Sidedness of the ATP-Na+-K+ interactions with the Na+ pump in squid axons

The glutamatergic system in the development of stress-induced depression

Major depression is one of the most prevalent neuropsychological disorders and affects millions worldwide. In response, the monoaminergic system has been proposed to be one of the major focuses for conventional drugs in the treatment of depression, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Meanwhile, accumulating evidence suggests a paradigm shift from the monoamine system towards the glutamatergic system (Gerard Sanacora, Giulia Treccani, and Maurizio Popoli 2012) due to the long onset of the monoamine system targeting anti-depressant drugs. Both clinical and pre-clinical data support that glutamatergic system dysfunction were involved in the development of depression. Furthermore, therapeutic approaches that manipulating neuronal activity and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist were shown to have profound effects in the treatment of depression. Here, I systematically reviewed our current understanding of the involvement of glutamatergic system dysregulation in the development of depression, which potentially could provide the mechanistic basis for future treatment development.

Supplementation with Lactobacillus helveticus NS8 alleviated behavioral, neural, endocrine, and microbiota abnormalities in an endogenous rat model of depression

Introduction

Major depressive disorder is a condition involving microbiota-gut-brain axis dysfunction. Increasing research aims to improve depression through gut microbiota regulation, including interventions such as probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplants. However, most research focuses on exogenous depression induced by chronic stress or drugs, with less attention given to endogenous depression. Additionally, research on gut mycobiota in depression is significantly less than that on gut bacteria.

Methods

In the present study, Wistar-Kyoto rats were used as an endogenous depression and treatment-resistant depression model, while Wistar rats served as controls. Differences between the two rat strains in behavior, gut bacteria, gut mycobiota, nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and gut barrier were evaluated. Additionally, the effects of Lactobacillus helveticus NS8 supplementation were investigated.

Results

Wistar-Kyoto rats demonstrated increased depressive-like behaviors in the forced swimming test, reduced sucrose preference in the sucrose preference test, and decreased locomotor activity in the open field test. They also exhibited abnormal gut bacteria and mycobiota, characterized by higher bacterial α-diversity but lower fungal α-diversity, along with increased butyrate, L-tyrosine, and L-phenylalanine biosynthesis from bacteria. Furthermore, these rats showed dysfunction in the microbiota-gut-brain axis, evidenced by a hypo-serotonergic system, hyper-noradrenergic system, defective hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, compromised gut barrier integrity, heightened serum inflammation, and diminished gut immunity. A 1-month L. helveticus NS8 intervention increased the fecal abundance of L. helveticus; reduced the abundance of Bilophila and Debaryomycetaceae; decreased immobility time but increased climbing time in the forced swimming test; reduced hippocampal corticotropin-releasing hormone levels; decreased hypothalamic norepinephrine levels; increased hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor dopamine, and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid content; and improved the gut microbiota, serotonergic, and noradrenergic system.

Conclusion

The depressive phenotype of Wistar-Kyoto rats is not only attributed to their genetic context but also closely related to their gut microbiota. Abnormal gut microbiota and a dysfunctional microbiota-gut-brain axis play important roles in endogenous depression, just as they do in exogenous depression. Supplementing with probiotics such as L. helveticus NS8 is likely a promising approach to improve endogenous depression and treatment-resistant depression.

Linalool-rich rosewood essential oil (Aniba rosaeodora Ducke) mitigates emotional and neurochemical impairments induced by ethanol binge-like exposure during adolescence in female rats

Linalool-rich Rosewood oil (Aniba rosaeodora Ducke) is a natural compound widely used in perfumery industry. Evidence suggests that linalool exerts antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. Conversely, ethanol binge drinking (i.e., intermittent and episodic consumption) during adolescence elicits neurobehavioral alterations associated with brain damage. Here, we investigated whether linalool-rich Rosewood oil administration can improve the emotional and molecular impairments associated with ethanol binge-like exposure during adolescence in female rats. Rosewood oil was obtained by hydrodistillation and posteriorly analyzed. Adolescent female Wistar rats received four-cycles of ethanol binge-like pattern (3 g/kg/day, 3 days on/4 days off) and daily Rosewood oil (35 mg/kg, intranasally) for 28 days. Twenty-four hours after treatments, it was evaluated the impact of ethanol exposure and Rosewood oil treatment on the putative emotional impairments assessed on the splash and forced swimming tests, as well as the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), S100B, oxidative parameters, and inflammatory cytokines in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Results indicated that Rosewood oil intranasal administration mitigated emotional impairments induced by ethanol exposure accompanied by a marked increase in BDNF, S100B, glutathione (GSH), and antioxidant activity equivalent to Trolox (TEAC) levels in brain areas. Rosewood oil treatment also prevented the ethanol-induced increase of interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and neurofilament light chain (NFL) levels. These findings provide the first evidence that Rosewood oil intranasal administration exerts protective effects against emotional and molecular impairments associated with adolescent ethanol binge-like exposure, possibly due to linalool actions triggering neurotrophic factors, rebalancing antioxidant status, and attenuating proinflammatory process.

Comparative Efficacy of Animal Depression Models and Antidepressant Treatment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Animal models are critical tools in the study of psychiatric disorders; however, none of the current models fully reflect human stress-related disorders, even though most of the knowledge about the mechanisms of depression comes from animal studies. Animal studies are useful in pharmacological research, whereby we can obtain results that translate into patient treatment by controlling environmental factors, especially in behavioural research. The authors systematically reviewed this issue since medical databases provide access to many primary studies.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted based on 25 primary studies. The studies were identified in databases such as PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science (December 2022) according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria established at the beginning of the research and published in the form of a protocol, following the PRISMA and Cochrane Collaboration methodology for secondary studies and CAMARADES (CAMARADES Berlin, QUEST-BIH Charité) for secondary studies on animals. Forest plot analyses were performed (data presented as Mean Difference, Random Model, Inverse Variance), Risk of Bias assessment (Systematic Review Center for Laboratory animal Experimentation (SYRCLE) evaluation), quality assessment of included studies (Animal research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE)), and a range of data from source publications were compiled in tabular form. The study analysed the popularity of both animal depression models (ADM) and rat strains used in pharmacological research to test the efficacy of antidepressant drugs based on the immobility time (IT) factor (Forced Swimming Test). The study examined selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, namely fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine, citalopram, and escitalopram. Additionally, the study addressed issues concerning the "data availability statement" because precise IT data analysis was impossible in the case of 212 papers.

RESULTS

Our data confirm that the Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress (CUMS) model is the most popular and versatile model used in preclinical depression research, while the two most popular rat strains were Wistar and Sprague-Dawley. The quality of included papers based on the ARRIVE assessment showed a ratio value equal to 0.63, meaning that studies were of intermediate overall quality. The Risk of Bias assessment based on the SYRCLE tool revealed a high risk related to the blinding and the random outcome assessment. In the meta-analysis, the results indicate that all analysed drugs demonstrated efficacy in reducing IT, and the most analysed drug was fluoxetine (confirmed based on 17 studies (19 models)). The analysis of the efficacy of ADMs showed that the most effective models were CUMS, Flinders Sensitive Line (genetic model), Social Isolation, Restraint Stress, and Low-dose Lipopolysaccharide (pharmacological model). Only 2.35% (5 out of 212) of corresponding authors responded to our data request.

CONCLUSIONS

The study highlights the dominance of the CUMS model and the Wistar and Sprague-Dawley rat strains in preclinical depression research, affirming the efficacy of SSRIs, particularly fluoxetine, in reducing IT. The findings underscore the need for better data availability and methodological improvements despite intermediate overall study quality and notable bias risks. Enhanced transparency and rigorous assessment standards are essential for advancing the reliability of animal models in depression research.

Reserpine-induced rat model for depression: Behavioral, physiological and PET-based dopamine receptor availability validation

BACKGROUND

Reserpine (RES), a Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2 (VMAT2) inhibitor agent, has been used in preclinical research for many years to create animal models for depression and to test experimental antidepressant strategies. Nevertheless, evidence of the potential use and validity of RES as a chronic pharmacological model for depression is lacking, and there are no comprehensive studies of the behavioral effects in conjunction with molecular outcomes.

