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15
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Kim T, Hearn C. Vaccinal Efficacy of Recombinant Marek's Disease Vaccine 301B/1 Expressing Chicken Interleukin-15. Avian Dis 2022; 66:79-84. [DOI: 10.1637/21-00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taejoong Kim
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605
| | - Cari Hearn
- Avian Diseases and Oncology Laboratory, U.S. National Poultry Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 4279 E. Mt. Hope Road, East Lansing, MI 48823
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16
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Firdaus FZ, Skwarczynski M, Toth I. Developments in Vaccine Adjuvants. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2022; 2412:145-178. [PMID: 34918245 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1892-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines, including subunit, recombinant, and conjugate vaccines, require the use of an immunostimulator/adjuvant for maximum efficacy. Adjuvants not only enhance the strength and longevity of immune responses but may also influence the type of response. In this chapter, we review the adjuvants that are available for use in human vaccines, such as alum, MF59, AS03, and AS01. We extensively discuss their composition, characteristics, mechanism of action, and effects on the immune system. Additionally, we summarize recent trends in adjuvant discovery, providing a brief overview of saponins, TLRs agonists, polysaccharides, nanoparticles, cytokines, and mucosal adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farrhana Ziana Firdaus
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Mariusz Skwarczynski
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Istvan Toth
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia. .,Institute of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia. .,School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia.
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17
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Saito T, Shukla NM, Sato-Kaneko F, Sako Y, Hosoya T, Yao S, Lao FS, Messer K, Pu M, Chan M, Chu PJ, Cottam HB, Hayashi T, Carson DA, Corr M. Small Molecule Calcium Channel Activator Potentiates Adjuvant Activity. ACS Chem Biol 2022; 17:217-229. [PMID: 34985883 PMCID: PMC8788586 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
There remains an unmet need for reliable fully synthetic adjuvants that increase lasting protective immune responses from vaccines. We previously reported a high-throughput screening for small molecules that extended nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation after a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligand, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), stimulation using a human myeloid reporter cell line. We identified compounds with a conserved aminothiazole scaffold including 2D216 [N-(4-(2,5-dimethylphenyl)thiazol-2-yl)-4-(piperidin-1-ylsulfonyl)benzamide], which increased murine antigen-specific antibody responses when used as a co-adjuvant with LPS. Here, we examined the mechanism of action in human cells. Although 2D216 activated the major mitogen-activated protein kinases, it did not interact with common kinases and phosphatases and did not stimulate many of the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Instead, the mechanism of action was linked to intracellular Ca2+ elevation via Ca2+ channel(s) at the plasma membrane and nuclear translocation of the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) as supported by RNA-seq data, analysis by reporter cells, Ca2+ flux assays, and immunoblots. Interestingly, 2D216 had minimal, if any, activity on Jurkat T cells but induced cytokine production and surface expression of costimulatory molecules on cells with antigen-presenting functions. A small series of analogs of 2D216 were tested for the ability to enhance a TLR4 ligand-stimulated autologous mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR). In the MLR, 2E151, N-(4-(2,5-dimethylphenyl)thiazol-2-yl)-4-((4-propylpiperidin-1-yl)sulfonyl)benzamide, was more potent than 2D216. These results indicate that a small molecule that is not a direct PRR agonist can act as a co-adjuvant to an approved adjuvant to enhance human immune responses via a complementary mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Saito
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
- Department
of Rheumatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Nikunj M. Shukla
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Fumi Sato-Kaneko
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Yukiya Sako
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Tadashi Hosoya
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
- Department
of Rheumatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
| | - Shiyin Yao
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Fitzgerald S. Lao
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Karen Messer
- Herbert
Wertheim School of Public Health and Longevity, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0901, United States
| | - Minya Pu
- Herbert
Wertheim School of Public Health and Longevity, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0901, United States
| | - Michael Chan
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Paul J. Chu
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Howard B. Cottam
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Tomoko Hayashi
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Dennis A. Carson
- Moores
Cancer Center, University of California
San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0809, United States
| | - Maripat Corr
- Department
of Medicine, University of California San
Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0656, United States
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18
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Li H, Xing J, Tang X, Sheng X, Chi H, Zhan W. Two bicistronic DNA vaccines against Vibrio anguillarum and the immune effects on flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. JOURNAL OF OCEANOLOGY AND LIMNOLOGY 2022; 40:786-804. [PMID: 35018224 PMCID: PMC8739378 DOI: 10.1007/s00343-021-1092-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Chemokines are cytokines that can promote the activation and migration of immune cells, and increase the recognition of antigen by antigen-presenting cells (APC). Previous studies showed that a DNA vaccine can induce humoral and cellular immune responses of flounder after immunization. To explore the improvement of chemokines on the efficiency of OmpK vaccine, two bicistronic DNA candidate vaccines were constructed and the immune responses they induced in the flounder were investigated by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA), H&E staining, flow cytometry (FCM), and quantificational real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). pBudCE4.1 plasmid as an expression vector, bicistronic DNA vaccines encoding OmpK gene and CC-motif ligand 4 gene (p-OmpK-CCL4), or Ompk gene and CC-motif ligand 19 gene (p-OmpK-CCL19) were successfully constructed. The results showed that two bicistronic DNA vaccines expressed Ompk protein of Vibrio anguillarum and CCL4/CCL19 proteins of flounder both in vitro and in vivo. After immunization, a large number of leucocytes in muscle were recruited at the injection site in treatment groups. The constructed vaccines induced significant increases in CD4-1+ and CD4-2+ T lymphocytes, and sIgM+ B lymphocytes in peripheral blood, spleen, and head kidney. The percentage of T lymphocytes peaked on the 14th post-vaccination day whereas that of B lymphocytes peaked in the 6th post-vaccination week. Moreover, the expression profiles of 10 immune-related genes increased in muscles around the injection site, spleen, and head kidney. After the challenge, p-OmpK-CCL4 and p-OmpK-CCL19 conferred a relative percentage survival (RPS) of 74.1% and 63.3%, respectively, higher than p-OmpK alone (40.8%). In conclusion, both CCL4 and CCL19 can improve the protection of p-OmpK via evoking local immune response and then humoral and cellular immunity. CCL4 and CCL19 will be potential molecular adjuvants for use in DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanlin Li
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
| | - Jing Xing
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071 China
| | - Xiaoqian Tang
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071 China
| | - Xiuzhen Sheng
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
| | - Heng Chi
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
| | - Wenbin Zhan
- Laboratory of Pathology and Immunology of Aquatic Animals, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003 China
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266071 China
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19
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Shukla NM, Chan M, Lao FS, Chu PJ, Belsuzarri M, Yao S, Nan J, Sato-Kaneko F, Saito T, Hayashi T, Corr M, Carson DA, Cottam HB. Structure-activity relationship studies in substituted sulfamoyl benzamidothiazoles that prolong NF-κB activation. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 43:116242. [PMID: 34274759 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In the face of emerging infectious diseases, there remains an unmet need for vaccine development where adjuvants that enhance immune responses to pathogenic antigens are highly desired. Using high-throughput screens with a cell-based nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) reporter assay, we identified a sulfamoyl benzamidothiazole bearing compound 1 that demonstrated a sustained activation of NF-κB after a primary stimulus with a Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 agonist, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here, we explore systematic structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies on compound 1 that indicated the sites on the scaffold that tolerated modification and yielded more potent compounds compared to 1. The selected analogs enhanced release of immunostimulatory cytokines in the human monocytic cell line THP-1 cells and murine primary dendritic cells. In murine vaccination studies, select compounds were used as co-adjuvants in combination with the Food and Drug Administration approved TLR-4 agonistic adjuvant, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) that showed significant enhancement in antigen-specific antibody titers compared to MPLA alone. Additionally, our SAR studies led to identification of a photoaffinity probe which will aid the target identification and mechanism of action studies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikunj M Shukla
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA.
