Prospects of orphan crops in climate change

Millets: a nutritional powerhouse for ensuring food security

MAIN CONCLUSION

Millets are important food source to ensure global food and nutritional security and are associated with health benefits. Millets have emerged as a nutritional powerhouse with the potential to address food security challenges worldwide. These ancient grains, which come in various forms, including finger millet, proso millet, and pearl millet, among others, are essential to a balanced diet, since they provide a wide range of nutritional advantages. Millets have a well-rounded nutritional profile with a high protein, dietary fiber, vitamin, and mineral content for optimal health and wellness. In addition to their nutritional advantages, millets exhibit remarkable adaptability and durability to various agroecological conditions, making them a valuable resource for smallholder farmers functioning in resource-poor regions. Promoting the growth and use of millet can lead to several benefits that researchers and development experts may discover, including improved nutrition, increased food security, and sustainable agricultural methods. Therefore, millets are food crops, that are climate smart, nutritional, and food secured to feed the increasing global population, and everyone could have a healthier, more resilient future.

Multivariate Data Analysis Assisted Mining of Nutri-rich Genotypes from North Eastern Himalayan Germplasm Collection of Perilla (Perilla frutescens L.)

Understanding the nutritional diversity in Perilla (Perilla frutescens L.) is essential for selecting and developing superior varieties with enhanced nutritional profiles in the North Eastern Himalayan (NEH) region of India. In this study, we assessed the nutritional composition of 45 diverse perilla germplasm collected from five NEH states using standard protocols and advanced analytical techniques. Significant variability was observed in moisture (0.39-11.67%), ash (2.59-7.13%), oil (28.65-74.20%), protein (11.05-23.15%), total soluble sugars (0.34-3.67%), starch (0.01-0.55%), phenols (0.03-0.87%), ferric reducing antioxidant power (0.45-1.36%), palmitic acid (7.06-10.75%), stearic acid (1.96-2.29%), oleic acid (8.11-13.31%), linoleic acid (15.18-22.74%), and linolenic acid (55.47-67.07%). Similarly, significant variability in mineral content (ppm) was also observed for aluminium, calcium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, sodium, nickel, phosphorus, and zinc. Multivariate analyses, including hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA), revealed the enriched nutritional diversity within the germplasm. Correlation analysis indicated significant positive and negative relationships between nutritional parameters, indicating potential biochemical and metabolic interactions present in the perilla seeds. TOPSIS-based ranking identified promising genotypes for functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and nutritional applications. This study provides a first in-depth report of the nutritional composition and diversity of perilla germplasm in the NEH region, thus aiding in the identification of superior varieties for food and nutritional diversification and security.

Underutilized plants increase biodiversity, improve food and nutrition security, reduce malnutrition, and enhance human health and well-being. Let's put them back on the plate!

The global food system depends on a limited number of plant species. Plants with unsatisfactory nutritional value are overproduced, whereas the wide variety of nutrient-rich plant species used in earlier times remains neglected. Basing our diet on a few crops has wide-ranging negative consequences on nutrition and food security. Although still under-researched, underutilized plants are slowly starting to receive increased recognition. These plants have superior nutritional content and immense potential to contribute to food and nutrition security and increased sustainability. This narrative review provides evidence to encourage the promotion, domestication, and commercialization of underutilized plants. The anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects of some of underutilized plants are presented in this review. The outstanding ability of forgotten plants to increase food and nutrition security, boost dietary diversity, reduce malnutrition, and enhance human health and well-being is demonstrated. The main barriers and obstacles to reintroducing underutilized foods are reviewed and recommendations for overcoming nutrition and dietary-related challenges for re-establishing underutilized plants into the global food system are presented. The expansion of underutilized plants for human use is of paramount importance. The exceptional nutritional properties, bioactive potential, and proven health benefits of underutilized plants indicate that increased promotion, domestication, and commercialization of these plants should be strongly supported. Besides health benefits, marginalized plants have the potential to enhance human well-being and improve people's lives in many ways, retain biodiversity, and develop local economies. Therefore, underutilized plants should be used in the broader context of well-balanced and healthy diets.

A comprehensive review on nutritional, nutraceutical, and industrial perspectives of perilla (Perilla frutscens L.) seeds - An orphan oilseed crop

There is a growing need to mainstream orphan or underutilized crops to enhance nutritional security and sustainable agriculture. Among these, Perilla frutescens L. is an important crop due to its rich nutritional and phytochemical content which makes it significant in nutrition, medicine, and industrial sector. Perilla seeds are mainly rich in ω-3 fatty acids, dietary fiber, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, high α-linolenic acid, which contributes to their health benefits. This review explores the nutritional profile of perilla seeds and highlights its unique composition compared to other oilseed crops. It also analyzes the phytochemical components of perilla seeds and their various biological activities, including antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiobesity, cardioprotective, anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. These activities demonstrate the potential of perilla seeds in both pharmaceutical and food sectors. The review also covers recent advancements in genomics and transgenic research discussing potential areas for crop improvement. Additionally, it explores the use of perilla seeds in functional foods, blending perilla oil with other oils, and their applications in enhancing product formulations. This review offers valuable insights for researchers, students, policymakers, environmentalists, and industry professionals by detailing the potential of perilla seeds across various sectors. The findings support sustainable agriculture, crop diversification, and innovative product development, thus contributing to the integration of perilla into mainstream agriculture.

Research on Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) in Africa

While Moringa oleifera Lam. is gaining importance in Africa, especially sub-Saharan Africa, it is unclear whether research is following the quick pace of its development on the continent. Therefore, this article analyzes the landscape of research dealing with moringa in Africa. This systematic review draws upon 299 eligible articles identified through a search carried out on the Web of Science in April 2023. Research on M. oleifera is rather recent in Africa but interest is increasing among scholars. While the research field is multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral, the literature seems to focus on biological and environmental sciences. Moreover, research is performed mainly in South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt, and Ghana. The analysis suggests a significant potential contribution of moringa to food security and nutrition, climate change mitigation/adaptation, farming systems resilience, and livelihoods. Its versatility and diverse applications and uses make moringa particularly interesting for developing countries, such as African ones. However, this review also underscores some factors hindering its development. Therefore, there is a need to strengthen research on moringa to unlock its potential in Africa. Investments in research, innovation, and development can help address the many challenges that Africa faces and contribute to the transition towards sustainable and resilient food systems.