METHODS

Experiment 1. Following baseline behavior testing sensitive to depression-like phenotype and locomotion (Phase 1), 27 Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats received i.p. either vehicle solution (0.0 mg/kg), low (0.2 mg/kg) or high (0.8 mg/kg) RES dose for 20 days using a pre-determined schedule and reassessed for behavioral phenotypes (Phase 2). After 10 days washout period, and a final behavioral assessment (Phase 3), the brains were collected 16 days after the last injection for mRNA-expression assessment. Experiment 2. In a similar timetable as in Experiment 1 but without the behavioral testing, 12 SD rats underwent repetitive dopamine D2/3 receptor PET scanning with [18F]DMFP following each Phase. The binding potential (BPND) of [18F]DMFP was quantified by kinetic analysis as a marker of striatal D2/3R availability. Weight and welfare were monitored throughout the study.

RESULTS

Significant, dose-dependent weight loss and behavioral deficits including both motor (hypo-locomotion) and non-motor behavior (anhedonia, mild anxiety and reduced exploration) were found for both the low and high dose groups with significant decrease in D2R mRNA expression in the accumbal region for the low RES group after Phase 3. Both RES treated groups showed substantial increase in [18F]DMFP BPND (in line with dopamine depletion) during Phase 2 and 3 compared to baseline and Controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The longitudinal design of the study demonstrated that chronic RES administration induced striatal dopamine depletion that persisted even after the wash-out period. However, the behavior phenotype observed were transient. The data suggest that RES administration can induce a rodent model for depression with mild face validity.

A scoping review of the effects of mushroom and fungus extracts in rodent models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity

One of the most important developments in psychopharmacology in the past decade has been the emergence of novel treatments for mood disorders, such as psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. Psilocybin is most commonly found in different species of mushroom; however, the literature on mushroom and fungus extracts with potential antidepressant activity extends well beyond just psilocybin-containing mushrooms, and includes both psychedelic and non-psychedelic species. In the current review, we systematically review the preclinical literature on mushroom and fungus extracts, and their effects of animal models of depression and tests of antidepressant activity. The PICO structure, PRISMA checklist and the Cochrane Handbook for systematic reviews of intervention were used to guide the search strategy. A scoping search was conducted in electronic databases PubMed, CINAHL, Embase and Web of Science. The literature search identified 50 relevant and suitable published studies. These included 19 different species of mushrooms, as well as seven different species of other fungi. Nearly all studies reported antidepressant-like effects of treatment with extracts. Treatments were most commonly delivered orally, in both acute and chronically administered studies to predominantly male rodents. Multiple animal models of depression were used, the most common being unpredictable chronic mild stress, while the tail suspension test and forced swim test were most frequently used as standalone antidepressant screens. Details on each experiment with mushroom and fungus species are discussed in detail, while an evaluation is provided of the strengths and weaknesses of these studies.

Short- and Long-Term Effects of Subchronic Stress Exposure in Male and Female Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Knock-In Val66Met Mice

Stress is an important risk factor for the onset of anxiety and depression. The ability to cope with stressful events varies among different subjects, probably depending on different genetic variants, sex and previous life experiences. The Val66Met variant of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which impairs the activity-dependent secretion of BDNF, has been associated with increased susceptibility to the development of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Adult male and female wild-type Val/Val (BDNFV/V) and heterozygous Val/Met (BDNFV/M) mice were exposed to two sessions of forced swimming stress (FSS) per day for two consecutive days. The mice were behaviorally tested 1 day (short-term effect) or 11 days (long-term effect) after the last stress session. Protein and mRNA levels were measured in the hippocampus 16 days after the end of stress exposure. Stressed mice showed a higher anxiety-like phenotype compared to non-stressed mice, regardless of the sex and genotype, when analyzed following the short period of stress. In the prolonged period, anxiety-like behavior persisted only in male BDNFV/M mice (p < 0.0001). Interestingly, recovery in male BDNFV/V mice was accompanied by an increase in pCREB (p < 0.001) and Bdnf4 (p < 0.01) transcript and a decrease in HDAC1 (p < 0.05) and Dnmt3a (p = 0.01) in the hippocampus. Overall, our results show that male and female BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice can recover from subchronic stress in different ways.

Behavioral and Cognitive Comorbidities in Genetic Rat Models of Absence Epilepsy (Focusing on GAERS and WAG/Rij Rats)

Absence epilepsy is a non-convulsive type of epilepsy characterized by the sudden loss of awareness. It is associated with thalamo-cortical impairment, which may cause neuropsychiatric and neurocognitive problems. Rats with spontaneous absence-like seizures are widely used as in vivo genetic models for absence epilepsy; they display behavioral and cognitive problems similar to epilepsy in humans, such as genetic absence epilepsy rats from Strasbourg (GAERS) and Wistar Albino rats from Rijswijk (WAG/Rij). Depression- and anxiety-like behaviors were apparent in GAERS, but no anxiety and depression-like symptoms were found in WAG/Rij rats. Deficits in executive functions and memory impairment in WAG/Rij rats, i.e., cognitive comorbidities, were linked to the severity of epilepsy. Wistar rats can develop spontaneous seizures in adulthood, so caution is advised when using them as a control epileptic strain. This review discusses challenges in the field, such as putative high emotionality in genetically prone rats, sex differences in the expression of cognitive comorbidities, and predictors of cognitive problems or biomarkers of cognitive comorbidities in absence epilepsy, as well as the concept of "the cognitive thalamus". The current knowledge of behavioral and cognitive comorbidities in drug-naive rats with spontaneous absence epilepsy is beneficial for understanding the pathophysiology of absence epilepsy, and for finding new treatment strategies.

Assessment of commonly used tests in experimental depression studies according to behavioral patterns of rodents

Considering the main factor that causes or triggers depression in humans is stress. Several stress factors are applied to form depression-like symptoms in rodents. Depression tests are used to analyze the nature and patterns of depression. Well-founded modeling and versatile evaluation of tests are necessary to investigate a hypothesis that is related to depression. It is impossible to model or test all aspects of depression in humans by using experimental animals. As a result, the aims of the study should be determined specifically in depression models. The correct interpretation of the tests that are suitable for these aims is indispensable for the reliability of the data. To achieve this goal, the biological basis of the depression-related behaviors of animals should be well known. In this review, model and test concepts related to depression are discussed and behavioral patterns of rodents are explained with several examples.

Viral-mediated expression of Erk2 in the nucleus accumbens regulates responses to rewarding and aversive stimuli

Second-messenger signaling within the mesolimbic reward circuit is involved in both the long-lived effects of stress and in the underlying mechanisms that promote drug abuse liability. To determine the direct role of kinase signaling within the nucleus accumbens, specifically mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (ERK2), in mood- and drug-related behavior, we used a herpes-simplex virus to up- or down-regulate ERK2 in adult male rats. We then exposed rats to a battery of behavioral tasks including the elevated plus-maze, open field test, forced-swim test, conditioned place preference, and finally cocaine self-administration. Herein, we show that viral overexpression or knockdown of ERK2 in the nucleus accumbens induces distinct behavioral phenotypes. Specifically, over expression of ERK2 facilitated depression- and anxiety-like behavior while also increasing sensitivity to cocaine. Conversely, down-regulation of ERK2 attenuated behavioral deficits, while blunting sensitivity to cocaine. Taken together, these data implicate ERK2 signaling, within the nucleus accumbens, in the regulation of affective behaviors and modulating sensitivity to the rewarding properties of cocaine.

A mapping review of refinements to laboratory rat housing and husbandry

Refining the housing and husbandry of laboratory rats is an important goal, both for ethical reasons and to allow better quality research. We conducted a mapping review of 1,017 studies investigating potential refinements of housing and husbandry of the laboratory rat to assess what refinements have, and have not, been studied, and to briefly assess whether there is evidence to support any impact on rat welfare. Among the many refinements studied, the majority involve changes to the cage, but some also involve alterations to the wider environment. The effects of these refinements were assessed using a range of readouts, many of which are difficult to interpret from a welfare perspective. Preference studies, which are easier to interpret, provide evidence that rats prefer complex environments, including shelters and multiple objects, which offer different areas/resources allowing the rat to engage in diverse behaviors. The reporting of methodology in papers was often poor, indicating that studies were potentially subject to biases. Given that many refinements co-occurred, it was often difficult to tease apart which ones were most beneficial for rat welfare. Effects of refinements were also moderated by a number of factors including age, sex, strain and photoperiod. Altogether our findings show that a one-size-fits-all approach to refinements is not appropriate, because different refinements will impact different rats in different ways. Our review has also produced a database of >1,000 articles that can be used for further and more detailed analyses. Our findings have also highlighted areas where future research is likely to be valuable, including refinements to rat transport, handling and the use of training.