| | - Michael Chan
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Fitzgerald S Lao
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Paul J Chu
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Masiel Belsuzarri
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Shiyin Yao
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Jason Nan
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Fumi Sato-Kaneko
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Tetsuya Saito
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Tomoko Hayashi
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Maripat Corr
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0656, USA
| | - Dennis A Carson
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
| | - Howard B Cottam
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0809, USA
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20
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Tay BQ, Wright Q, Ladwa R, Perry C, Leggatt G, Simpson F, Wells JW, Panizza BJ, Frazer IH, Cruz JLG. Evolution of Cancer Vaccines-Challenges, Achievements, and Future Directions. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9050535. [PMID: 34065557 PMCID: PMC8160852 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9050535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of cancer vaccines has been intensively pursued over the past 50 years with modest success. However, recent advancements in the fields of genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, and immunology have renewed interest in these immunotherapies and allowed the development of promising cancer vaccine candidates. Numerous clinical trials testing the response evoked by tumour antigens, differing in origin and nature, have shed light on the desirable target characteristics capable of inducing strong tumour-specific non-toxic responses with increased potential to bring clinical benefit to patients. Novel delivery methods, ranging from a patient’s autologous dendritic cells to liposome nanoparticles, have exponentially increased the abundance and exposure of the antigenic payloads. Furthermore, growing knowledge of the mechanisms by which tumours evade the immune response has led to new approaches to reverse these roadblocks and to re-invigorate previously suppressed anti-tumour surveillance. The use of new drugs in combination with antigen-based therapies is highly targeted and may represent the future of cancer vaccines. In this review, we address the main antigens and delivery methods used to develop cancer vaccines, their clinical outcomes, and the new directions that the vaccine immunotherapy field is taking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ban Qi Tay
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - Quentin Wright
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - Rahul Ladwa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia;
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; (C.P.); (B.J.P.)
| | - Christopher Perry
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; (C.P.); (B.J.P.)
- Department of Otolaryngology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Graham Leggatt
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - Fiona Simpson
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - James W. Wells
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - Benedict J. Panizza
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia; (C.P.); (B.J.P.)
- Department of Otolaryngology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Ian H. Frazer
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
| | - Jazmina L. G. Cruz
- Faculty of Medicine, Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia; (B.Q.T.); (Q.W.); (G.L.); (F.S.); (J.W.W.); (I.H.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-0478912737
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21
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Park DB, Ahn BE, Son H, Lee YR, Kim YR, Jo SK, Chun JH, Yu JY, Choi MM, Rhie GE. Construction of a bivalent vaccine against anthrax and smallpox using the attenuated vaccinia virus KVAC103. BMC Microbiol 2021; 21:76. [PMID: 33685392 PMCID: PMC7938549 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-021-02121-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anthrax and smallpox are high-risk infectious diseases, and considered as potential agents for bioterrorism. To develop an effective countermeasure for these diseases, we constructed a bivalent vaccine against both anthrax and smallpox by integrating a gene encoding protective antigen (PA) of Bacillus anthracis to the genome of the attenuated vaccinia virus strain, KVAC103. Results Immunization with this bivalent vaccine induced antibodies against both PA and vaccinia virus in a mouse model. We also observed that the efficacy of this vaccine can be enhanced by combined immunization with immunoadjuvant-expressing KVAC103. Mouse groups co-immunized with PA-expressing KVAC103 and either interleukin-15 (IL-15) or cholera toxin subunit A (CTA1)-expressing KVAC103 showed increased anti-PA IgG titer and survival rate against B. anthracis spore challenge compared to the group immunized with PA-expressing KVAC103 alone. Conclusions We demonstrated that the attenuated smallpox vaccine KVAC103 is an available platform for a multivalent vaccine and co-immunization of immunoadjuvants can improve vaccine performance. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-021-02121-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deok Bum Park
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea.,Present address: Forensic DNA Division, Gwangju Institute, National Forensic Service, Jeonnam, South Korea
| | - Bo-Eun Ahn
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Hosun Son
- Division of Vaccine Research, Korea National Institute of Health, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Young-Ran Lee
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea.,Present address: Convergence Bioceramic Materials Center, Korea Institute of Ceramic Engineering and Technology, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Yu-Ri Kim
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Su Kyoung Jo
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Jeong-Hoon Chun
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Jae-Yon Yu
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Myung-Min Choi
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Gi-Eun Rhie
- Division of High-risk Pathogens, Bureau of Infectious Disease Diagnosis Control, Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency, Cheongju, South Korea.