Traditional soil fertility management ameliorates climate change impacts on traditional Andean crops within smallholder farming systems

Global changes, particularly rising temperatures, threaten food security in smallholder mountain communities by impacting the suitability of cultivation areas for many crops. Land-use intensification, associated with agrochemical use and tillage, threatens soil health and overall agroecosystem resilience. In the Andean region, farmers often cultivate crops at multiple elevations. Warming climates have led to a shift in cultivation upslope, but this is not feasible in many areas. Traditional soil fertility management practices together with a focus on traditional (orphan) crops offers promise to cope with rapid climate warming in the region. To understand the impacts of warming and changing nutrient management, we established two side-by-side experiments using the traditional Andean crops Oxalis tuberosa (Oca) and Lupinus mutabilis (Tarwi) at three elevations, each with two fertility treatments (organic and synthetic). Soil and climate data (i.e., temperature and precipitation) were collected throughout the growing season, and crop performance was evaluated through impacts on yield and other growth metrics (e.g., biomass, pest incidence). We used two-way ANOVA to assess the influence of site (elevation) and management type (organic vs. synthetic) on crop performance. Results indicated that warmer climates (i.e., lowest elevation) negatively impact the production and performance of O. tuberosa, but that organic fertilization (sheep manure) can help maintain crop yield and biomass production in warmer conditions relatively to synthetic nutrient inputs. In contrast, L. mutabilis showed accelerated growth in warmer conditions, but grain yield and biomass production were not significantly affected by site and showed no interaction with nutrient management. Our findings highlight that climate warming represents a serious threat to small-scale crop production in the Peruvian Andes and could cause severe declines in the production of locally important crops. Additionally, the continued reliance on traditional crops with organic inputs, instead of synthetic fertilizers, may help support agricultural productivity and resilience under climate change.

Unraveling the Molecular Basis of Color Variation in Dioscorea alata Tubers: Integrated Transcriptome and Metabolomics Analysis

Dioscorea alata L. (Dioscoreaceae) is a widely cultivated tuber crop with variations in tuber color, offering potential value as health-promoting foods. This study focused on the comparison of D. alata tubers possessing two distinct colors, white and purple, to explore the underlying mechanisms of color variation. Flavonoids, a group of polyphenols known to influence plant color and exhibit antioxidant properties, were of particular interest. The total phenol and total flavonoid analyses revealed that purple tubers (PTs) have a significantly higher content of these metabolites than white tubers (WTs) and a higher antioxidant activity than WTs, suggesting potential health benefits of PT D. alata. The transcriptome analysis identified 108 differentially expressed genes associated with the flavonoid synthesis pathway, with 57 genes up-regulated in PTs, including CHS, CHI, DFR, FLS, F3H, F3'5'H, LAR, ANS, and ANR. The metabolomics analysis demonstrated that 424 metabolites, including 104 flavonoids and 8 tannins, accumulated differentially in PTs and WTs. Notably, five of the top ten up-regulated metabolites were flavonoids, including 6-hydroxykaempferol-7-O-glucoside, pinocembrin-7-O-(6″-O-malonyl)glucoside, 6-hydroxykaempferol-3,7,6-O-triglycoside, 6-hydroxykaempferol-7-O-triglycoside, and cyanidin-3-O-(6″-O-feruloyl)sophoroside-5-O-glucoside, with the latter being a precursor to anthocyanin synthesis. Integrating transcriptome and metabolomics data revealed that the 57 genes regulated 20 metabolites within the flavonoid synthesis pathway, potentially influencing the tubers' color variation. The high polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of PTs indicate their suitability as nutritious and health-promoting food sources. Taken together, the findings of this study provide insights into the molecular basis of tuber color variation in D. alata and underscore the potential applications of purple tubers in the food industry and human health promotion. The findings contribute to the understanding of flavonoid biosynthesis and pigment accumulation in D. alata tubers, opening avenues for future research on enhancing the nutritional quality of D. alata cultivars.

Integrating genomics and genome editing for orphan crop improvement: a bridge between orphan crops and modern agriculture system

Domestication of orphan crops could be explored by editing their genomes. Genome editing has a lot of promise for enhancing agricultural output, and there is a lot of interest in furthering breeding in orphan crops, which are sometimes plagued with unwanted traits that resemble wild cousins. Consequently, applying model crop knowledge to orphan crops allows for the rapid generation of targeted allelic diversity and innovative breeding germplasm. We explain how plant breeders could employ genome editing as a novel platform to accelerate the domestication of semi-domesticated or wild plants, resulting in a more diversified base for future food and fodder supplies. This review emphasizes both the practicality of the strategy and the need to invest in research that advances our understanding of plant genomes, genes, and cellular systems. Planting more of these abandoned orphan crops could help alleviate food scarcities in the challenge of future climate crises.

The role of orphan crops in the transition to nutritional quality-oriented crop improvement

Micronutrient malnutrition is a persisting problem threatening global human health. Biofortification via metabolic engineering has been proposed as a cost-effective and short-term means to alleviate this burden. There has been a recent rise in the recognition of potential that underutilized, orphan crops can hold in decreasing malnutrition concerns. Here, we illustrate how orphan crops can serve as a medium to provide micronutrients to populations in need, whilst promoting and maintaining dietary diversity. We provide a roadmap, illustrating which aspects to be taken into consideration when evaluating orphan crops. Recent developments have shown successful biofortification via metabolic engineering in staple crops. This review provides guidance in the implementation of these successes to relevant orphan crop species, with a specific focus on the relevant micronutrients iron, zinc, provitamin A and folates.

Comprehensive in silico analysis of the underutilized crop tef (Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter) genome reveals drought tolerance signatures

BACKGROUND

Tef (Eragrostis tef) is a C4 plant known for its tiny, nutritious, and gluten-free grains. It contains higher levels of protein, vitamins, and essential minerals like calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) than common cereals. Tef is cultivated in diverse ecological zones under diverse climatic conditions. Studies have shown that tef has great diversity in withstanding environmental challenges such as drought. Drought is a major abiotic stress severely affecting crop productivity and becoming a bottleneck to global food security. Here, we used in silico-based functional genomic analysis to identify drought-responsive genes in tef and validated their expression using quantitative RT-PCR.

RESULTS

We identified about 729 drought-responsive genes so far reported in six crop plants, including rice, wheat, maize, barley, sorghum, pearl millet, and the model plant Arabidopsis, and reported 20 genes having high-level of GO terms related to drought, and significantly enriched in several biological and molecular function categories. These genes were found to play diverse roles, including water and fluid transport, resistance to high salt, cold, and drought stress, abscisic acid (ABA) signaling, de novo DNA methylation, and transcriptional regulation in tef and other crops. Our analysis revealed substantial differences in the conserved domains of some tef genes from well-studied rice orthologs. We further analyzed the expression of sixteen tef orthologs using quantitative RT-PCR in response to PEG-induced osmotic stress.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed differential regulation of some drought-responsive genes in shoots, roots, or both tissues. Hence, the genes identified in this study may be promising candidates for trait improvement in crops via transgenic or gene-editing technologies.