Sex Differences in Behavior and Learning Abilities in Adult Rats

Laboratory rats have excellent learning abilities and are often used in cognitive neuroscience research. The majority of rat studies are conducted on males, whereas females are usually overlooked. Here, we examined sex differences in behavior and tactile sensitivity in littermates during adulthood (5.8-7.6 months of age). We used a battery of behavioral tests, including the 2% sucrose preference test (positive motivation), a free-choice paradigm (T-maze, neutral situation), and associative fear-avoidance learning (negative motivation, aversive situation). Tactile perception was examined using the von Frey test (aversive situation). In two aversive situations (von Frey test and avoidance learning), females were examined during the diestrus stage of the estrous cycle, and ultrasonic vocalization was recorded in both sexes. It was found that (1) females, but not males, lost their body weight on the first day of the sucrose preference test, suggesting sex differences in their reaction to environmental novelty or in metabolic homeostasis; (2) the tactile threshold in females was lower than in males, and females less frequently emitted aversive ultrasonic calls; (3) in the avoidance learning task, around 26% of males (but no females) were not able to learn and experienced frizzing. Overall, the performance of associative fear-avoidance in males was worse than in females. In general, females demonstrated higher abilities of associative learning and less persistently emitted aversive ultrasonic calls.

Time of day influences stress hormone response to ketamine

Over 50% of depressed patients show hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Conventional therapy takes weeks to months to improve symptoms. Ketamine has rapid onset antidepressant effects. Yet its action on HPA axis activity is poorly understood. Here, we measured the corticosterone (CORT) response to ketamine administered at different times of day in the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat. In male rats, blood was collected every 10 min for 28 h using an automated blood sampling system. Ketamine (5/10/25 mg · kg) was infused through a subcutaneous cannula at two time points-during the active and inactive period. CORT levels in blood were measured in response to ketamine using a radioimmunoassay. WKY rats displayed robust circadian secretion of corticosterone and was not overly different to Sprague Dawley rats. Ketamine (all doses) significantly increased CORT response at both infusion times. However, a dose dependent effect and marked increase over baseline was observed when ketamine was administered during the inactive phase. Ketamine has a robust and rapid effect on HPA axis function. The timing of ketamine injection may prove crucial for glucocorticoid-mediated action in depression.

Encore: Behavioural animal models of stress, depression and mood disorders

Animal studies over the past two decades have led to extensive advances in our understanding of pathogenesis of depressive and mood disorders. Among these, rodent behavioural models proved to be of highest informative value. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the most popular behavioural models with respect to physiological, circuit, and molecular biological correlates. Behavioural stress paradigms and behavioural tests are assessed in terms of outcomes, strengths, weaknesses, and translational value, especially in the domain of pharmacological studies.

Methods and considerations for the use of hormonal contraceptives in rat models of neurobehavior

Hormonal contraceptives (HCs), prescribed to millions of women around the world, alter the ovarian hormonal cycle resulting in neurobehavioral changes in HC users. Human epidemiological and experimental data has characterized some of these effects with oftentimes conflicting or irreproducible results, reflecting a dearth of research considering different compositions, routes of administration, or time-courses of HC use. Non-human animal research can model these effects and help elucidate the underlying mechanisms by which different HCs modulate neurobehavioral outcomes. Still, animal models using HCs are not well-established. This may be because the pharmacological profile of HCs - including the metabolism, receptor binding affinity, and neuromodulatory effects - is dynamic and not always clearly translatable between animals and humans. The current review addresses these issues and provides basic methods and considerations for the use of HCs in animal models of neurobehavior to help advance the field of behavioral neuroendocrinology and inform decisions regarding to women's health.

Partial resistance to citalopram in a Wistar-Kyoto rat model of depression: An evaluation using resting-state functional MRI and graph analysis

Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats as an endogenous depression model partially lack a response to classic selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Thus, this strain has the potential to be established as a model of treatment-resistant depression (TRD). However, the SSRI resistance in WKY rats is still not fully understood. In this study, WKY and control rats were subjected to a series of tests, namely, a forced swim test (FST), a sucrose preference test (SPT), and an open field test (OFT), and were scanned in a 7.0-T MRI scanner before and after three-week citalopram or saline administration. Behavioral results demonstrated that WKY rats had increased immobility in the FST and decreased sucrose preference in the SPT and central time spent in the OFT. However, citalopram did not improve immobility in the FST. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) analysis showed regional changes in the striatum and hippocampus of WKY rats. However, citalopram partially reversed the ALFF value in the dorsal part of the two regions. Functional connectivity (FC) analysis showed that FC strengths were decreased in WKY rats compared with controls. Nevertheless, citalopram partially increased FC strengths in WKY rats. Based on FC, global graph analysis demonstrated decreased network efficiency in WKY + saline group compared with control + saline group, but citalopram showed weak network efficiency improvement. In conclusion, resting-state fMRI results implied widely affected brain function at both regional and global levels in WKY rats. Citalopram had only partial effects on these functional changes, indicating a potential treatment resistance mechanism.

Multi-strain Probiotic Formulation Reverses Maternal Separation and Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress-Generated Anxiety- and Depression-like Phenotypes by Modulating Gut Microbiome-Brain Activity in Rats

Depression is a debilitating mental disorder that affects >322 million people worldwide. Despite the availability of several antidepressant agents, many patients remain treatment refractory. A growing literature study has indicated the role of gut microbiota in neuropsychiatric disorders. Herein, we examined the psychobiotic-like activity of multi-strain probiotic formulation in maternal separation (MS) and chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) models of anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes in Sprague-Dawley rats. Early- and late-life stress was employed in both male and female rats by exposing them to MS and CUMS. The multi-strain probiotic formulation (Cognisol) containing Bacillus coagulans Unique IS-2, Lactobacillus plantarum UBLP-40, Lactobacillus rhamnosus UBLR-58, Bifidobacterium lactis UBBLa-70, Bifidobacterium breve UBBr-01, and Bifidobacterium infantis UBBI-01 at a total strength of 10 billion cfu along with l-glutamine was administered for 6 weeks via drinking water. Neurobehavioral assessment was done using the forced swim test (FST), sucrose preference test (SPT), elevated plus maze (EPM), and open field test (OFT). Animals were sacrificed after behavioral assessment, and blood, brain, and intestine samples were collected to analyze the levels of cytokines, metabolites, and neurotransmitters and histology. Animals exposed to stress showed increased passivity, consumed less sucrose solution, and minimally explored the open arms in the FST, SPT, and EPM, respectively. Administration of multi-strain probiotics along with l-glutamine for 6 weeks ameliorated the behavioral abnormalities. The locomotor activity of animals in the OFT and their body weight remained unchanged across the groups. Cognisol treatment reversed the decreased BDNF and serotonin levels and increased CRP, TNF-α, and dopamine levels in the hippocampus and/or frontal cortex. Administration of Cognisol also restored the plasma levels of l-tryptophan, l-kynurenine, kynurenic-acid, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid; the Firmicutes-to-Bacteroides ratio; the levels of acetate, propionate, and butyrate in fecal samples; the villi/crypt ratio; and the goblet cell count, which manifested in the restoration of intestinal functions. We suggest that the multi-strain probiotic and glutamine formulation (Cognisol) ameliorated the MS + UCMS-generated anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes by reshaping the gut microbiome-brain activity in both sexes.

Effects of a Cc2d1a/Freud-1 Knockdown in the Hippocampus on Behavior, the Serotonin System, and BDNF

The serotonin 5-HT_1A receptor is one of the most abundant and widely distributed brain serotonin (5-HT) receptors that play a major role in the modulation of emotions and behavior. The 5-HT_1A receptor gene (Htr1a) is under the control of transcription factor Freud-1 (also known as Cc2d1a/Freud-1). Here, using adeno-associated virus (AAV) constructs in vivo, we investigated effects of a Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown in the hippocampus of C57BL/6J mice on behavior, the brain 5-HT system, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). AAV particles carrying the pAAV_H1-2_shRNA-Freud-1_Syn_EGFP plasmid encoding a short-hairpin RNA targeting mouse Cc2d1a/Freud-1 mRNA had an antidepressant effect in the forced swim test 5 weeks after virus injection. The knockdown impaired spatiotemporal memory as assessed in the Morris water maze. pAAV_H1-2_shRNA-Freud-1_Syn_EGFP decreased Cc2d1a/Freud-1 mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, the Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown upregulated 5-HT and its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid but not their ratio. The Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown failed to increase mRNA and protein levels of Htr1a but diminished a 5-HT_1A receptor functional response. Meanwhile, the Cc2d1a/Freud-1 knockdown reduced Creb mRNA expression and CREB phosphorylation and upregulated cFos mRNA. The knockdown enhanced the expression of a BDNF precursor (proBDNF protein), which is known to play a crucial part in neuroplasticity. Our data indicate that transcription factor Cc2d1a/Freud-1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive disorders not only via the 5-HT_1A receptor and transcription factor CREB but also through an influence on BDNF.