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22
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Briquez PS, Hauert S, de Titta A, Gray LT, Alpar AT, Swartz MA, Hubbell JA. Engineering Targeting Materials for Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:19. [PMID: 32117911 PMCID: PMC7026271 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic cancer vaccines constitute a valuable tool to educate the immune system to fight tumors and prevent cancer relapse. Nevertheless, the number of cancer vaccines in the clinic remains very limited to date, highlighting the need for further technology development. Recently, cancer vaccines have been improved by the use of materials, which can strongly enhance their intrinsic properties and biodistribution profile. Moreover, vaccine efficacy and safety can be substantially modulated through selection of the site at which they are delivered, which fosters the engineering of materials capable of targeting cancer vaccines to specific relevant sites, such as within the tumor or within lymphoid organs, to further optimize their immunotherapeutic effects. In this review, we aim to give the reader an overview of principles and current strategies to engineer therapeutic cancer vaccines, with a particular focus on the use of site-specific targeting materials. We will first recall the goal of therapeutic cancer vaccination and the type of immune responses sought upon vaccination, before detailing key components of cancer vaccines. We will then present how materials can be engineered to enhance the vaccine's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Finally, we will discuss the rationale for site-specific targeting of cancer vaccines and provide examples of current targeting technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla S. Briquez
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Sylvie Hauert
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | | | - Laura T. Gray
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Aaron T. Alpar
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Melody A. Swartz
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Ben May Department of Cancer Research, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Jeffrey A. Hubbell
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Committee on Immunology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Chan M, Lao FS, Chu PJ, Shpigelman J, Yao S, Nan J, Sato-Kaneko F, Li V, Hayashi T, Corr M, Carson DA, Cottam HB, Shukla NM. Structure–Activity Relationship Studies To Identify Affinity Probes in Bis-aryl Sulfonamides That Prolong Immune Stimuli. J Med Chem 2019; 62:9521-9540. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Chan
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Fitzgerald S. Lao
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Paul J. Chu
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Jonathan Shpigelman
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Shiyin Yao
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Jason Nan
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Fumi Sato-Kaneko
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Vicky Li
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Tomoko Hayashi
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Maripat Corr
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Dennis A. Carson
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Howard B. Cottam
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
| | - Nikunj M. Shukla
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0695, United States
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Ebrahimi MM, Shahsavandi S, Shayan P. TIR-TLR7 as a Molecular Adjuvant: Simultaneous Enhancing Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses Against Inactivated Infectious Bursal Disease Virus. Viral Immunol 2019; 32:252-257. [PMID: 31107184 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2018.0158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the robust induction of humoral immune responses, a limitation of many adjuvants is their weak stimulation of cellular immunity. The development of synthetic gene-encoding adjuvants for simultaneous induction of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses is under study. In this study, we examined the impact of toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain of toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) as molecular adjuvants on potency of inactivated infectious bursal disease (IBD) vaccines. A total of 60 specific pathogen-free week-old chicks were randomized grouped to receive either TIR-TLR7-adjuvanted IBD-inactivated vaccine or inactivated IBD antigen along with an unvaccinated control. Serum antibody titers were measured to estimate the humoral immunity, as well as lymphocyte proliferation activity for cellular immune responses. The protection was estimated after challenge with a very virulent IBD virus (IBDV) strain at 4 weeks postvaccination. The results indicated that one dose of IBD/TIR-TLR7 vaccine induced specific antibody responses, whereas a lower response after administration of inactivated IBD antigen was observed. The stimulation of splenocytes results indicated that the TIR-TLR7 adjuvanted IBD vaccine is capable of modulating cell-mediated immune response in treated chickens. A full protection against IBDV infection was achieved by injection of one dose IBD/TIR-TLR7 vaccine in the challenge trial. This study demonstrated that codelivery of TIR-TLR7 with inactivated IBD antigen resulted in simultaneous enhancing immune responses against IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Majid Ebrahimi
- 1Poultry Research and Viral Vaccines Production Department, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization, Karaj, Iran.,2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahla Shahsavandi
- 1Poultry Research and Viral Vaccines Production Department, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization, Karaj, Iran
| | - Parviz Shayan
- 2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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Faraji F, Karjoo Z, Moghaddam MV, Heidari S, Emameh RZ, Falak R. Challenges related to the immunogenicity of parenteral recombinant proteins: Underlying mechanisms and new approaches to overcome it. Int Rev Immunol 2018; 37:301-315. [PMID: 29851534 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2018.1471139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Immune response elicited by therapeutic proteins is an important safety and efficacy issue for regulatory agencies, drug manufacturers, clinicians, and patients. Administration of therapeutic proteins can potentially induce the production of anti-drug antibodies or cell-mediated immune responses. At first, it was speculated that the immunogenicity is related to the non-human origin of these proteins. Later on, it was confirmed that the human proteins may also show immunogenicity. In this review article, we will focus on a number of factors, which play crucial roles in the human protein immunogenicity. These factors are related to the patient's status (or intrinsic properties) and molecular characteristics of the therapeutic protein's (or extrinsic properties). Furthermore, we will discuss available in silico, in vitro, and in vivo methods for the prediction of sequences, which may generate an immune response following parenteral administration of these proteins. In summary, nowadays, it is possible for drug manufacturers to evaluate the risk of immunogenicity of therapeutic proteins and implement a management plan to overcome the problems prior to proceeding to human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Faraji
- a Immunology Research Center , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran.,b Department of Immunology, School of Medicine , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Zahra Karjoo
- a Immunology Research Center , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran
| | | | - Sahel Heidari
- a Immunology Research Center , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran.,b Department of Immunology, School of Medicine , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Reza Zolfaghari Emameh
- c Department of Energy and Environmental Biotechnology, Division of Industrial & Environmental Biotechnology , National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB) , Tehran , Iran
| | - Reza Falak
- a Immunology Research Center , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran.,b Department of Immunology, School of Medicine , Iran University of Medical Sciences (IUMS) , Tehran , Iran