Discovering and Mapping Colloquial Terminologies Describing Underutilized and Neglected Food Crops-A Comprehensive Review

Global levels of biodiversity and dietary diversity are decreasing, leading to food and nutrition insecurity. This is partially due to the homogenization of the global food supply with commodity crops. The reintroduction or introduction of neglected and underutilized species, minor, forgotten, and indigenous crops and landrace varieties to the wider food systems and further diversification have been outlined as the future strategies for tackling the above by the United Nations and the Food and Agriculture Organization in their policy frameworks. Most of the above species/crops are marginalized and only used across local food systems and in research. With over 15,000 different seed banks and repositories worldwide, information transparency and communication are crucial for database searching and their effective utilization. Much confusion persists around the true nature of those plants, and this prohibits the efficient utilization of their economic potential. A linguistic corpus search and a systematic literature review were conducted using the six most popular collocates to the above terms, which were as follows: ancient, heirloom, heritage, traditional, orphan, and the more distinct term 'landrace'. The results were interpreted using the Critical Discourse Analysis method. The definitions' findings show that heirloom, heritage, and ancient are mainly used in the United Kingdom and USA, where they are used to describe 'naturalized' and 'indigenized' or 'indigenous' food crops with a strong affiliation to 'family' and the 'act of passing seeds down from generation to generation'. Orphan crops, on the other hand, are often described as being 'overlooked' by growers and 'underfunded' by researchers. Landrace is most strongly affiliated with 'locality', 'biocultural diversity', and 'indigenous', and with genomics literature, where the characteristics are often discussed in the context of genetics and population biology. Contextualizing, most of the terms were found to be 'arbitrary' and 'undefinable' due to their continuing evolution in the socially accepted form of language, perhaps apart from landrace. The review has retrieved 58 definitions for the mentioned 6 terms, together with the primary key terms creating a tool to facilitate a better inter-sector communication and aid in policy.

Indigenous communities' perceptions reveal threats and management options of wild edible plants in semiarid lands of northwestern Kenya

BACKGROUND

Understanding how local communities perceive threats and management options of wild edible plants (WEPs) is essential in developing their conservation strategies and action plans. Due to their multiple use values, including nutrition, medicinal, construction, and cultural as well as biotic and abiotic pressures, WEPs are exposed to overexploitation, especially within arid and semiarid lands, and hence the need to manage and conserve them. We demonstrate how an understanding of indigenous communities' perceptions could be achieved through an integrated participatory approach involving focus group discussions (FGDs) and field plot surveys.

METHODS

We conducted three FGDs between October 2020 and April 2021 within three community units in northwestern Kenya with different socioeconomic and environmental characteristics. We subsequently surveyed 240 field plots of size 1 ha each to assess threats facing WEPs within a 5 km buffer radius in every study community. We compared ranks of threats and management options across community units.

RESULTS

Rankings of threats and management options differed across the three study communities. We obtained strong positive linear relationships between field and FGD rankings of threats facing WEPs. Climate change, overstocking, overharvesting, and invasive species were the highest-ranked threats. Mitigation of climate change, local knowledge preservation, selection, propagation, processing, and marketing of WEPs ranked high among possible management options irrespective of the socioeconomic and environmental characteristics of the community unit.

CONCLUSIONS

Our approach emphasizes the relevance of leveraging indigenous communities' perceptions and conducting field plot surveys to assess threats and management options for WEPs. Evaluating the effectiveness and cost-benefit implications of implementing the highly ranked management options could help determine potentially suitable habitats of the WEPs for conservation and management purposes, especially for priority WEPs.

Diversifying agrifood systems to ensure global food security following the Russia–Ukraine crisis

The recent Russia–Ukraine conflict has raised significant concerns about global food security, leaving many countries with restricted access to imported staple food crops, particularly wheat and sunflower oil, sending food prices soaring with other adverse consequences in the food supply chain. This detrimental effect is particularly prominent for low-income countries relying on grain imports, with record-high food prices and inflation affecting their livelihoods. This review discusses the role of Russia and Ukraine in the global food system and the impact of the Russia–Ukraine conflict on food security. It also highlights how diversifying four areas of agrifood systems—markets, production, crops, and technology can contribute to achieving food supply chain resilience for future food security and sustainability.

First report of aeroponically grown Bambara groundnut, an African indigenous hypogeal legume: Implications for climate adaptation

Global agricultural production is currently limited by negative climate-related hazards such as drought, uneven rainfall and rising temperatures. Many efforts have been put in place by government and non-government agencies to mitigate the challenges of climate change in the sector. However, the approaches do not seem feasible due to the growing demand for food. With these challenges, climate-smart agricultural technologies such as aeroponics and underutilised crops have been projected as the future of agriculture in developing African countries to reduce the risk of food insecurity. In this paper, we present the cultivation of an underutilised indigenous African legume crop, Bambara groundnut, in an aeroponics system. Seventy Bambara groundnut landraces were cultivated in a low-cost climate-smart aeroponics system and in sawdust media. The results showed that Bambara groundnut landraces cultivated in aeroponics performed better than those cultivated in a traditional hydroponics (sawdust/drip irrigation) technique in terms of plant height and chlorophyll content, where the landraces cultivated in sawdust had a higher number of leaves than those cultivated in aeroponics. This study also demonstrated the feasibility of introducing a generic Internet of Things platform for climate-smart agriculture in developing countries. The proof-of-concept and the successful cultivation of a hypogeal crop in aeroponics can be useful for cost-effective adaptation and mitigation plans for climate change, particularly for food security in rural African agricultural sectors.

Genomics and biochemical analyses reveal a metabolon key to β-L-ODAP biosynthesis in Lathyrus sativus

Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.) is a rich source of protein cultivated as an insurance crop in Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Its resilience to both drought and flooding makes it a promising crop for ensuring food security in a changing climate. The lack of genetic resources and the crop's association with the disease neurolathyrism have limited the cultivation of grass pea. Here, we present an annotated, long read-based assembly of the 6.5 Gbp L. sativus genome. Using this genome sequence, we have elucidated the biosynthetic pathway leading to the formation of the neurotoxin, β-L-oxalyl-2,3-diaminopropionic acid (β-L-ODAP). The final reaction of the pathway depends on an interaction between L. sativus acyl-activating enzyme 3 (LsAAE3) and a BAHD-acyltransferase (LsBOS) that form a metabolon activated by CoA to produce β-L-ODAP. This provides valuable insight into the best approaches for developing varieties which produce substantially less toxin.

Genetic variation and characterization of Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) verdc.] accessions under multi-environments considering yield and yield components performance

Bambara groundnut has significant role to play in terms of food security, even though researchers in agriculture have paid very little attention to the crop in the past. This study aimed to investigate the high-yielding accessions in three environments. A total of 34 phenological, vegetative and yield traits were measured and analyzed statistically with R software. There were significant differences in all the traits except for plant height, initial plant stand, panicle length per stem, and petiole length. Across the three environments, TVSU-455 gave the highest values for the total number of pods (42.67), final plant stands (7.67), fresh seed weights (45.83), number of seeds per plant (46.62), hundred seed weight with a value (124.56), dry seed weight (27.14), fresh pod weight (92.65), harvest index of 0.57, yield per plot (45.83) and unshelled yield per plot (550.26). TVSU-455 was the only accession in cluster I of the dendrogram based on its superiority over other accessions. The clustering analysis produced a dendrogram categorizing the 15 accessions into 4 groups based on the vegetative, phenological, and yield traits. There were significant differences among the correlations of the 34 traits. The first two principle components explained 56.16% of the total variation with each dimension accounting for 39.85% and 16. 31% variation, respectively. TVSU-455 can be recommended for stability analysis.