A study of abnormal cannabidiols system-mediated cardiovascular protection in disrupted gut/brain axis associated depression

Uncontrolled stress can lead to vascular injury, hypertension, arrhythmia, compromised immune system alteration in microbiota activity, and neurobehavioral changes, including depression. The gut microbiota has been recently developed, not only for major depressive disorders but also cardiovascular problems, as a therapeutic concern. Since then, >100 studies have studied the link between depression and cardiovascular disease (CVD), and have shown that depression is common (≈20%-35%) in patients with CVD, and seems to be indicative of negative heart effects in patients. Depressive symptoms patients have demonstrated an elevated platelet reactivity, reduced cardiac variability, and enhanced proinflammatory signals, which are all cardiovascular-related risk factors. The pathophysiology of depression-related CVD is nevertheless a challenge because of the heterogeneous depressive syndromes and the etiologies. The cardiovascular effects of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (the key psychotropic credential of cannabis) and endocannabinoids (THC endogenous equivalents which cause type 1 [CB1] and 2 [CB2] cannabinoids) have been extensively examined based on well-documented effects of marijuana smoke on blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR). Therefore, the aim of the review article is to establish the relationship of abnormal cannabidiols system-mediated cardiovascular protection in disrupted gut/brain axis associated depression to determine the translational potential of targeting abnormal cannabidiols receptors in clinical studies.

Exposure to Vicarious Social Defeat Stress and Western-Style Diets During Adolescence Leads to Physiological Dysregulation, Decreases in Reward Sensitivity, and Reduced Antidepressant Efficacy in Adulthood

A dramatic increase in the prevalence of major depression and diet-related disorders in adolescents has been observed over several decades, yet the mechanisms underlying this comorbidity have only recently begun to be elucidated. Exposure to western-style diet (WSD), high in both fats (45% kcal) and carbohydrates (35% kcal): e.g., high fat diet (HFD), has been linked to the development of metabolic syndrome-like symptoms and behavioral dysregulation in rodents, as similarly observed in the human condition. Because adolescence is a developmental period highlighted by vulnerability to both stress and poor diet, understanding the mechanism(s) underlying the combined negative effects of WSDs and stress on mood and reward regulation is critical. To this end, adolescent male C57 mice were exposed to vicarious social defeat stress (VSDS), a stress paradigm capable of separating physical (PS) versus psychological/emotional (ES) stress, followed by normal chow (NC), HFD, or a separate control diet high in carbohydrates (same sucrose content as HFD) and low in fat (LFD), while measuring body weight and food intake. Non-stressed control mice exposed to 5 weeks of NC or HFD showed no significant differences in body weight or social interaction. Mice exposed to VSDS (both ES and PS) gain weight rapidly 1 week after initiation of HFD, with the ES-exposed mice showing significantly higher weight gain as compared to the HFD-exposed control mice. These mice also exhibited a reduction in saccharin preference, indicative of anhedonic-like behavior. To further delineate whether high fat was the major contributing factor to these deficits, LFD was introduced. The mice in the VSDS + HFD gained weight more rapidly than the VSDS + LFD group, and though the LFD-exposed mice did not gain weight as rapidly as the HFD-exposed mice, both the VSDS + LFD- and VSDS + HFD-exposed mice exhibited attenuated response to the antidepressant fluoxetine. These data show that diets high in both fats and carbohydrates are responsible for rapid weight gain and reduced reward sensitivity; and that while consumption of diet high in carbohydrate and low in fat does not lead to rapid weight gain, both HFD and LFD exposure after stress leads to reduced responsiveness to antidepressant treatment.

Sex-Based Impact of Creatine Supplementation on Depressive Symptoms, Brain Serotonin and SSRI Efficacy in an Animal Model of Treatment-Resistant Depression

Background: Rates of major depressive disorder (MDD) increase with living at altitude. In our model, rats housed at moderate altitude (in hypobaric hypoxia) exhibit increased depression-like behavior, altered brain serotonin and a lack of antidepressant response to most selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). A forebrain deficit in the bioenergetic marker creatine is noted in people living at altitude or with MDD. Methods: Rats housed at 4500 ft were given dietary creatine monohydrate (CRMH, 4% w/w, 5 weeks) vs. un-supplemented diet, and impact on depression-like behavior, brain bioenergetics, serotonin and SSRI efficacy assessed. Results: CRMH significantly improved brain creatine in a sex-based manner. At altitude, CRMH increased serotonin levels in the female prefrontal cortex and striatum but reduced male striatal and hippocampal serotonin. Dietary CRMH was antidepressant in the forced swim test and anti-anhedonic in the sucrose preference test in only females at altitude, with motor behavior unchanged. CRMH improved fluoxetine efficacy (20 mg/kg) in only males at altitude: CRMH + SSRI significantly improved male striatal creatine and serotonin vs. CRMH alone. Conclusions: Dietary CRMH exhibits sex-based efficacy in resolving altitude-related deficits in brain biomarkers, depression-like behavior and SSRI efficacy, and may be effective clinically for SSRI-resistant depression at altitude. This is the first study to link CRMH treatment to improving brain serotonin.

Lack of Glutamate Receptor Subunit Expression Changes in Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus after Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury in a Rodent Model of Depression

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects over 69 million people annually worldwide, and those with pre-existing depression have worse recovery. The molecular mechanisms that may contribute to poor recovery after TBI with co-morbid depression have not been established. TBI and depression have many commonalities including volume changes, myelin disruption, changes in proliferation, and changes in glutamatergic signaling. We used a well-established animal model of depression, the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat, to elucidate changes after TBI that may influence the recovery trajectory. We compared the histological and molecular outcomes in the hippocampal dentate gyrus after experimental TBI using the lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) in the WKY and the parent Wistar (WIS) strain. We showed that WKY had exaggerated myelin loss after LFPI and baseline deficits in proliferation. In addition, we showed that while after LFPI WIS rats exhibited glutamate receptor subunit changes, namely increased GluN2B, the WKY rats failed to show such injury-related changes. These differential responses to LFPI helped to elucidate the molecular characteristics that influence poor recovery after TBI in those with pre-existing depression and may lead to targets for future therapeutic interventions.

Antidepressant-Like Properties of Intrastriatal Botulinum Neurotoxin-A Injection in a Unilateral 6-OHDA Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s patients often suffer from depression and anxiety, for which there are no optimal treatments. Hemiparkinsonian (hemi-PD) rats were used to test whether intrastriatal Botulinum neurotoxin-A (BoNT-A) application could also have antidepressant-like properties in addition to the known improvement of motor performance. To quantify depression- and anxiety-like behavior, the forced swim test, tail suspension test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test were applied to hemi-PD rats injected with BoNT-A or vehicle. Furthermore, we correlated the results in the forced swim test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test with the rotational behavior induced by apomorphine and amphetamine. Hemi-PD rats did not show significant anxiety-like behavior as compared with Sham 6-OHDA- + Sham BoNT-A-injected as well as with non-injected rats. However, hemi-PD rats demonstrated increased depression-like behaviors compared with Sham- or non-injected rats; this was seen by increased struggling frequency and increased immobility frequency. Hemi-PD rats intrastriatally injected with BoNT-A exhibited reduced depression-like behavior compared with the respective vehicle-receiving hemi-PD animals. The significant effects of intrastriatally applied BoNT-A seen in the forced swim test are reminiscent of those found after various antidepressant drug therapies. Our data correspond with the efficacy of BoNT-A treatment of glabellar frown lines in treating patients with major depression and suggest that also intrastriatal injected BoNT-A may have some antidepressant-like effect on hemi-PD.

Epigenetic histone acetylation and Bdnf dysregulation in the hippocampus of rats exposed to repeated, low-dose diisopropylfluorophosphate

AIMS

Deployment-related exposures to organophosphate (OP) compounds are implicated for Gulf War Illness (GWI) development in First GW veterans. However, reasons for the persistence of GWI are not fully understood. Epigenetic modifications to chromatin are regulatory mechanisms that can adaptively or maladaptively respond to external stimuli. These include DNA methylation and histone acetylation. DNA methylation changes have been reported in GWI but the role of histone acetylation in GWI has been less explored, despite its importance as an epigenetic mechanism for neurological disorders.