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Shi B, Sun A, Zhang X. Influence of different ex vivo cell culture methods on the proliferation and anti-tumor activity of cytokine-induced killer cells from gastric cancer patients. Onco Targets Ther 2018; 11:2657-2672. [PMID: 29780258 PMCID: PMC5951225 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s162281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose In cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cell therapy, the phenotypes and the numbers of CIK cells have a great influence on the therapeutic effects. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different ex vivo cell culture methods on the proliferation and cytotoxicity of CIK cells that were obtained from gastric cancer patients. Patients and methods CIK precursor (Pre-CIK) cells were collected by either hydroxyethyl starch (HES) sedimentation (HES method, unpurified group) or Ficoll-Hypaque density gradient centrifugation (Ficoll method, purified group). Cell number, collection time, and morphology of Pre-CIK cells in the two groups were determined. The proliferation ability, cytokines, phenotypes, and cytotoxicity of CIK cells in the two groups were evaluated ex vivo and in vivo. Results In this study, the number of Pre-CIK cells in the unpurified group was significantly higher than that in the purified group (P<0.05). Numbers of erythrocytes, platelets, and granulocytes were reduced significantly following the purification step (P<0.05). Compared to CIK cells in the purified group, those in the unpurified group showed more active proliferation, accompanied by higher percentages of CD8+, CD3-CD56+, and CD3+CD56+ cells, which were responsible for cytotoxicity of CIK cells (P<0.05). This research also showed that the levels of interferon-γ, interleukin-2, and tumor necrosis factor-α, which can enhance the proliferation and cytotoxicity of CIK cells, were significantly increased in the unpurified group (P<0.05). Furthermore, CIK cells in the unpurified group also showed stronger anti-tumor effects against gastric cancer cells than those in the purified group, both ex vivo and in vivo (P<0.05). Conclusion The removal of Ficoll-Hypaque purification step reduces the time and cost of the Pre-CIK separation and provides more CIK cells with higher cytotoxicity, which is of great importance in the clinical application of CIK cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Shi
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Liaocheng People's Hospital of Taishan Medical University, Liaocheng, Shandong Province, China
| | - Aixia Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Liaocheng People's Hospital, Liaocheng Clinical School of Taishan Medical University, Liaocheng, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xiaorui Zhang
- Department of Health, Liaocheng People's Hospital of Taishan Medical University, Liaocheng, Shandong Province, China
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Ebrahimi MM, Shahsavandi S, Shayan P, Goudarzi H, Masoudi S. Recombinant VP2 expressed in baculovirus and adjuvanted with TIR-TLR7: a vaccine candidate against infectious bursal disease virus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00580-018-2681-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Jiang L, Yu Z, Lin Y, Cui L, Yao S, Lv L, Liu J. Low-molecular-weight polysaccharides from Agaricus blazei Murrill modulate the Th1 response in cancer immunity. Oncol Lett 2018; 15:3429-3436. [PMID: 29467867 PMCID: PMC5796377 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.7794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To assess the effect of low-molecular-weight polysaccharides from Agaricus blazei Murrill (ABP-AW1) as an immunoadjuvant therapy for type 1 T-helper (Th1) responses in tumorigenesis, C57BL/6 mice were inoculated subcutaneously with ovalbumin (E.G7-OVA). After 3, 10 and 17 days, the mice were immunized with PBS, OVA alone, or OVA and ABP-AW1, at low (50 µg), intermediate (100 µg) or high (200 µg) doses. Tumor growth was examined and compared among the groups, as were the following parameters: Splenocyte viability/proliferation, peripheral blood CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio, serum OVA-specific IgG1 and IgG2b, secretion of interleukin (IL)-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ, and IFN-γ production on a single cell level from cultured splenocytes. Tumor growth in mice treated with OVA and ABP-AW1 (100 or 200 µg) was significantly slower, compared with in the other groups at the same time-points. OVA with 100 or 200 µg ABP-AW1 was associated with a higher number of total splenocytes, a higher ratio of peripheral blood CD4+/CD8+ T-lymphocytes, higher serum levels of OVA-specific Th1-type antibody IgG2b and greater secretion of the Th1 cytokines IL-1 and IFN-γ from splenocytes. ABP-AW1 is a promising immunoadjuvant therapy candidate, due to its ability to boost the Th1 immune response when co-administered with a cancer vaccine intended to inhibit cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyan Jiang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Zhipu Yu
- Department of Medical Research, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Yu Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Liran Cui
- Department of Medical Research, The First Affiliated Hospital, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161041, P.R. China
| | - Shujuan Yao
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Liyan Lv
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
| | - Jicheng Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang 161006, P.R. China
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Cao Y, Zhang Q, Xu L, Li S, Wang D, Zhao J, Liu H, Feng J, Lu T. Effects of different cytokines on immune responses of rainbow trout in a virus DNA vaccination model. Oncotarget 2017; 8:112222-112235. [PMID: 29348820 PMCID: PMC5762505 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.23095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven rainbow trout cytokine genes (interleukin (IL)-2, IL-8, IL-15, IL-17, IL-1β, intracellular interferon (iIFN) 1a, and IFN-γ2) were evaluated for their adjuvant effects on a DNA vaccine, called pG, containing the glycoprotein gene of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV). Distinct DNA constructs in expression plasmid pcDNA3.1 encoding a cytokine gene were generated. Immunofluorescence assays in rainbow trout gonadal cells demonstrated successful protein expression from all these constructs. Subsequently, fish were immunized with pG alone or together with a cytokine expression plasmid. Results showed that each cytokine plasmids at an appropriate dose showed notable effects on immune gene expression. IL-17 and IFN-γ2 can enhance early specific IgM response. All cytokines, except IL-8, can benefit initial neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers. At 35 days post immunization (dpi), NAb titers of fish immunized with pG and IL-2, iIFN1a, or IFN-γ2 plasmids remained at high levels (1:160). NAb titers of fish immunized with pG alone decreased to 1:40. IL-8 or IL-1β can enhance antigen-specific proliferative T-cell responses at 14 dpi. At 28 dpi, coinjection of pG with IL-2, IL-8, IL-15, or IL-17 plasmids induced considerably stronger lymphocyte proliferation than that with injection of pG alone. All cytokine plasmids delivered with pG plasmid enhanced protection of trout against IHNV-mediated mortality. These results indicate that the type and dose of trout cytokine genes injected into fish affect quality of immune response to DNA vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongsheng Cao
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qiya Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Liming Xu
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Shaowu Li
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Di Wang
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jingzhuang Zhao
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hongbai Liu
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jian Feng
- Benxi Agrimarine Company Limited, Benxi, China
| | - Tongyan Lu
- Heilongjiang River Fishery Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Harbin, China
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Abstract
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of severe liver disease worldwide. It is estimated that around 130-170 million individuals are chronic carriers of the infection and they are over time at an increased risk of developing severe liver disease. HCV is often referred to as a silent epidemic because the majority of infected individuals do not develop any symptoms. Hence, many individuals are diagnosed at a late stage and thus in need of immediate treatment. Today we have very effective direct-acting antivirals (DAAs), which cure more than 90-95 % of all treated patients. However, this treatment is associated with high-costs and the use is limited to the patients with most advanced liver disease in high-income countries. Notably, a majority of the chronic HCV carriers live in resource-poor countries and do not have access to the new effective DAAs. We therefore need to develop alternative treatments for chronic HCV infection such as therapeutic vaccines. The idea with therapeutic vaccines is to reactivate the infected patient's own immune system. It is well known that patients with chronic HCV infection have dysfunctional immune responses to the virus. Hence, the vaccine should activate HCV-specific T cells that will home to the liver and eradicate the HCV infected hepatocytes. Importantly, one should also consider the combination of a therapeutic vaccine and DAAs as a treatment strategy to equip the resolving patients with post-cure HCV-specific immune responses. This would provide patients with a better protection against reinfection. Numerous genetic vaccine candidates for HCV have been developed and tested in clinical trials with limited effects on viral load and in general inefficient activation of HCV-specific immune responses. In this chapter we describe the rational of developing highly immunogenic vaccines for HCV. Different strategies to improve vaccine immunogenicity and methods to evaluate vaccine efficacy are described. Detailed description of vaccine delivery by intramuscular immunization in combination with in vivo electroporation/electrotransfer (EP/ET) is covered, as well as immunological analysis of primed immune responses by determination of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production by ELISpot assay and direct ex vivo quantification of HCV NS3/4A-specific CD8+ T cells by pentamer staining. To analyze the in vivo functionality of primed NS3/4A-specific T cells we utilized the in vivo bioluminescence imaging technology. In conclusion, this chapter describes a method to design HCV vaccines and also a protocol to assess their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustaf Ahlén