Screening Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc) Genotypes for Drought Tolerance at the Germination Stage under Simulated Drought Conditions

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc) is grown by smallholders and subsistence farmers in the marginal parts of sub-Saharan Africa. This legume is native to Africa and is cultivated throughout semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa. It is hardy and has been recognized as a nutritious food source in times of scarcity. Drought can negatively affect the germination or establishment of seedlings in the early stages of crop growth. Drought can limit the growing season of certain crops and create conditions that encourage the invasion of insects and diseases. Drought can also lead to a lack of crop yield, leading to rising food prices, shortages, and possibly malnutrition in vulnerable populations. A drought-tolerant genotype can be identified at the germination stage of Bambara groundnut by screening for drought-tolerance traits, and this knowledge can be applied to Bambara crop improvement programs to identify drought-tolerant traits during early growth phases. As an osmolyte, polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000) reduced water potential and simulated drought stress in Bambara groundnut seeds of different genotypes. Osmolytes are low-molecular-weight organic compounds that influence biological fluid properties. In this study, 24 Bambara groundnut genotypes were used. Data were collected on seed germination percentage (G%), germination velocity index (GVI), mean germination time (MGT), root dry mass (RDM), root fresh mass (RFM), and seven drought tolerance indices: mean productivity (MP), tolerance index (TOL), geometric mean productivity (GMP), stress susceptibility index (SSI), yield index (YI), yield stability index (YSI), stress tolerance index (STI) as well as seed coat color measurements. The data were applied to the mean observation of genotypes under simulated drought conditions (Ys) and the mean observation of genotypes under controlled conditions (Yp). Germination%, germination velocity index (GVI), mass germination time (MGT), and root fresh mass (RFM) differed significantly (p < 0.001) between the two stress conditions. Bambara genotypes Acc 82 and Acc 96 were found to be the most drought-tolerant.

Overexpression of DoBAM1 from Yam (Dioscorea opposita Thunb.) Enhances Cold Tolerance in Transgenic Tobacco

β-amylase (BAM) plays an important role in plant development and response to abiotic stresses. In this study, 5 DoBAM members were identified in yam (Dioscorea opposita Thunb.). A novel β-amylase gene BAM1, (named DoBAM1), was isolated from yam varieties Bikeqi and Dahechangyu. The open reading frame (ORF) of DoBAM1 is 2806 bp and encodes 543 amino acids. Subcellular localization analysis indicates that DoBAM1 localizes to the cell membrane and cytoplasm. In the yam variety Dahechangyu, the starch content, β-amylase activity, and expression of DoBAM1 were characterized and found to all be higher than in Bikeqi. DoBAM1 overexpression in tobacco is shown to promote the accumulation of soluble sugar and chlorophyll content and to increase the activities of peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and β-amylase. Under cold treatment, we observed the induced upregulation of DoBAM1 and lower starch content and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation than in WT plants. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that DoBAM1 overexpression plays an advanced role in cold tolerance, at least in part by raising the levels of soluble sugars that are capable of acting as osmolytes or antioxidants.

Renaming Indigenous crops and addressing colonial bias in scientific language

Indigenous crops, commonly known as orphan, forgotten, or neglected crops, are understudied, but have important roles in the diet and economy of the communities that cultivate them. Here, we review potential benefits of Indigenous crop research and highlight the importance of an anticolonial framework to prevent exploitation of these unique resources.

Food fortification strategies to deliver nutrients for the management of iron deficiency anaemia

A rising trend in the global prevalence of anaemia is still prevailing. To combat micronutrient deficiencies, World Health Organisation/Food Agriculture Organisation (2006) guidelines recommended four chief strategies - supplementation, fortification, nutrition education and dietary diversity. Of the four strategies, food fortification has been considered as the most efficacious and economical approach. However, it is the directives themselves that highlight two major bottlenecks associated with conventional fortification - uniform dissemination of the fortifier in food vehicle that mostly include staple foods, and internal and external compliance evaluation of fortification regulations and standards by the producers. As a result, researchers envisaged a new strategy - Food-to-food fortification that complements conventional fortification. This strategy involves fortification of food vehicles with nutrient-rich food-based fortifiers. The major advantage of utilising food-based fortifiers is that they hold the potential of enhancing the bioavailability of the fortified food and providing additional nutrients and thus, resulting in dietary diversification. It also facilitates the utilisation of underutilised crops as food-based fortifiers. Underutilised crops have been recognised as potential beneficial food source accounting to their nutritional, ecological, and fiscal benefits. This review paper delves into the strengths and shortcomings of conventional iron fortification. It delineates the concept of food-to-food fortification, while precisely discussing about the best practices to be followed to address the possible challenges associated with this strategy. It also promotes the utilisation of underutilised iron rich foods to develop fortified foods and avert global food insecurity. Furthermore, it provides a summary of the studies conducted around the world to develop fortified foods using iron compounds and iron-rich foods, and to investigate their efficacy in managing iron deficiency anaemia.

Improving Yield and Yield Stability in Winter Rye by Hybrid Breeding

Rye is the only cross-pollinating small-grain cereal. The unique reproduction biology results in an exceptional complexity concerning genetic improvement of rye by breeding. Rye is a close relative of wheat and has a strong adaptation potential that refers to its mating system, making this overlooked cereal readily adjustable to a changing environment. Rye breeding addresses the emerging challenges of food security associated with climate change. The systematic identification, management, and use of its valuable natural diversity became a feasible option in outbreeding rye only following the establishment of hybrid breeding late in the 20th century. In this article, we review the most recent technological advances to improve yield and yield stability in winter rye. Based on recently released reference genome sequences, SMART breeding approaches are described to counterbalance undesired linkage drag effects of major restorer genes on grain yield. We present the development of gibberellin-sensitive semidwarf hybrids as a novel plant breeding innovation based on an approach that is different from current methods of increasing productivity in rye and wheat. Breeding of new rye cultivars with improved performance and resilience is indispensable for a renaissance of this healthy minor cereal as a homogeneous commodity with cultural relevance in Europe that allows for comparatively smooth but substantial complementation of wheat with rye-based diets, supporting the necessary restoration of the balance between human action and nature.