MAIN METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to OP diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP, 0.5 mg/kg s.c., 5-d) and 6-m later brains were dissected for hippocampus. Western blotting, activity assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) were utilized for epigenetic analyses. Behavior was assessed using the Forced Swim Test (FST) and the Elevated Plus Maze (EPM).

KEY FINDINGS

We observed a significant upregulation in HDAC1 protein along with a significant increase in HDAC enzyme activity in the hippocampus of DFP rats. A locus-specific ChIP study revealed decreases in H3K9ac at the brain derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) promoter IV coupled with a significant decrease in BDNF protein in DFP rat hippocampus. Treatment with HDAC inhibitor valproic acid reduced HDAC activity and decreased the FST immobility time in DFP rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our research suggests that epigenetic alterations to histone acetylation pathways and decreased BDNF expression could represent novel mechanisms for GWI symptomatology and may provide new targets for developing effective drugs for GWI treatment.

Prenatal stress induced depressive-like behavior and region dependently high CRP level in offspring rats

INTRODUCTION

To explore the changes in C-reactive protein (CRP) level in different regions of one old offspring rats exposed to prenatal stress (PS).

METHODS

The rat model was constructed with prenatal restraint stress on pregnant dams on days 14-20 of gestation. Offspring rats were randomly divided into PS susceptibility (PS-S) group and control (CON) group. Behavioral experiments including sucrose preference test (SPT), open-field test (OFT), and forced swimming test (FST) were used to measure depressive-like behaviors. Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, and Western blotting were applied to detect the changes in CRP level.

RESULTS

The results showed that PS could cause depressive-like behaviors in all SPT, OFT, and FST. Concomitantly, CRP mRNA and protein expression significantly increased in hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus in the PS-S group when compared that in the CON group, while no significantly changes in liver, heart, olfactory bulb, striatum, and cerebellum in the PS-S group when compared that in the CON group.

CONCLUSION

Increasing of CRP expression in hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and hypothalamus may play a critical role in the mechanism under depressive-like behavior in offspring rats exposed to PS.

The reinforcement threshold and elasticity of demand for nicotine in an adolescent rat model of depression

BACKGROUND

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is considering setting a nicotine standard for tobacco products to reduce their addictiveness. Such a standard should account for the apparent greater vulnerability to nicotine addiction in some subpopulations, such as adolescents with depression. The present study examined whether the reinforcement threshold and elasticity of demand (i.e., reinforcing efficacy) for nicotine in a genetic inbred rat model of depression (Flinders Sensitive Line [FSL]) differs from an outbred control strain.

METHODS

Acquisition of nicotine self-administration (NSA) across a wide range of nicotine doses was measured in both FSL and Sprague-Dawley (SD) control adolescent rats. At the highest dose, elasticity of demand was also measured. Nicotine pharmacokinetics was examined to determine whether it might modulate NSA, as it does smoking in humans.

RESULTS

FSL rats acquired self-administration quicker and showed more inelastic demand (greater reinforcing efficacy) than SDs at the highest unit dose. However, there was no strain difference in the reinforcement threshold of nicotine. FSL rats exhibited faster nicotine clearance, larger volume of distribution, and lower plasma and brain nicotine concentrations. However, these differences were not consistently related to strain differences in NSA measures.

CONCLUSION

These findings are consistent with studies showing greater dependence and reinforcing efficacy of cigarettes in smokers with depression and those with relatively fast nicotine metabolism. However, these findings also suggest that a nicotine standard to reduce initiation of tobacco use should be similarly effective in both the general adolescent population and those with depression.

miRNA and mRNA Profiles in Ventral Tegmental Area From Juvenile Mice With Companion Communication of Improving CUMS-Induced Depression-Like Behaviors

Under chronic stress, the appearance of depression-like behaviors may be related to the decline of the brain's reward circuit function which caused by long-term lack of reward. However, the effect of reward treatment on depressive-like behaviors induced by chronic stress and its molecular mechanism in the brain remain poorly understood. Here, accompanying with companion was used to imitate a reward to study the effect of reward on depression-like behaviors induced by chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS), and high-throughput sequencing was used to analyze the miRNA and mRNA profiles in ventral tegmental area (VTA) harvested from depression-like and resilient behaviors mice. We observed that CUMS-induced depression-like behaviors were ameliorated by accompanying with companion in mice, and 202 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found to be associated with depression-like behaviors, 27 DEGs associated with resilience, 159 DEGs associated with accompanying with companion. Importantly, we also obtained 228 differentially expressed miRNAs that associated with accompanying with companion. Furthermore, the miRNA-mRNA network associated with companion was established in ventral tegmental area, based on the miRNA and mRNA profiles. Altogether, our results uncover a new way to ameliorate depression-like behavior, as well as many potential drug targets to prevent or treat depression.

Exploring the Evidence Implicating the Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) in the Physiopathology of Mood Disorders

Mood disorders include Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Bipolar Disorder (BD) and variations of both. Mood disorders has a public health significance with high comorbidity, suicidal mortality and economic burden on the health system. Research related to mood disorders has evolved over the years to relate it with systemic conditions. The Renin Angiotensin System (RAS) has been noticed to play major physiological roles beyond renal and cardiovascular systems. Recent studies have linked RAS not only with neuro-immunological processes, but also with psychiatric conditions like mood and anxiety disorders. In this comprehensive review, we integrated basic and clinical studies showing the associations between RAS and mood disorders. Animal studies on mood disorders models - either depression or mania - were focused on the reversal of behavioral and/or cognitive symptoms through the inhibition of RAS components like the Angiotensin- Converting Enzyme (ACE), Angiotensin II Type 1 receptor (AT1) or Mas receptors. ACE polymorphisms, namely insertion-deletion (I/D), were linked to mood disorders and suicidal behavior. Hypertension was associated with neurocognitive deficits in mood disorders, which reversed with RAS inhibition. Low levels of RAS components (renin activity or aldosterone) and mood symptoms improvement with ACE inhibitors or AT1 blockers were also observed in mood disorders. Overall, this review reiterates the strong and under-researched connection between RAS and mood disorders.

Effect of gut microbiota on depressive-like behaviors in mice is mediated by the endocannabinoid system

Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Recent observations have revealed an association between mood disorders and alterations of the intestinal microbiota. Here, using unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) as a mouse model of depression, we show that UCMS mice display phenotypic alterations, which could be transferred from UCMS donors to naïve recipient mice by fecal microbiota transplantation. The cellular and behavioral alterations observed in recipient mice were accompanied by a decrease in the endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling due to lower peripheral levels of fatty acid precursors of eCB ligands. The adverse effects of UCMS-transferred microbiota were alleviated by selectively enhancing the central eCB or by complementation with a strain of the Lactobacilli genus. Our findings provide a mechanistic scenario for how chronic stress, diet and gut microbiota generate a pathological feed-forward loop that contributes to despair behavior via the central eCB system.

Dose- and time-related effects of acute diisopropylfluorophosphate intoxication on forced swim behavior and sucrose preference in rats

Acute intoxication by organophosphorus anticholinesterases (OPs) has been associated with depression and other neuropsychiatric disorders. We previously reported that adult male rats treated with diisopropylfluorophosphate (2.5 mg/kg, sc) showed acute cholinergic signs followed by changes (increased immobility/decreased swimming) in the forced swim test (a measure of behavioral despair) for at least one month. This study was conducted to evaluate the further persistence of changes in the forced swim test out to 4 months and to compare responses in a sucrose preference test, a measure of anhedonia. Adult male rats were treated with vehicle (peanut oil, 1 mL/kg, sc) or DFP (2.0, 2.25 or 2.5 mg/kg) followed by sacrifice 4 h later for measurement of OP-sensitive serine hydrolases (cholinesterase [ChE], fatty acid amide hydrolase [FAAH], and monoacylglycerol lipase [MAGL]) in hippocampus. Additional rats were treated similarly and evaluated for functional signs of acute toxicity from 30 min to 6 days, and then motor activity, forced swim behavior and sucrose preference at approximately 1 week, 1 month and 4 months after dosing. All dosages of DFP elicited serine hydrolase inhibition (ChE, 92-96 %; FAAH, 46-63 %; MAGL, 26-33 %). Body weight was reduced in all DFP-treated groups during the first two weeks, and lethality was noted with the higher dosages. Involuntary movements were elicited in all DFP treatment groups during the first week, but both time of onset and rate of recovery were dose-related. There was a significant reduction in ambulation at one week after the highest dosage (2.5 mg/kg), but no other significant locomotor changes were noted. Immobility was increased and swimming was decreased in the forced swim test at all three time-points by 2.25 mg/kg DFP, and at 2 of 3 time-points by the other dosages. While length of water deprivation and time after DFP dosing affected sucrose preference, DFP treatment had no main effect. We conclude that the forced swim test (a measure of behavioral despair/coping mechanism for inescapable stress) is a robust and persistent neurobehavioral consequence of acute DFP intoxication while sucrose preference, a measure of anhedonia and a common symptom of major clinical depression, is not affected.