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, F68, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, S-141 86, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars Frelin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, F68, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, S-141 86, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Chen T, Liu N, Liu J, Zhang X, Huang Z, Zang Y, Chen J, Dong L, Zhang J, Ding Z. Gua Sha, a press-stroke treatment of the skin, boosts the immune response to intradermal vaccination. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2451. [PMID: 27672506 PMCID: PMC5028785 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The skin is an important immunological barrier of the body as well as an optimal route for vaccine administration. Gua Sha, which involves press-stroke treatment of the skin, is an effective folk therapy, widely accepted in East Asia, for various symptoms; however, the mechanisms underlying its therapeutic effects have not been clarified. We investigated the influence of Gua Sha on the immunological features of the skin. METHODS Gua Sha was performed on BALB/c mice and the effects were evaluated using anatomical, histological, and cytometric methods as well as cytokine determination locally and systemically. The effect on intradermal vaccination was assessed with antigen-specific subtype antibody responses. RESULTS Blood vessel expansion, erythrocyte extravasation, and increased ratios of immune active cells were observed in the skin tissue following the treatment. Pro-inflammatory cytokines were up-regulated, and immunosuppressive cytokines, down-regulated, in the treated and untreated skin and systemic circulation; no obvious variations were detected in case of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Interestingly, intradermal delivery of a model vaccine following Gua Sha induced about three-fold higher IgG titers with a more Th1-biased antibody subtype profile. CONCLUSION Gua Sha treatment can up-regulate the innate and adaptive immune functions of the skin and boost the response against intradermal antigens. Thus, Gua Sha may serve as a safe, inexpensive, and independent physical adjuvant for intradermal vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ninghua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jinxuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhen Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuhui Zang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiangning Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Junfeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhi Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Salazar-González JA, González-Ortega O, Rosales-Mendoza S. Gold nanoparticles and vaccine development. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1197-211. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1064772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Alberto Salazar-González
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, SLP, 78210, México
| | - Omar González-Ortega
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, SLP, 78210, México
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Guo XQ, Wang LQ, Qiao H, Yang XW, Yang MF, Chen HY. Enhancement of the immunogenicity of a porcine circovirus type 2 DNA vaccine by a recombinant plasmid coexpressing capsid protein and porcine interleukin-6 in mice. Microbiol Immunol 2015; 59:174-80. [DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qing Guo
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine; Henan Agricultural University; 63 Nongye Road Zhengzhou 450002
| | - Lin-Qing Wang
- Department of Life Science; Zhengzhou Normal University; Zhengzhou 450044 Henan Province China
| | - Han Qiao
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine; Henan Agricultural University; 63 Nongye Road Zhengzhou 450002
| | - Xing-Wu Yang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine; Henan Agricultural University; 63 Nongye Road Zhengzhou 450002
| | - Ming-Fan Yang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine; Henan Agricultural University; 63 Nongye Road Zhengzhou 450002
| | - Hong-Ying Chen
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine; Henan Agricultural University; 63 Nongye Road Zhengzhou 450002
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Rosenthal KS, Mikecz K, Steiner HL, Glant TT, Finnegan A, Carambula RE, Zimmerman DH. Rheumatoid arthritis vaccine therapies: perspectives and lessons from therapeutic ligand epitope antigen presentation system vaccines for models of rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:891-908. [PMID: 25787143 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1026330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The current status of therapeutic vaccines for autoimmune diseases is reviewed with rheumatoid arthritis as the focus. Therapeutic vaccines for autoimmune diseases must regulate or subdue responses to common self-antigens. Ideally, such a vaccine would initiate an antigen-specific modulation of the T-cell immune response that drives the inflammatory disease. Appropriate animal models and types of T helper cells and signature cytokine responses that drive autoimmune disease are also discussed. Interpretation of these animal models must be done cautiously because the means of initiation, autoantigens, and even the signature cytokine and T helper cell (Th1 or Th17) responses that are involved in the disease may differ significantly from those in humans. We describe ligand epitope antigen presentation system vaccine modulation of T-cell autoimmune responses as a strategy for the design of therapeutic vaccines for rheumatoid arthritis, which may also be effective in other autoimmune conditions.
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Savelkoul HFJ, Ferro VA, Strioga MM, Schijns VEJC. Choice and Design of Adjuvants for Parenteral and Mucosal Vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2015; 3:148-71. [PMID: 26344951 PMCID: PMC4494243 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines3010148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The existence of pathogens that escape recognition by specific vaccines, the need to improve existing vaccines and the increased availability of therapeutic (non-infectious disease) vaccines necessitate the rational development of novel vaccine concepts based on the induction of protective cell-mediated immune responses. For naive T-cell activation, several signals resulting from innate and adaptive interactions need to be integrated, and adjuvants may interfere with some or all of these signals. Adjuvants, for example, are used to promote the immunogenicity of antigens in vaccines, by inducing a pro-inflammatory environment that enables the recruitment and promotion of the infiltration of phagocytic cells, particularly antigen-presenting cells (APC), to the injection site. Adjuvants can enhance antigen presentation, induce cytokine expression, activate APC and modulate more downstream adaptive immune reactions (vaccine delivery systems, facilitating immune Signal 1). In addition, adjuvants can act as immunopotentiators (facilitating Signals 2 and 3) exhibiting immune stimulatory effects during antigen presentation by inducing the expression of co-stimulatory molecules on APC. Together, these signals determine the strength of activation of specific T-cells, thereby also influencing the quality of the downstream T helper cytokine profiles and the differentiation of antigen-specific T helper populations (Signal 3). New adjuvants should also target specific (innate) immune cells in order to facilitate proper activation of downstream adaptive immune responses and homing (Signal 4). It is desirable that these adjuvants should be able to exert such responses in the context of mucosal administered vaccines. This review focuses on the understanding of the potential working mechanisms of the most well-known classes of adjuvants to be used effectively in vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huub F J Savelkoul
- Cell Biology and Immunology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Valerie A Ferro
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK.
| | - Marius M Strioga
- Department of Immunology, Center of Oncosurgery, National Cancer Institute, P. Baublio Str. 3b-321, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Virgil E J C Schijns
- Cell Biology and Immunology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK.
- ERC-Belgium and ERC-The Netherlands, 5374 RE Schaijk, The Netherlands.