Cleome gynandra: A wonder climate-smart plant for nutritional security for millions in semi-arid areas

Spider plant (Cleome gynandra) is predominantly used as a traditional leafy vegetable throughout Africa and is considered a rich natural source of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and proteins. With the increase in malnutrition, diet related non-communicable diseases and poverty across the continent of Africa, the spider plant is a bona fide alternative healthy food crop to alleviate these challenges. Spider plant is an erect annual herb that could grow up to 150 cm tall, strongly branched, with a long taproot and few secondary roots. It is commonly consumed in resource-poor communities especially during times of major food scarcity. It is a drought-tolerant and resilient annual vegetable crop capable of growing well in a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions. Despite the potential benefits and wide adaptability, progressive attempts towards the development of C. gynandra as a crop have been impeded by issues like low investment in research and development resulting in poor seed quality, relatively low yields and susceptibility to pests and diseases. In this paper, we reviewed the research that has been done regarding its morphology, growing conditions, production and utilisation (i.e., nutrition). The current review highlighted the status of the science in advancing the domestication of C. gynandra as a potential power crop for several African countries. The review concluded that with the advancement of modern biotechnology techniques and genome sequencing, there is a compelling case for investment and development in C. gynandra as a candidate for managing micronutrient deficiencies during the post-pandemic era. Finally, the existing knowledge gaps (e.g., breeding) that necessitate explorations were identified and recommendations that could enhance its development and potential commercialisation were made.

Prospects and potentials of underutilized leafy Amaranths as vegetable use for health-promotion

Climate change causes environmental variation worldwide, which is one of the most serious threats to global food security. In addition, more than 2 billion people in the world are reported to suffer from serious malnutrition, referred to as 'hidden hunger.' Dependence on only a few crops could lead to the loss of genetic diversity and high fragility of crop breeding in systems adapting to global scale climate change. The exploitation of underutilized species and genetic resources, referred to as orphan crops, could be a useful approach for resolving the issue of adaptability to environmental alteration, biodiversity preservation, and improvement of nutrient quality and quantity to ensure food security. Moreover, the use of these alternative crops will help to increase the human health benefits and the income of farmers in developing countries. In this review, we highlight the potential of orphan crops, especially amaranths, for use as vegetables and health-promoting nutritional components. This review highlights promising diversified sources of amaranth germplasms, their tolerance to abiotic stresses, and their nutritional, phytochemical, and antioxidant values for vegetable purposes. Betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins), unique antioxidant components in amaranth vegetables, are also highlighted regarding their chemodiversity across amaranth germplasms and their stability and degradation. In addition, we discuss the physiological functions, antioxidant, antilipidemic, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities, as well as the biosynthesis pathway, molecular, biochemical, genetics, and genomic mechanisms of betalains in detail.

Orphan legumes: harnessing their potential for food, nutritional and health security through genetic approaches

Legumes, being angiosperm's third-largest family as well as the second major crop family, contributes beyond 33% of human dietary proteins. The advent of the global food crisis owing to major climatic concerns leads to nutritional deprivation, hunger and hidden hunger especially in developing and underdeveloped nations. Hence, in the wake of promoting sustainable agriculture and nutritional security, apart from the popular legumes, the inclusion of lesser-known and understudied local crop legumes called orphan legumes in the farming systems of various tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world is indeed a need of the hour. Despite possessing tremendous potentialities, wide adaptability under diverse environmental conditions, and rich in nutritional and nutraceutical values, these species are still in a neglected and devalued state. Therefore, a major re-focusing of legume genetics, genomics, and biology is much crucial in pursuance of understanding the yield constraints, and endorsing underutilized legume breeding programs. Varying degrees of importance to these crops do exist among researchers of developing countries in establishing the role of orphan legumes as future crops. Under such circumstances, this article assembles a comprehensive note on the necessity of promoting these crops for further investigations and sustainable legume production, the exploitation of various orphan legume species and their potencies. In addition, an attempt has been made to highlight various novel genetic, molecular, and omics approaches for the improvement of such legumes for enhancing yield, minimizing the level of several anti-nutritional factors, and imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. A significant genetic enhancement through extensive research in 'omics' areas is the absolute necessity to transform them into befitting candidates for large-scale popularization around the globe.

Farmers' Participatory Plant Selection of Lablab (Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet) in Tanzania

Farmer-participatory breeding approach is an important component in the crop improvement of lablab (Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet). The study was carried out to obtain the knowledge, practices and preferences of lablab through 31 lablab growing-farmers from Arusha, Kondoa, Karatu, Same and Babati districts of Tanzania toward initiating a lablab breeding program. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered and focused group discussions were held to collect data on the socio-demographic factors, production practices, constraints and farmer's preferred traits of lablab. Selection of preferred traits and accessions was also done by the farmers in the field. Results showed that the chief constraints of lablab production are pests and diseases, poor marketability, low seed quality, inadequate rainfall, expensive agrochemicals, low yield, and poor storage facilities. The major pests are pod borer (field) and bruchids (storage). Preferred traits for lablab improvement include the development of insect pests and disease-resistant varieties, early maturing, high yield, black colored seed for market, short cooking time, and dense foliage. Genotypes EK2, D360, HA4, and D96 with preferred traits were identified by farmers, which forms critical decisions in crop improvement. This study describes the current view of lablab production and generates the understanding of farmers' perceptions and preferences vital for breeding priorities and programs to increase its production, utilization and consumption.

Breeding of Vegetable Cowpea for Nutrition and Climate Resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa: Progress, Opportunities, and Challenges

Currently, the world population is increasing, and humanity is facing food and nutritional scarcity. Climate change and variability are a major threat to global food and nutritional security, reducing crop productivity in the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. Cowpea has the potential to make a significant contribution to global food and nutritional security. In addition, it can be part of a sustainable food system, being a genetic resource for future crop improvement, contributing to resilience and improving agricultural sustainability under climate change conditions. In malnutrition prone regions of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries, cowpea has become a strategic dryland legume crop for addressing food insecurity and malnutrition. Therefore, this review aims to assess the contribution of cowpea to SSA countries as a climate-resilient crop and the existing production challenges and perspectives. Cowpea leaves and immature pods are rich in diverse nutrients, with high levels of protein, vitamins, macro and micronutrients, minerals, fiber, and carbohydrates compared to its grain. In addition, cowpea is truly a multifunctional crop for maintaining good health and for reducing non-communicable human diseases. However, as a leafy vegetable, cowpea has not been researched and promoted sufficiently because it has not been promoted as a food security crop due to its low yield potential, susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses, quality assurance issues, policy regulation, and cultural beliefs (it is considered a livestock feed). The development of superior cowpea as a leafy vegetable can be approached in different ways, such as conventional breeding and gene stacking, speed breeding, mutation breeding, space breeding, demand-led breeding, a pan-omics approach, and local government policies. The successful breeding of cowpea genotypes that are high-yielding with a good nutritional value as well as having resistance to biotics and tolerant to abiotic stress could also be used to address food security and malnutrition-related challenges in sub-Saharan Africa.