Effect of mesoporous silica nanoparticles-based nano-fragrance on the central nervous system

Fragrances are widely used in our daily lives and can make us feel happy. However, traditional aromatic products release fragrance quickly and have a strong aroma. This not only worsens our scenting experience, but also severely shortens the useful life of fragrance products. In this study, nano-fragrances based on mesoporous silica nanoparticles with great encapsulation efficiency and slow-release function were designed and prepared. In addition, this nano-fragrances are applied to wallpapers. Open field tests showed that this nano-fragrance had significant stress relief and anti-depressant effects.

Rationale, Relevance, and Limits of Stress-Induced Psychopathology in Rodents as Models for Psychiatry Research: An Introductory Overview

Emotional and cognitive information processing represent higher-order brain functions. They require coordinated interaction of specialized brain areas via a complex spatial and temporal equilibrium among neuronal cell-autonomous, circuitry, and network mechanisms. The delicate balance can be corrupted by stressful experiences, increasing the risk of developing psychopathologies in vulnerable individuals. Neuropsychiatric disorders affect twenty percent of the western world population, but therapies are still not effective for some patients. Elusive knowledge of molecular pathomechanisms and scarcity of objective biomarkers in humans present complex challenges, while the adoption of rodent models helps to improve our understanding of disease correlate and aids the search for novel pharmacological targets. Stress administration represents a strategy to induce, trace, and modify molecular and behavioral endophenotypes of mood disorders in animals. However, a mouse or rat model will only display one or a few endophenotypes of a specific human psychopathology, which cannot be in any case recapitulated as a whole. To override this issue, shared criteria have been adopted to deconstruct neuropsychiatric disorders, i.e., depression, into specific behavioral aspects, and inherent neurobiological substrates, also recognizable in lower mammals. In this work, we provide a rationale for rodent models of stress administration. In particular, comparing each rodent model with a real-life human traumatic experience, we intend to suggest an introductive guide to better comprehend and interpret these paradigms.

Increased Notch2/NF-κB Signaling May Mediate the Depression Susceptibility: Evidence from Chronic Social Defeat Stress Mice and WKY Rats

The susceptibility to depression has been attributed to the chronic stress and genetic factors but still fails to identify definite biomarkers. The present study aimed to investigate the role of disrupted Notch signaling in the medial prefrontal cortex of the chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) mice and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats. RNA-sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR analyses evidenced the involvement of Notch signaling pathway in depression. Western blotting reported an increased level of Notch2 and NF-κB and a decreased level of Hes1 and Bcl2/Bax ratio both in the susceptible mice when compared with the control or resilient ones and in the depression WKY rats when compared with the Wistar or non-depression WKY groups. Further analysis showed that the above-mentioned changes were significantly correlated with the depression-like behaviors and that the elicited Notch2 strongly correlated with the upregulated NF-κB, not with the downregulated Hes1 or Bcl2/Bax ratio. In conclusion, the increased Notch2/NF-κB signaling in the medial prefrontal cortex may mediate depression susceptibility, providing a potential diagnostic biomarker or therapeutic target for treating major depressive disorder.

Neuromodulation in Psychiatric disorders: Experimental and Clinical evidence for reward and motivation network Deep Brain Stimulation: Focus on the medial forebrain bundle

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) in psychiatric illnesses has been clinically tested over the past 20 years. The clinical application of DBS to the superolateral branch of the medial forebrain bundle in treatment-resistant depressed patients-one of several targets under investigation-has shown to be promising in a number of uncontrolled open label trials. However, there are remain numerous questions that need to be investigated to understand and optimize the clinical use of DBS in depression, including, for example, the relationship between the symptoms, the biological substrates/projections and the stimulation itself. In the context of precision and customized medicine, the current paper focuses on clinical and experimental research of medial forebrain bundle DBS in depression or in animal models of depression, demonstrating how clinical and scientific progress can work in tandem to test the therapeutic value and investigate the mechanisms of this experimental treatment. As one of the hypotheses is that depression engenders changes in the reward and motivational networks, the review looks at how stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle impacts the dopaminergic system.

Molecular mechanisms for the antidepressant-like effects of a low-dose ketamine treatment in a DFP-based rat model for Gulf War Illness

Exposure to organophosphates (OP) during the First Gulf War is among one of the factors for Gulf War Illness (GWI) development in veterans and it has been challenging to treat GWI symptoms with existing therapies. Ketamine produces a rapid-onset and sustained antidepressant response, but there is no evidence whether ketamine treatment is effective for GWI depression. Repeated, low-dose exposure to diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) mimic Gulf War related OP exposures and produces a chronic depressive state in rats. In this study, DFP-exposed rats treated with ketamine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) exhibited antidepressant-like effect on the Forced Swim Test at 1-h. This effect persisted at 24-h post ketamine, a time-point by which it is eliminated from the brain suggesting involvement of mechanisms that affect long-term synaptic plasticity. Western blot analysis showed significantly lower Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels in DFP rat brains. Ketamine produced a nonsignificant increase in BDNF expression at 1-h but produced a larger, significant (2.2-fold) increase at 24-h in DFP rats. We previously reported chronic hippocampal calcium elevations ([Ca2+]i) in DFP rats. Ketamine-treated DFP rats exhibited significantly lower [Ca2+]i at 1-h but not at 24-h. Interestingly, treatment with ANA-12, a TrkB-BDNF receptor antagonist, in DFP rats blunted ketamine's antidepressant-like effect at 24-h but not at 1-h. These experiments suggest that in a rat model of DFP-induced depression, inhibition of the NMDAR-Ca2+ contributes to the rapid-onset antidepressant effects of ketamine while the antidepressant actions that persisted at 24-h post ketamine administration involve upregulation of BDNF signaling.

Reduced Brd1 expression leads to reversible depression-like behaviors and gene-expression changes in female mice

The schizophrenia-associated gene, BRD1, encodes an epigenetic regulator in which chromatin interactome is enriched with genes implicated in mental health. Alterations in histone modifications and epigenetic regulation contribute to brain transcriptomic changes in affective disorders and preclinical data supports a role for BRD1 in psychopathology. However, the implication of BRD1 on affective pathology remains poorly understood. In this study, we assess affective behaviors and associated neurobiology in Brd1^+/- mice along with their responses to Fluoxetine and Imipramine. This involves behavioral, neurostructural, and neurochemical characterizations along with regional cerebral gene expression profiling combined with integrative functional genomic analyses. We report behavioral changes in female Brd1^+/- mice with translational value to depressive symptomatology that can be alleviated by the administration of antidepressant medications. Behavioral changes are accompanied by altered brain morphometry and imbalances in monoaminergic systems. In accordance, gene expression changes across brain tissues reveal altered neurotransmitter signaling and cluster in functional pathways associated with depression including 'Adrenergic-, GPCR-, cAMP-, and CREB/CREM-signaling'. Integrative gene expression analysis specifically links changes in amygdaloid intracellular signaling activity to the behavioral treatment response in Brd1^+/- mice. Collectively, our study highlights the importance of BRD1 as a modulator of affective pathology and adds to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying affective disorders and their treatment response.

Assessment of Ketamine and Its Enantiomers in an Organophosphate-Based Rat Model for Features of Gulf War Illness

Approximately 33% of U.S. soldiers from the first Gulf War suffer from a multi-system disorder known as the Gulf War Illness (GWI). GW veterans suffer from a cluster of symptoms that prominently include fatigue and can include mood-related symptoms. Compared to traditional antidepressants, ketamine (KET) produces a fast-onset and long-lasting antidepressant response, but assessments of KET for GWI-related depression are lacking. The etiology of GWI is multi-factorial and exposure to organophosphates (OP) during deployment is one of the factors underlying GWI development. Here, male Sprague-Dawley rats were repeatedly exposed to an OP DFP and three months later these rats, when assessed on a battery of rodent behavioral assays, displayed signs consistent with aspects of GWI characteristics. When treated with a sub-anesthetic dose of KET (3, 5, or 10 mg/kg, i.p.), DFP-treated rats exhibited a significant improvement in immobility time, open-arm exploration, and sucrose consumption as early as 1 h and much of these effects persisted at 24-h post-KET injection. KET's stereoisomers, R-KET and S-KET, also exhibited such effects in DFP rats, with R-KET being the more potent isomer. Our studies provide a starting point for further assessment of KET for GWI depression.