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Wang Y, Lu Y, Liu D, Wei Y, Guo L, Wu H, Huang L, Liu J, Liu C. Enhanced Th1-biased immune efficacy of porcine circovirus type 2 Cap-protein-based subunit vaccine when coadministered with recombinant porcine IL-2 or GM-CSF in mice. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 99:1155-63. [PMID: 25487886 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-6167-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2014] [Revised: 10/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) capsid (Cap) protein is the primary protective antigen responsible for inducing PCV2-specific protective immunity, so it is a desirable target for the development of recombinant subunit vaccines to prevent PCV2-associated diseases. Interleukin 2 (IL-2) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), used as immune adjuvants, have been shown to enhance the immunogenicity of certain antigens or vaccines in various experimental models. In this study, five different subunit vaccines (the PCV2-Cap, Cap-PoIL-2, PCV2-Cap + PoIL-2, Cap-PoGM-CSF, and PCV2-Cap + PoGM-CSF vaccines) were prepared based on baculovirus-expressed recombinant proteins. The immunogenicity of these vaccines was evaluated to identify the immunoenhancement by PoIL-2 and PoGM-CSF of the Cap-protein-based PCV2 subunit vaccine in mice. The PCV2-Cap + PoIL-2, Cap-PoGM-CSF, PCV2-Cap + PoGM-CSF, and PCV2-Cap vaccines induced significantly higher levels of PCV2-specific antibodies than the Cap-PoIL-2 vaccine, whereas there was no apparent difference between these four vaccines. Our results indicate that neither PoIL-2 nor PoGM-CSF had effect on the enhancement of the humoral immunity induced by the PCV2-Cap vaccine. Furthermore, the PCV2-Cap + PoIL-2, Cap-PoGM-CSF, and PCV2-Cap + PoGM-CSF vaccines elicited stronger lymphocyte proliferative responses and greater IL-2 and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) secretion. This suggests that PoIL-2 and PoGM-CSF substantially augmented the Th1-biased immune response to the PCV2-Cap vaccine. Following challenge, the viral loads in the lungs of the PCV2-Cap + PoIL-2-, Cap-PoGM-CSF-, and PCV2-Cap + PoGM-CSF-treated groups were dramatically lower than those in the Cap-PoIL-2- and PCV2-Cap-treated groups, indicating that the three vaccines induced stronger protective effects against challenge. These findings show that PoIL-2 and PoGM-CSF essentially enhanced the Th1-biased protective efficacy of the PCV2-Cap vaccine when coadministered with the protein or delivered as Cap-PoGM-CSF, and that the "antigen-cytokine"- or "antigen + cytokine"-based vaccines that we report here provide new basis for the development of safer and more effective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiping Wang
- Division of Swine Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
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A eukaryotic expression plasmid carrying chicken interleukin-18 enhances the response to newcastle disease virus vaccine. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2014; 22:56-64. [PMID: 25355794 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00636-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is an important cytokine involved in innate and acquired immunity. In this study, we cloned the full-length chicken IL-18 (ChIL-18) gene from specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chicken embryo spleen cells and provided evidence that the ChIL-18 gene in a recombinant plasmid was successfully expressed in chicken DT40 cells. ChIL-18 significantly enhanced gamma interferon (IFN-γ) mRNA expression in chicken splenocytes, which increased IFN-γ-induced nitric oxide (NO) synthesis by macrophages. The potential genetic adjuvant activity of the ChIL-18 plasmid was examined in chickens by coinjecting ChIL-18 plasmid and inactivated Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine. ChIL-18 markedly elevated serum hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers and anti-hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (anti-HN)-specific antibody levels, induced the secretion of both Th1- (IFN-γ) and Th2- (interleukin-4) type cytokines, promoted the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes, and increased the populations of CD3(+) T cells and their subsets, CD3(+) CD4(+) and CD3(+) CD8(+) T cells. Furthermore, a virus challenge revealed that ChIL-18 contributed to protection against Newcastle disease virus challenge. Taken together, our data indicate that the coadministration of ChIL-18 plasmid and NDV vaccine induces a strong immune response at both the humoral and cellular levels and that ChIL-18 is a novel immunoadjuvant suitable for NDV vaccination.
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Wang S, Yu Y, Geng S, Wang D, Zhang L, Xie X, Wu B, Li C, Xu H, Li X, Hu Y, Zhang L, Kaether C, Wang B. A coimmunization vaccine of Aβ42 ameliorates cognitive deficits without brain inflammation in an Alzheimer's disease model. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2014; 6:26. [PMID: 24987466 PMCID: PMC4075150 DOI: 10.1186/alzrt256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Vaccination against amyloid-β protein (Aβ42) induces high levels of antibody, making it a promising strategy for treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). One drawback in the past was that clinical trial approval was withheld because of speculation that the Aβ42 vaccine induces CD4(+) T cell infiltrations into the central nervous system. To reduce T-cell activation while concomitantly maintaining high anti-Aβ42 titers is a great challenge in immunology. METHODS We aimed to demonstrate that coimmunization with Aβ42 protein and expression plasmid can be beneficial in a mouse AD model and can prevent inflammation. We immunized the AD mice with the coimmunization vaccine and assessed behavior change and Aβ42 deposition. Furthermore, to determine the safety of the coimmunization vaccine, we used an induced Aβ42-EAE model to mimic the meningoencephalitis that happened in the AN-1792 vaccine clinical phase II trial and tested whether the coimmunization vaccine could ameliorate T-cell-mediated brain inflammation. RESULTS The coimmunization vaccination reduced Aβ plaques and significantly ameliorated cognitive deficit while inhibiting T-cell-mediated brain inflammation and infiltration. These studies demonstrate that the coimmunization strategy that we describe in this article can ameliorate AD pathology without notable adverse effects in mice. CONCLUSIONS A coimmunization strategy leading to the development of a safe immunotherapeutic/preventive protocol against AD in humans is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOH and MOE, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, 131 Dong An Road, Shanghai 200032, China ; State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology and College of Biologic Sciences, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yang Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology and College of Biologic Sciences, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China ; Present address: MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Shuang Geng
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOH and MOE, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, 131 Dong An Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Dongmei Wang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Comparative Medical Center, 5 South Panjiayuan, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Comparative Medical Center, 5 South Panjiayuan, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Xiaoping Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology and College of Biologic Sciences, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology and College of Biologic Sciences, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chaofan Li
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOH and MOE, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, 131 Dong An Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hanqian Xu
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology and College of Biologic Sciences, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaolin Li
- Institute for Age Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Beutenbergstraße 11, Jena D-07745, Germany
| | - Yanxin Hu
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lianfeng Zhang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Comparative Medical Center, 5 South Panjiayuan, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Christoph Kaether
- Institute for Age Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Beutenbergstraße 11, Jena D-07745, Germany
| | - Bin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOH and MOE, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, 131 Dong An Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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Junqueira-Kipnis AP, Marques Neto LM, Kipnis A. Role of Fused Mycobacterium tuberculosis Immunogens and Adjuvants in Modern Tuberculosis Vaccines. Front Immunol 2014; 5:188. [PMID: 24795730 PMCID: PMC4005953 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Several approaches have been developed to improve or replace the only available vaccine for tuberculosis (TB), BCG (Bacille Calmette Guerin). The development of subunit protein vaccines is a promising strategy because it combines specificity and safety. In addition, subunit protein vaccines can be designed to have selected immune epitopes associated with immunomodulating components to drive the appropriate immune response. However, the limited antigens present in subunit vaccines reduce their capacity to stimulate a complete immune response compared with vaccines composed of live attenuated or killed microorganisms. This deficiency can be compensated by the incorporation of adjuvants in the vaccine formulation. The fusion of adjuvants with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) proteins or immune epitopes has the potential to become the new frontier in the TB vaccine development field. Researchers have addressed this approach by fusing the immune epitopes of their vaccines with molecules such as interleukins, lipids, lipoproteins, and immune stimulatory peptides, which have the potential to enhance the immune response. The fused molecules are being tested as subunit vaccines alone or within live attenuated vector contexts. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to discuss the association of Mtb fusion proteins with adjuvants; Mtb immunogens fused with adjuvants; and cytokine fusion with Mtb proteins and live recombinant vectors expressing cytokines. The incorporation of adjuvant molecules in a vaccine can be complex, and developing a stable fusion with proteins is a challenging task. Overall, the fusion of adjuvants with Mtb epitopes, despite the limited number of studies, is a promising field in vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Paula Junqueira-Kipnis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, Pathology and Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás , Goiânia , Brazil
| | - Lázaro Moreira Marques Neto
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, Pathology and Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás , Goiânia , Brazil
| | - André Kipnis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, Pathology and Parasitology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás , Goiânia , Brazil
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40
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Developing inexpensive malaria vaccines from plants and algae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 98:1983-90. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-5477-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Revised: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Abstract
The goal of active vaccination is to induce all the immune effector pathways and to establish immunological memory allowing prolonged surveillance against pathogens or cancer cells. DNA vaccination platform is an intriguing strategy owing to its ability to mobilize both branches of the immune system (i.e., innate immunity as well as adaptive immunity). Since plasmids offer several advantages for biotechnological applications due to their modular structure and easy manipulation, a wide range of strategies can be applied to improve DNA vaccine performance. This chapter discusses this topic in detail taking into account antigen/epitope selection and optimization, inclusion of intracellular targeting sequences and genetic adjuvants, and provision of T cell help.