Expression of a Pennisetum glaucum gene DREB2A confers enhanced heat, drought and salinity tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis

BACKGROUND

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is an essential cereal crop, whose growth and yield are not impacted by abiotic stresses, such as drought, heat, and cold. The DREB transcription factors (TF) are some of the largest groups of TFs in plants and play varied roles in plant stress response and signal transduction.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In the present study, PgDREB2A gene encoding a DREB transcription factor in pearl millet was functionally characterized in Arabidopsis. DREB2A proteins contain a conserved domain that binds toethylene responsive element binding factors. Three different T₁ transgenic lines overexpressing PgDREB2A gene were identified by Southern blot. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction exhibited that PgDREB2A could be induced under drought conditions. As compared with the control, PgDREB2A overexpressing transgenic Arabidopsis showed increased rate of seed germination and root growth in transgenic lines under higher concentrations of mannitol, NaCl, ABA, heat and cold stress. Additionally, PgDREB2A transgenic lines showed enhanced durability after rehydration and tolerance to drought and salt stress was augmented with increased proline and reduced MDA build-up and diminishing water loss.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this study suggested that PgDREB2A as a transcription factor may improve endurance to various abiotic stresses and can be employed for developing crops tolerant to abiotic stresses.

Dynamic and Comparative Transcriptome Analyses Reveal Key Factors Contributing to Cadmium Tolerance in Broomcorn Millet

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) has great potential in Cd phytoextraction, but its mechanisms are largely unknown. Two contrasting broomcorn millet varieties, 'Ningmi6' (Cd-sensitive variety) and '4452' (Cd-tolerant variety), were investigated through morphological, physiological, and transcriptomic analyses to determine the factors responsible for their differential Cd tolerance and translocation. The Cd-tolerant variety can accumulate more Cd, and its cell wall and vacuole component Cd proportions were higher compared with the Cd-sensitive variety. Under Cd stress, the glutathione content and peroxidase activity of the Cd-tolerant variety were significantly higher than those of the Cd-sensitive variety. Additionally, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed hub modules that were associated with Cd stress and/or variety. Notably, genes involved in these hub modules were significantly enriched for roles in glutathione metabolism, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, ABC transport, and metal ion transport process. These results suggested that regulation of genes associated with cell wall precipitation and vacuole compartmentalization may increase Cd tolerance and reduce Cd translocation in the Cd-tolerant variety, although it can absorb more Cd. This study provides a foundation for exploring molecular mechanisms of Cd tolerance and transport in broomcorn millet and new insights into improving Cd phytoremediation with this crop through genetic engineering.

Coupling genetic structure analysis and ecological-niche modeling in Kersting’s groundnut in West Africa

Orphan legume crops play an important role in smallholder farmers’ food systems. Though less documented, they have the potential to contribute to adequate nutrition in vulnerable communities. Unfortunately, data are scarce about the potential of those crops to withstand current and future climate variations. Using Macrotyloma geocarpum as an example, we used ecological niche modeling to explore the role of ecology on the current and future distributions of genetic populations of Kersting’s groundnut. Our findings showed that: (1) the models had good predictive power, indicating that M. geocarpum’s distribution was correlated with both climatic and soil layers; (2) identity and similarity tests revealed that the two genetic groups have identical and similar environmental niches; (3) by integrating the genetic information in niche modeling, niches projections show divergence in the response of the species and genetic populations to ongoing climate change. This study highlights the importance of incorporating genetic data into Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM) approaches to obtain a finer information of species’ future distribution, and explores the implications for agricultural adaptation, with a particular focus on identifying priority actions in orphan crops conservation and breeding.

Visioning a food system for equitable transition towards sustainable diets

The Global Goals to end hunger requires interpretation of problems, and change across multiple domains. We facilitated a workshop aimed at understanding how stakeholders problematise sustainable diet transition (SDT) among a previously-marginalised social group. Using the systems thinking approach, three sub-systems, access to dietary diversity, sustainable beneficiation of natural capital, and 'food choice for well-being', highlighted the main forces governing the current context, and future interventions. Moreover, when viewed as co-evolving processes within the multi-level perspective, our identified microlevel leverage points - multi-faceted literacy, youth empowerment, deliberative policy-making, promotion of sustainable diet aspirations - can be linked and developed through existing national macrolevel strategies. Thus, by reconsidering knowledge use in the pursuit sustainability, transformational SDT can streamline multiple outcomes to restructure socio-technical sectors, reconnect people to nature-based solutions and, support legitimate aspirations. The approach could be applied in countries having complex socio-political legacy and to bridge the local-global goals coherently.

The Future of Food: Domestication and Commercialization of Indigenous Food Crops in Africa over the Third Decade (2012–2021)

This paper follows the transition from ethnobotany to a deeper scientific understanding of the food and medicinal properties of African agroforestry tree products as inputs into the start of domestication activities. It progresses on to the integration of these indigenous trees as new crops within diversified farming systems for multiple social, economic and environmental benefits. From its advent in the 1990s, the domestication of indigenous food and non-food tree species has become a global programme with a strong African focus. This review of progress in the third decade is restricted to progress in Africa, where multi-disciplinary research on over 59 species has been reported in 759 research papers in 318 science publications by scientists from over 833 research teams in 70 countries around the world (532 in Africa). The review spans 23 research topics presenting the recent research literature for tree species of high priority across the continent, as well as that in each of the four main ecological regions: the humid zone of West and Central Africa; the Sahel and North Africa; the East African highlands and drylands; and the woody savannas of Southern Africa. The main areas of growth have been the nutritional/medicinal value of non-timber forest products; the evaluation of the state of natural resources and their importance to local people; and the characterization of useful traits. However, the testing of putative cultivars; the implementation of participatory principles; the protection of traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights; and the selection of elite trees and ideotypes remain under-researched. To the probable detriment of the upscaling and impact in tropical agriculture, there has been, at the international level, a move away from decentralized, community-based tree domestication towards a laboratory-based, centralized approach. However, the rapid uptake of research by university departments and national agricultural research centres in Africa indicates a recognition of the importance of the indigenous crops for both the livelihoods of rural communities and the revitalization and enhanced outputs from agriculture in Africa, especially in West Africa. Thus, on a continental scale, there has been an uptake of research with policy relevance for the integration of indigenous trees in agroecosystems and their importance for the attainment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. To progress this in the fourth decade, there will need to be a dedicated Centre in Africa to test and develop cultivars of indigenous crops. Finally, this review underpins a holistic approach to mitigating climate change, as well as other big global issues such as hunger, poverty and loss of wildlife habitat by reaping the benefits, or ‘profits’, from investment in the five forms of Capital, described as ‘land maxing’. However, policy and decision makers are not yet recognizing the potential for holistic and transformational adoption of these new indigenous food crop opportunities for African agriculture. Is ‘political will’ the missing sixth capital for sustainable development?