Wistar Kyoto Rats Display Anhedonia In Consumption but Retain Some Sensitivity to the Anticipation of Palatable Solutions

The Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat has been proposed as a model of depression-like symptoms. However, anhedonia-a reduction in the response to normatively rewarding events-as a central depression symptom has yet to be fully assessed in this model. We compared WKY rats and Wistar controls, with stress-susceptibility examined by applying mild unpredictable stress to a subset of each group. Anhedonia-like behavior was assessed using microstructural analysis of licking behavior, where mean lick cluster size reflects hedonic responses. This was combined with tests of anticipatory contrast, where the consumption of a moderately palatable solution (4% sucrose) is suppressed in anticipation of a more palatable solution (32% sucrose). WKY rats displayed greatly attenuated hedonic reactions to sucrose overall, although their reactions retained some sensitivity to differences in sucrose concentration. They displayed normal reductions in consumption in anticipatory contrast, although the effect of contrast on hedonic reactions was greatly blunted. Mild stress produced overall reductions in sucrose consumption, but this was not exacerbated in WKY rats. Moreover, mild stress did not affect hedonic reactions or the effects of contrast. These results confirm that the WKY substrain expresses a direct behavioral analog of anhedonia, which may have utility for increasing mechanistic understanding of depression symptoms.

Targeting Intracellular Calcium Stores Alleviates Neurological Morbidities in a DFP-Based Rat Model of Gulf War Illness

Gulf War Illness (GWI) is a chronic multi-symptom disorder afflicting the veterans of the First Gulf War, and includes neurological symptoms characterized by depression and memory deficits. Chronic exposure to organophosphates (OPs) is considered a leading cause for GWI, yet its pathobiology is not fully understood. We recently observed chronic elevations in neuronal Ca²⁺ levels ([Ca²⁺]_i) in an OP-diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP)-based rat model for GWI. This study was aimed at identifying mechanisms underlying elevated [Ca²⁺]_i in this DFP model and investigating whether their therapeutic targeting could improve GWI-like neurological morbidities. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (9 weeks) were exposed to DFP (0.5 mg/kg, s.c., 1×-daily for 5 days) and at 3 months postDFP exposure, behavior was assessed and rats were euthanized for protein estimations and ratiometric Fura-2 [Ca²⁺]_i estimations in acutely dissociated hippocampal neurons. In DFP rats, a sustained elevation in intracellular Ca²⁺ levels occurred, and pharmacological blockade of Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺-release mechanisms significantly lowered elevated [Ca²⁺]_i in DFP neurons. Significant reductions in the protein levels of the ryanodine receptor (RyR) stabilizing protein Calstabin2 were also noted. Such a posttranslational modification would render RyR “leaky” resulting in sustained DFP [Ca²⁺]_i elevations. Antagonism of RyR with levetiracetam significantly lower elevated [Ca²⁺]_i in DFP neurons and improved GWI-like behavioral symptoms. Since Ca²⁺ is a major second messenger molecule, such chronic increases in its levels could underlie pathological synaptic plasticity that expresses itself as GWI morbidities. Our studies show that treatment with drugs targeted at blocking intracellular Ca²⁺ release could be effective therapies for GWI neurological morbidities.

Effect of liquiritin on neuroendocrine-immune network in menopausal rat model

PURPOSE

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of liquiritin on neuroendocrine-immune network in menopausal rat model.

METHODS

Liquiritin groups were respectively given liquiritin suspension at the dose of 80, 40, and 20 mg/kg, once a day for continuous 30 days after the removal of bilateral ovaries to induce the menopausal rat model. Behavioral experiments were conducted and the organs were weighed for the viscera index. The content of estradiol (E₂ ) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the serum and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) in hypothalamus were assayed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay kits. Morphological changes of uterus and adrenal gland were observed by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and estrogen receptor (ER) expression of uterus and spleen were determined by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

For the nervous system, liquiritin relieved menopausal depression and up-regulated the levels of 5-HT and NE in hypothalamus; for the endocrine system, it raised the concentrations of E₂ and FSH in serum, relieved the histological changes of uterus and adrenal gland and increased the expression of ER in uterus; for the immune system, it increased the thymus index and the expression of ER in spleen.

CONCLUSIONS

Liquiritin improved menopausal syndrome in multiple ways by affecting the neuro-endocrine-immune network.

microRNA-15b contributes to depression-like behavior in mice by affecting synaptic protein levels and function in the nucleus accumbens

Major depression is a prevalent affective disorder characterized by recurrent low mood. It presumably results from stress-induced deteriorations of molecular networks and synaptic functions in brain reward circuits of genetically-susceptible individuals through epigenetic processes. Epigenetic regulator microRNA-15b inhibits neuronal progenitor proliferation and is up-regulated in the medial prefrontal cortex of mice that demonstrate depression-like behavior, indicating the contribution of microRNA-15 to major depression. Using a mouse model of major depression induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), here we examined the effects of microRNA-15b on synapses and synaptic proteins in the nucleus accumbens of these mice. The application of a microRNA-15b antagomir into the nucleus accumbens significantly reduced the incidence of CUMS-induced depression and reversed the attenuations of excitatory synapse and syntaxin-binding protein 3 (STXBP3A)/vesicle-associated protein 1 (VAMP1) expression. In contrast, the injection of a microRNA-15b analog into the nucleus accumbens induced depression-like behavior as well as attenuated excitatory synapses and STXBP3A/VAMP1 expression similar to the down-regulation of these processes induced by the CUMS. We conclude that microRNA-15b-5p may play a critical role in chronic stress-induced depression by decreasing synaptic proteins, innervations, and activities in the nucleus accumbens. We propose that the treatment of anti-microRNA-15b-5p may convert stress-induced depression into resilience.

Psychedelics, but Not Ketamine, Produce Persistent Antidepressant-like Effects in a Rodent Experimental System for the Study of Depression

Psilocybin shows efficacy to alleviate depression in human clinical trials for six or more months after only one or two treatments. Another hallucinogenic drug, esketamine, has recently been U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved as a rapid-acting antidepressant. The mechanistic basis for the antidepressant effects of psilocybin and ketamine appear to be conserved. The efficacy of these two medications has not, however, been directly compared either clinically or preclinically. Further, whether or not a profound subjective existential experience is necessary for psilocybin to have antidepressant effects is unknown. To address these questions, we tested psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and ketamine in a rat model for depression. As in humans, a single administration of psilocybin or LSD produced persistent antidepressant-like effects in our model. In contrast, ketamine produced only a transient antidepressant-like effect. Our results indicate that classic psychedelics may have therapeutic efficacy that is more persistent than that of ketamine, and also suggest that a subjective existential experience may not be necessary for therapeutic effects.

Antidepressant-Like Effects and Cognitive Enhancement of Coadministration of Chaihu Shugan San and Fluoxetine: Dependent on the BDNF-ERK-CREB Signaling Pathway in the Hippocampus and Frontal Cortex

Background

Fluoxetine (FLU) is the first-line and widely used medication for depression; however, FLU treatment is almost ineffective in 30%-40% of patients with depression. In addition, there are some problems in FLU treatment, such as delayed efficacy, large side effects, and poor tolerance. Chaihu Shugan San (CSS) is a classic and effective antidepressant Chinese herbal medicine that has been used in China for thousands of years. CSS or coadministration of CSS and FLU has become one of the most recommended methods in the treatment of depression in China. However, the specific pathways of CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU for antidepressant are still unclear.

Objective

This study was designed to evaluate the antidepressant effects of CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU.

Methods

The chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) rat model was used to simulate depression. 120 healthy adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into seven groups: the control group, CUMS group, low-dose CSS group, high-dose CSS group, FLU group, coadministration of low-dose CSS and FLU group, and coadministration of high-dose CSS and FLU group. The rats in different groups were given different interventions. Then, the depression-like behavior and cognitive function were evaluated by the sucrose preference test (SPT), forced swimming test (FST), open field test (OFT), and Y-maze test. What is more, the antidepressant mechanism of CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU were studied through BDNF mRNA, ERK mRNA, CREB mRNA, BDNF, p-ERK/ERK, and p-CREB/CREB levels in the hippocampus and frontal cortex by Western blot and RT-PCR.