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A novel emulsion-type adjuvant containing CpG oligodeoxynucleotides enhances CD8+ T-cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity. J Control Release 2013; 173:158-65. [PMID: 24177312 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
PELC is a novel emulsion-type adjuvant that contains the bioresorbable polymer poly (ethylene glycol)-block-poly (lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PEG-b-PLACL), Span®85 and squalene. To investigate whether PELC is able to enhance CTL responses of antigens for treating tumor, peptides or protein antigens derived from HPV16 E7 were formulated with PELC nanoparticles and CpG oligodeoxynucleotide. We identified that PELC formulation could delay the release of antigens in vitro and in vivo. We assessed the immunogenicity of an H-2D(b)-restricted CTL epitope RAHYNIVTF (RAH) formulated with PELC or PELC/CpG and investigated the ability of these formulations to promote tumor regression. Following a single-dose subcutaneous injection in mice, we found that the RAH peptide formulated with PELC/CpG (RAH/PELC/CpG) resulted in increased numbers of IFN-γ-secreting cells and RAH-specific CD8(+) T cells and an enhanced cytotoxic T cell response compared with RAH formulated with PELC or CpG alone. The tumor-bearing mice received a single-dose injection of RAH/PELC/CpG, which induced complete tumor regression. These results demonstrated that peptide antigen formulated with PELC/CpG nanoparticles is feasible for cancer immunotherapy.
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García A, De Sanctis JB. An overview of adjuvant formulations and delivery systems. APMIS 2013; 122:257-67. [PMID: 23919674 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Adjuvants may promote immune responses: by recruiting professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to the vaccination site, increasing the delivery of antigens to APCs, or by activating APCs to produce cytokines and by triggering T cell responses. Aluminium salts have been effective at promoting protective humoral immunity; however, they are not effective in generating cell-mediated immunity. A number of different approaches have been developed to potentiate immune response and they have been partially successful. Research has been conducted into vaccine delivery systems (VDS); enhancing cross-presentation by targeting antigens to (APCs). Antigen discovery has increased over the past decade, and consequently, it has accelerated vaccine development demanding a new generation of VDS that combines different types of adjuvants into specific formulations with greater activity. The new approaches offer a wide spectrum of opportunities in vaccine research with direct applications in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis García
- Instituto de Inmunologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Apartado, Venezuela
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Liang TJ. Current progress in development of hepatitis C virus vaccines. Nat Med 2013; 19:869-78. [PMID: 23836237 PMCID: PMC6263146 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite major advances in the understanding and treatment of hepatitis C, a preventive vaccine remains elusive. The marked genetic diversity and multiple mechanisms of persistence of hepatitis C virus, combined with the relatively poor immune response of the infected host against the virus, are major barriers. The lack of robust and convenient model systems further hampers the effort to develop an effective vaccine. Advances in our understanding of virus-host interactions and protective immunity in hepatitis C virus infection provide an important roadmap to develop potent and broadly directed vaccine candidates targeting both humoral and cellular immune responses. Multiple approaches to generating and testing viral immunogens have met with variable success. Several candidates have advanced to clinical trials based on promising results in chimpanzees. The ultimate path to a successful preventive vaccine requires comprehensive evaluations of all aspects of protective immunity, innovative application of state-of-the-art vaccine technology and properly designed vaccine trials that can affirm definitive endpoints of efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Jake Liang
- Liver Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) vaccine efficacy and FIV neutralizing antibodies. Vaccine 2013; 32:746-54. [PMID: 23800540 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A HIV-1 tier system has been developed to categorize the various subtype viruses based on their sensitivity to vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies (NAbs): tier 1 with greatest sensitivity, tier 2 being moderately sensitive, and tier 3 being the least sensitive to NAbs (Mascola et al., J Virol 2005; 79:10103-7). Here, we define an FIV tier system using two related FIV dual-subtype (A+D) vaccines: the commercially available inactivated infected-cell vaccine (Fel-O-Vax(®) FIV) and its prototype vaccine solely composed of inactivated whole viruses. Both vaccines afforded combined protection rates of 100% against subtype-A tier-1 FIVPet, 89% against subtype-B tier-3 FIVFC1, 61% against recombinant subtype-A/B tier-2 FIVBang, 62% against recombinant subtype-F'/C tier-3 FIVNZ1, and 40% against subtype-A tier-2 FIVUK8 in short-duration (37-41 weeks) studies. In long-duration (76-80 weeks) studies, the commercial vaccine afforded a combined protection rate of at least 46% against the tier-2 and tier-3 viruses. Notably, protection rates observed here are far better than recently reported HIV-1 vaccine trials (Sanou et al., The Open AIDS J 2012; 6:246-60). Prototype vaccine protection against two tier-3 and one tier-2 viruses was more effective than commercial vaccine. Such protection did not correlate with the presence of vaccine-induced NAbs to challenge viruses. This is the first large-scale (228 laboratory cats) study characterizing short- and long-duration efficacies of dual-subtype FIV vaccines against heterologous subtype and recombinant viruses, as well as FIV tiers based on in vitro NAb analysis and in vivo passive-transfer studies. These studies demonstrate that not all vaccine protection is mediated by vaccine-induced NAbs.