The Renaissance of Wild Food Plants: Insights from Tuscany (Italy)

This paper provides an overview of wild food plants traditionally used in the gastronomy of Tuscany, an Italian region with high biological diversity and whose cultural heritage is well known. Forty-nine bibliographic sources, including five unpublished studies, were reviewed. A list of species with ecological characteristics, plant parts used, use category (food, liquor, or seasoning), methods of preparation (raw or cooked), and recipes is presented. The use of 357 taxa (3711 use reports, URs), was recorded, belonging to 215 genera and 72 botanical families. Over the total taxa, 12 are new for Tuscany, 52 seem not to be present in other Italian regions, and 54 were not detected in the consulted European ethnobotanical literature. Of these taxa, 324 (3117 URs) were used as food, while 49 (178 URs) and 81 (416 URs) were used for liquor and seasoning, respectively. Of the 17 different food recipes, cooked vegetables constituted the largest group, followed by salads, omelets, snacks, and fillings. The chemical composition of the recorded food plants and the possible safety risks associated to their consumption, as well as their traditional medicinal use, are also shown. This review highlights the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge in Tuscany. Such biocultural heritage can be a “source of inspiration” for agriculture. As a reservoir of potential new crops, wild edible flora may contribute to the development of emerging horticultural sectors such as vertical farming and microgreens production. Moreover, the nutrient content and healthy properties of many wild food plants reported in this study has the ability to meet consumer demand for functional foods.

Neglected and Underutilised Crops: A Systematic Review of Their Potential as Food and Herbal Medicinal Crops in South Africa

The African continent harbours many native species with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical potential. This study reviewed underutilised crops in South Africa to determine their potential as food and herbal medicinal crops. Over 5,000 species have been identified and earmarked for their medical attributes in formal and informal setups. Researchers, plant breeders and policymakers have mostly ignored the development potential of these crops. Consequently, their value chains are poorly developed. In South Africa, there is a wide range of neglected and underutilised crops, which were historically popular and used by communities; however, over the years, they have lost their status within farming systems and been relegated to the status of neglected and underutilised. Recently, driven by the need to transition to more sustainable and resilient food systems, there has been renewed interest in their potential as food and herbal medicinal crops to establish new value chains that include vulnerable groups. They are now gaining global attention, and their conservation and sustainable utilisation are now being prioritized. The review confirmed that several of these crops possess nutraceutical and pharmaceutical properties, highlighting their potential for development as food and herbal medicines. However, current production levels are too low to meet the requirements for industrial development; research and development should focus on all aspects of their value chain, from crop improvement to utilisation. A transdisciplinary approach involving a wide range of actors is needed to develop the identified neglected and underutilised crops' potential as food and herbal medicinal crops and support the development of new and inclusive value chains.

George Washington Carver: A plant scientist's perspective

Yoselin Benitez-Alfonso discusses the work and influence of African American agricultural scientist and inventor George Washington Carver, whose under-recognised studies of crop rotation and soil depletion greatly improved the lives of farmers, and whose teachings continue to inspire and remain relevant today.

The Exploitation of Orphan Legumes for Food, Income, and Nutrition Security in Sub-Saharan Africa

Poverty, food, and nutrition insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) have become major concerns in recent times. The effects of climate change, drought, and unpredictable rainfall patterns threaten food production and sustainable agriculture. More so, insurgency, youth restiveness, and politico-economic instability amidst a burgeoning population requiring a sufficient and healthy diet remain front-burner issues in the region. Overdependence on only a few major staple crops is increasingly promoting the near extinction of many crops, especially orphan legumes, which possess immense potentials as protein and nutritional security crops. The major staple crops are declining in yield partly to their inability to adapt to the continuously changing climatic conditions. Remarkably, the orphan legumes are climate-smart crops with enormous agronomic features which foster sustainable livelihood. Research efforts on these crops have not attained a reasonable comparative status with most commercial crops. Though many research organizations and scientists have made efforts to promote the improvement and utilization of these orphan legumes, there is still more to be done. These legumes' vast genetic resources and economic utility are grossly under-exploited, but their values and promising impacts are immeasurable. Given the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) of zero hunger, improved nutrition, health, and sustainable agriculture, the need to introduce these crops into food systems in SSA and other poverty-prone regions of the world is now more compelling than ever. This review unveils inherent values in orphan legumes needing focus for exploitation viz-a-viz cultivation, commercialization, and social acceptance. More so, this article discusses some of the nutraceutical potentials of the orphan legumes, their global adaptability, and modern plant breeding strategies that could be deployed to develop superior phenotypes to enrich the landraces. Advanced omics technologies, speed breeding, as well as the application of genome editing techniques, could significantly enhance the genetic improvement of these useful but underutilized legumes. Efforts made in this regard and the challenges of these approaches were also discussed.

Development of Selection Indices for Improvement of Seed Yield and Lipid Composition in Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.)

The underutilised grain legume bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) has the potential to contribute significantly to nutritional security. However, the lack of commercial cultivars has hindered its wider adoption and utilisation as a food source. The development of competitive cultivars is impeded by (1) lack of systematic data describing variation in nutritional composition within the gene pool, and (2) a poor understanding of how concentrations of different nutritional components interact. In this study, we analysed seed lipid and protein concentration and lipid composition within a collection of 100 lines representing the global gene pool. Seed protein and lipid varied over twofold with a normal distribution, but no significant statistical correlation was detected between the two components. Seed lipid concentration (4.2–8.8 g/100 g) is primarily determined by the proportion of oleic acid (r² = 0.45). Yield and composition data for a subset of 40 lines were then used to test selection parameters for high yielding, high lipid breeding lines. From five selection indices tested using 15 scenarios, an index based on the seed number, seed weight, and oleic acid yielded a >50% expected increase in each of the mean values of seed number, pod dry weight, seed dry weight, and seed size, as well as an expected 7% increase in seed lipid concentration.

A 20-Year Journey Through an Orphan African Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) Towards Improved Food and Nutrition Security in Africa

The African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a multipurpose orphan tree species of the semi-arid and sub-humid Sub-Saharan Africa where it plays an important role in rural livelihoods. Its wide distribution and dense nutrition properties make it an important species for food and nutrition security in Africa. However, despite the increasing interest in the species over the past two decades, the full potential of baobab remains underexploited. This review highlights strides made over the past 20 years (2001–2020) towards harnessing and unlocking the potential values of baobab in Benin, West Africa, to contribute to food and nutrition security. Challenges and threats are identified, and next steps suggested to guide research and development initiatives for orphan tree fruit species like baobab to address hunger and malnutrition in Africa.

Informing Equitable Water and Food Policies through Accurate Spatial Information on Irrigated Areas in Smallholder Farming Systems

Accurate information on irrigated areas' spatial distribution and extent are crucial in enhancing agricultural water productivity, water resources management, and formulating strategic policies that enhance water and food security and ecologically sustainable development. However, data are typically limited for smallholder irrigated areas, which is key to achieving social equity and equal distribution of financial resources. This study addressed this gap by delineating disaggregated smallholder and commercial irrigated areas through the random forest algorithm, a non-parametric machine learning classifier. Location within or outside former apartheid "homelands" was taken as a proxy for smallholder, and commercial irrigation. Being in a medium rainfall area, the huge irrigation potential of the Inkomati-Usuthu Water Management Area (UWMA) is already well developed for commercial crop production outside former homelands. However, information about the spatial distribution and extent of irrigated areas within former homelands, which is largely informal, was missing. Therefore, we first classified cultivated lands in 2019 and 2020 as a baseline, from where the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to distinguish irrigated from rainfed, focusing on the dry winter period when crops are predominately irrigated. The mapping accuracy of 84.9% improved the efficacy in defining the actual spatial extent of current irrigated areas at both smallholder and commercial spatial scales. The proportion of irrigated areas was high for both commercial (92.5%) and smallholder (96.2%) irrigation. Moreover, smallholder irrigation increased by over 19% between 2019 and 2020, compared to slightly over 7% in the commercial sector. Such information is critical for policy formulation regarding equitable and inclusive water allocation, irrigation expansion, land reform, and food and water security in smallholder farming systems.