Results

Compared with the CUMS group, CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU could alleviate the depressive symptoms and improve cognitive function in CUMS rats (p < 0.05); CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU could increase the expression of BDNF, p-CREB/CREB, p-ERK/ERK, and BDNF mRNA, CREB mRNA, and ERK mRNA in the hippocampus and frontal cortex (p < 0.05); CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU could increase the expression of BDNF, p-CREB/CREB, p-ERK/ERK, and BDNF mRNA, CREB mRNA, and ERK mRNA in the hippocampus and frontal cortex (p < 0.05); CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU could increase the expression of BDNF, p-CREB/CREB, p-ERK/ERK, and BDNF mRNA, CREB mRNA, and ERK mRNA in the hippocampus and frontal cortex (Discussion and Conclusion. Finally, we found that both CSS and coadministration of CSS and FLU play an antidepressant role, which may be due to the regulation of the BDNF/ERK/CREB signaling pathway in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. Among them, the coadministration of CSS and FLU can enhance the antidepressant effect of CSS or FLU alone, and the underlying mechanism needs further investigation.

Indoleamine-2,3-Dioxygenase Mediates Emotional Deficits by the Kynurenine/Tryptophan Pathway in the Ethanol Addiction/Withdrawal Mouse Model

Objective

Our study was designed to investigate whether the indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)-mediated kynurenine/tryptophan (KYN/TRP) pathway participates in the development of emotional deficits from ethanol addiction/withdrawal mice.

Methods

The expression of proinflammatory factors, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), was tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The IDO levels in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and amygdala were measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and western blot, and the neurotransmitters were tested by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Emotional deficits of mice were evaluated by behavioral tests.

Results

Expression levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) were increased in mice after 4 weeks of alcohol exposure. As for indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) expression, only the subtype IDO1 was found to increase at both mRNA level and protein level in all the tested brain regions of ethanol addiction/withdrawal mice. In behavioral tests, mice exposed to alcohol showed gradually declined memory function accompanied by anxiety-like and depressive-like behaviors. Meanwhile, increased expression of KYN, decreased expression of 5-HT, and abnormal expression of 3-HK and KA were found in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and amygdala of ethanol addiction/withdrawal mice. Interestingly, the IDO1 inhibitor, 1-methyl-L-tryptophan (1-MT), reversed all above alterations induced by ethanol in mice.

Conclusion

Our results suggested that the TRP/KYN pathway, medicated by IDO1, in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and amygdala, plays an important role in the development of emotional deficits caused by ethanol addiction and withdrawal.

Prenatal ethanol exposure enhances the susceptibility to depressive behavior of adult offspring rats fed a high‑fat diet by affecting BDNF‑associated pathway

Epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to ethanol during pregnancy can result in an increased risk for depression in offspring. A 'brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) hypothesis' has been proposed to help explain the pathogenic mechanism of depression. This study was designed to verify the enhanced susceptibility to depression in prenatal ethanol exposure (PEE) offspring rats and explore possible intrauterine programming mechanisms related to the BDNF signaling pathway. Pregnant rats were intragastrically administrated ethanol (4 g/kg/day) from gestational day 11 until term delivery. All offspring rats were given a high-fat diet after weaning. Then the behavior tests, including sucrose preference test and open field test, were performed to adult offspring rats. The histomorphology of hippocampus was examined, and the expression of genes related to the BDNF signaling pathway was detected in the hippocampus of PEE offspring. The PEE female adult offspring rats showed depression-like behavior, with obvious morphological injury in hippocampus. Additionally, the mRNA expression levels of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and BDNF pathway-associated genes were changed in hippocampus. Multigene RT-qPCR also revealed that the mRNA expression levels for BDNF pathway-associated genes and synaptic plasticity genes were decreased in the hippocampus of fetal offspring rats in the PEE group. The underlying mechanism involves an increased GR expression that constantly suppresses the BDNF signaling pathway, and aggravates the functional insult to the hippo-campus, resulting in an increased susceptibility to depression among PEE female adult offspring rats. Results of the present study provide theoretical and experimental evidence that can be used for the early prevention and treatment of depression.

Antidepressant mechanisms of venlafaxine involving increasing histone acetylation and modulating tyrosine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase expression in hippocampus of depressive rats

Venlafaxine (VEN) is a widely used antidepressant as a serotonin-reuptake and norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitor. It is used primarily in depression, especially with generalized anxiety disorder or chronic pain. This medicine is of interest because its mechanisms involved multiple aspects. In the current study, the antidepressant action of VEN was investigated by studying the histone acetylation and expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) in rats exposed to chronic unpredicted stress (CUS) for 28 days. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into a control group, VEN-treated control group, CUS group, and VEN-treated CUS group. VEN (23.4 mg/kg once daily) was administered to rats by intragastric gavage, whereas the same volume of vehicle was given to rats in the control and model groups. Rat behaviors, acetylated H3 at lysine 9 (acH3K9), acetylated H3 at lysine 14 (acH3K14), acetylated H4 at lysine 12 (acH4K12), histone deacetylase 5, and TH and TPH expression in the hippocampus were determined. Chronic VEN treatment significantly relieved the anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, prevented the increase of histone deacetylase 5 expression and decrease of acH3K9 level, and promoted TH and TPH protein expression in the hippocampus of CUS rats. The results suggest that the preventive antidepressant mechanism of VEN is partly involved in the blocking effects on histone de-acetylated modification and then increasing TH, TPH expression.

The Steroidogenesis Inhibitor Finasteride Reduces the Response to Both Stressful and Rewarding Stimuli

Finasteride (FIN) is the prototypical inhibitor of steroid 5α-reductase (5αR), the enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the conversion of progesterone and testosterone into their main neuroactive metabolites. FIN is clinically approved for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and male baldness; while often well-tolerated, FIN has also been shown to cause or exacerbate psychological problems in vulnerable subjects. Evidence on the psychological effects of FIN, however, remains controversial, in view of inconsistent clinical reports. Here, we tested the effects of FIN in a battery of tests aimed at capturing complementary aspects of mood regulation and stress reactivity in rats. FIN reduced exploratory, incentive, prosocial, and risk-taking behavior; furthermore, it decreased stress coping, as revealed by increased immobility in the forced-swim test (FST). This last effect was also observed in female and orchiectomized male rats, suggesting that the mechanism of action of FIN does not primarily reflect changes in gonadal steroids. The effects of FIN on FST responses were associated with a dramatic decrease in corticotropin release hormone (CRH) mRNA and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels. These results suggest that FIN impairs stress reactivity and reduces behavioral activation and impulsive behavior by altering the function of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

mRNA and miRNA profiles in the nucleus accumbens are related to fear memory and anxiety induced by physical or psychological stress

Anxiety is presumably driven by fear memory. The nucleus accumbens involves emotional regulation. Molecular profiles in the nucleus accumbens related to stress-induced fear memory remain elucidated. Fear memory in mice was induced by a paradigm of social defeat. Physical and psychological stress was delivered to an intruder that was attacked by an aggressive resident. Meanwhile, an observer experienced psychological stress by seeing aggressor attacks. The nucleus accumbens tissues from intruder and observer mice that appear fear memory and anxiety as well as control mice were harvested for analyses of mRNA and miRNA profiles by high throughput sequencing. In the nucleus accumbens of intruders and observers with fear memory and anxiety, genes encoding AdrRα, AChRM2/3, GluRM2/8, HrR1, SSR, BDNF and AC are upregulated, while genes encoding DR3/5, PR2, GPγ8 and P450 are downregulated. Physical and/or psychological stress leads to fear memory and anxiety likely by molecules relevant to certain synapses. Moreover, there are differential expressions in genes that encode GABAR_A, 5-HTR1/5, CREB3, AChRM2, RyR, Wnt and GPγ13 in the nucleus accumbens from intruders versus observers. GABAergic, serotonergic and cholinergic synapses as well as calcium, Wnt and CREB signaling molecules may be involved in fear memory differently induced by psychological stress and physical/psychological stress. The data from analyzing mRNA and miRNA profiles are consistent. Some molecules are validated by qRT-PCR and dual luciferase reporter assay. Fear memory and anxiety induced by the mixture of physical and psychological stress or psychological stress appear influenced by complicated molecular mechanisms in the nucleus accumbens.