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Liniger M, Summerfield A, Ruggli N. MDA5 can be exploited as efficacious genetic adjuvant for DNA vaccination against lethal H5N1 influenza virus infection in chickens. PLoS One 2012; 7:e49952. [PMID: 23227156 PMCID: PMC3515599 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chickens lack the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and sense avian influenza virus (AIV) infections by means of the melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 product (chMDA5). Plasmid-driven expression of the N-terminal half of chMDA5 containing the caspase activation and recruitment domains [chMDA5(1-483)] triggers interferon-β responses in chicken cells. We hypothesized that mimicking virus infection by chMDA5(1-483) expression may enhance vaccine-induced adaptive immunity. In order to test this, the potential genetic adjuvant properties of chMDA5(1-483) were evaluated in vivo in combination with a suboptimal quantity of a plasmid DNA vaccine expressing haemagglutinin (HA) of H5N1 AIV. Co-administration of the HA plasmid with plasmid DNA for chMDA5(1-483) expression resulted in approximately 10-fold higher HA-specific antibody responses than injection of the HA plasmid mixed with empty vector DNA as control. Accordingly, compared with HA DNA vaccination alone, the chMDA5(1-483)-adjuvanted HA DNA vaccine mediated enhanced protection against a lethal H5N1 challenge infection in chickens, with reduced clinical signs and cloacal virus shedding. These data demonstrate that innate immune activation by expression of signaling domains of RIG-I-like receptors can be exploited to enhance vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Liniger
- Research Department, Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis (IVI), Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Artur Summerfield
- Research Department, Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis (IVI), Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Ruggli
- Research Department, Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis (IVI), Mittelhäusern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Hartley C, Salisbury AM, Wigley P. CpG oligonucleotides and recombinant interferon-γ in combination improve protection in chickens to Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis challenge as an adjuvant component, but have no effect in reducing Salmonella carriage in infected chickens. Avian Pathol 2012; 41:77-82. [PMID: 22845324 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2011.640305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis is the most common cause of human salmonellosis in many developed nations. It is frequently associated with both poultry meat and eggs. In the present study we have determined whether CpG oligonucleotides that stimulate the immune system via Toll like-receptors 15 and 21 in the chicken can be used as immunomodulatory agents to break carriage of S. Enteritidis in in vitro and in vivo infection models. We also investigated its use as a component in an adjuvant to stimulate cell mediated immunity with a killed vaccine preparation. Following infection of the chicken macrophage-like cell line HD11 with Salmonella enterica serovar Gallinarum, cells were stimulated with an oligonucleotide containing a CpG motif, or with a non-CpG oligonucleotide control at concentrations ranging from 0 to 80 µM. Addition of the CpG oligonucleotide greatly enhanced clearance of S. Enteritidis in dose-dependent manner, whilst the control oligonucleotide had no significant effect. In contrast, stimulation of cells infected with S. Gallinarum had no effect. The CpG or control oligonucleotide with recombinant chicken interferon-γ was administered intramuscularly into chickens experimentally colonized with S. Enteritidis, although neither preparation produced any change in intestinal colonization levels to that in untreated control birds. Finally, CpG oligonucleotides were incorporated with recombinant interferon-γ, double-stranded RNA (Poly I:C) and squalene as a Th1-stimulating combined adjuvant for synergistic activation of cellular immunity (CASAC) together with whole killed Salmonella as the antigen as an experimental vaccine. Following vaccination and challenge of chickens with S. Enteritidis, CASAC gave significant protection to intestinal colonization whereas the same antigen given with a proprietary adjuvant did not. Neither adjuvant increased protection to systemic infection. The data suggest that adjuvants incorporating CpG motifs and interferon-γ may improve protection afforded by killed-Salmonella vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Hartley
- National Centre for Zoonosis Research & Department of Infection Biology, Institute for Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK
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Wang YP, Liu D, Guo LJ, Tang QH, Wei YW, Wu HL, Liu JB, Li SB, Huang LP, Liu CM. Enhanced protective immune response to PCV2 subunit vaccine by co-administration of recombinant porcine IFN-γ in mice. Vaccine 2012; 31:833-8. [PMID: 23219694 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.11.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The capsid (Cap) protein of PCV2 is the major immunogenic protein that is crucial to induce PCV2-specific neutralizing antibodies and protective immunity; thus, it is a suitable target antigen for the research and development of genetically engineered vaccines against PCV2 infection. IFN-γ has exhibited potential efficacy as an immune adjuvant that enhances the immunogenicity of certain vaccines in experimental animal models. In this study, three recombinant proteins: PCV2-Cap protein, porcine IFN-γ (PoIFN-γ), and the fusion protein (Cap-PoIFN-γ) of PCV2-Cap protein and PoIFN-γ were respectively expressed in the baculovirus system, and analyzed by Western blot and indirect ELISA. Additionally, we evaluated the enhancement of the protective immune response to the Cap protein-based PCV2 subunit vaccine elicited by co-administration of PoIFN-γ in mice. Vaccination of mice with the PCV2-Cap+PoIFN-γ vaccine elicited significantly higher levels of PCV2-specific IPMA antibodies, neutralizing antibodies, and lymphocyte proliferative responses compared to the Cap-PoIFN-γ vaccine, the PCV2-Cap vaccine, and LG-strain. Following virulent PCV2 challenge, no viraemia was detected in all immunized groups, and the viral loads in lungs of the PCV2-Cap+PoIFN-γ group were significantly lower compared to the Cap-PoIFN-γ group, the LG-strain group, and the mock group, but slightly lower compared to the PCV2-Cap group. These findings suggested that PoIFN-γ substantially enhanced the protective immune response to the Cap protein-based PCV2 subunit vaccine, and that the PCV2-Cap+PoIFN-γ subunit vaccine potentially serves as an attractive candidate vaccine for the prevention and control of PCV2-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ping Wang
- Division of Swine Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
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Abstract
The innate immune system is responsible for recognizing invading pathogens and initiating a protective response. In particular, the retinoic acid-inducible gene 1 protein (RIG-I) participates in the recognition of single- and double-stranded RNA viruses. RIG-I activation leads to the production of an appropriate cytokine and chemokine cocktail that stimulates an antiviral state and drives the adaptive immune system toward an efficient and specific response against the ongoing infection. One of the best-characterized natural RIG-I agonists is the defective interfering (DI) RNA produced by Sendai virus strain Cantell. This 546-nucleotide RNA is a well-known activator of the innate immune system and an extremely potent inducer of type I interferon. We designed an in vitro-transcribed RNA that retains the type I interferon stimulatory properties, and the RIG-I affinity of the Sendai virus produced DI RNA both in vitro and in vivo. This in vitro-synthesized RNA is capable of enhancing the production of anti-influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA)-specific IgG after intramuscular or intranasal coadministration with inactivated H1N1 2009 pandemic vaccine. Furthermore, our adjuvant is equally effective at increasing the efficiency of an influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 virus inactivated vaccine as a poly(I·C)- or a squalene-based adjuvant. Our in vitro-transcribed DI RNA represents an excellent tool for the study of RIG-I agonists as vaccine adjuvants and a starting point in the development of such a vaccine.
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