Opportunities and Challenges to Improve a Public Research Program in Plant Breeding and Enhance Underutilized Plant Genetic Resources in the Tropics

The American tropics are hotspots of wild and domesticated plant biodiversity, which is still underutilized by breeding programs despite being conserved at regional gene banks. The improvement of those programs depends on long-term public funds and the maintenance of specialized staff. Unfortunately, financial ups and downs complicate staff connectivity and their research impact. Between 2000 and 2010, Agrosavia (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria) dramatically decreased its public financial support. In 2017, we surveyed all 52 researchers from Agrosavia involved in plant breeding and plant genetic resource programs to examine the effect of decimating funds in the last ten years. We hypothesized that the staff dedicated to plant breeding still suffer a strong fragmentation and low connectivity. As we expected, the social network among researchers is weak. The top ten central leaders are predominantly males with an M.Sc. degree but have significant experience in the area. The staff has experience in 31 tropical crops, and 17 are on the list of underutilized species. Moreover, although 26 of these crops are in the national germplasm bank, this has not been the primary source for their breeding programs. We proposed five principles to improve connectivity among teams and research impact: (1) The promotion of internal discussion about gender gaps and generation shifts to design indicators to monitor and decrease this disparity over time. (2) The construction of long-term initiatives and synergies with the Colombian government to support the local production of food security crops independent of market trends. (3) Better collaboration between the National Plant Germplasm Bank and plant breeding researchers. (4) A concerted priority list of species (especially those neglected or underutilized) and external institutions to better focus the collaborative efforts in research using public funds. (5) Better spaces for the design of projects among researchers and training programs in new technologies. These principles could also apply in other tropical countries with public plant breeding research programs facing similar challenges.

Current Advancements and Limitations of Gene Editing in Orphan Crops

Gene editing provides precise, heritable genome mutagenesis without permanent transgenesis, and has been widely demonstrated and applied in planta. In the past decade, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated proteins (Cas) has revolutionized the application of gene editing in crops, with mechanistic advances expanding its potential, including prime editing and base editing. To date, CRISPR/Cas has been utilized in over a dozen orphan crops with diverse genetic backgrounds, leading to novel alleles and beneficial phenotypes for breeders, growers, and consumers. In conjunction with the adoption of science-based regulatory practices, there is potential for CRISPR/Cas-mediated gene editing in orphan crop improvement programs to solve a plethora of agricultural problems, especially impacting developing countries. Genome sequencing has progressed, becoming more affordable and applicable to orphan crops. Open-access resources allow for target gene identification and guide RNA (gRNA) design and evaluation, with modular cloning systems and enzyme screening methods providing experimental feasibility. While the genomic and mechanistic limitations are being overcome, crop transformation and regeneration continue to be the bottleneck for gene editing applications. International collaboration between all stakeholders involved in crop improvement is vital to provide equitable access and bridge the scientific gap between the world's most economically important crops and the most under-researched crops. This review describes the mechanisms and workflow of CRISPR/Cas in planta and addresses the challenges, current applications, and future prospects in orphan crops.

A promising crop for cadmium-contamination remediation: Broomcorn millet

Cadmium (Cd) pollution highly threatens food security and human health, and phytoremediation with Cd-tolerant plants is a cost-effective in situ method for remediation of Cd contamination. Broomcorn millet is known for its strong abiotic stress resistance and can be used as a pioneer crop in both marginal regions and newly reclaimed land. To evaluate their potential in remediation of Cd contamination, a total of 288 broomcorn millet core collections were investigated under hydroponic conditions to compare their capabilities in Cd tolerance, translocation, and accumulation. The core collections varied considerably in their growth parameters, Cd concentration, Cd translocation factor, Cd bioaccumulation factor, and Cd accumulation under Cd stress. According to the Cd tolerance index (TI) values, 160 varieties were Cd tolerant. The Cd TI was significantly positively correlated with Cd accumulation, and the shoot Cd concentrations of five Cd-tolerant varieties were more than 100 mgkg-1, the threshold for being Cd hyperaccumulators. Moreover, the concentrations of essential metal elements were significantly decreased in shoots, and Cd concentration had a significantly positive relationship with magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) concentrations in roots under Cd stress. These results demonstrate that broomcorn millet shows considerable tolerance to Cd stress and great differences in Cd accumulation abilities among varieties. Accordingly, broomcorn millet is a promising plant species for Cd bioremediation, with valuable varieties that have been identified for further study on Cd tolerance mechanisms and the remediation of Cd contamination.

Will Plant Genome Editing Play a Decisive Role in "Quantum-Leap" Improvements in Crop Yield to Feed an Increasing Global Human Population?

Growing scientific evidence demonstrates unprecedented planetary-scale human impacts on the Earth's system with a predicted threat to the existence of the terrestrial biosphere due to population increase, resource depletion, and pollution. Food systems account for 21-34% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Over the past half-century, water and land-use changes have significantly impacted ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, biodiversity, and climate. At the same time, food production is falling behind consumption, and global grain reserves are shrinking. Some predictions suggest that crop yields must approximately double by 2050 to adequately feed an increasing global population without a large expansion of crop area. To achieve this, "quantum-leap" improvements in crop cultivar productivity are needed within very narrow planetary boundaries of permissible environmental perturbations. Strategies for such a "quantum-leap" include mutation breeding and genetic engineering of known crop genome sequences. Synthetic biology makes it possible to synthesize DNA fragments of any desired sequence, and modern bioinformatics tools may hopefully provide an efficient way to identify targets for directed modification of selected genes responsible for known important agronomic traits. CRISPR/Cas9 is a new technology for incorporating seamless directed modifications into genomes; it is being widely investigated for its potential to enhance the efficiency of crop production. We consider the optimism associated with the new genetic technologies in terms of the complexity of most agronomic traits, especially crop yield potential (Yp) limits. We also discuss the possible directions of overcoming these limits and alternative ways of providing humanity with food without transgressing planetary boundaries. In conclusion, we support the long-debated idea that new technologies are unlikely to provide a rapidly growing population with significantly increased crop yield. Instead, we suggest that delicately balanced humane measures to limit its growth and the amount of food consumed per capita are highly desirable for the foreseeable future.

Genetics and breeding for climate change in Orphan crops

Climate change is rapidly changing how we live, what we eat and produce, the crops we breed and the target traits. Previously underutilized orphan crops that are climate resilient are receiving much attention from the crops research community, as they are often the only crops left in the field after periods of extreme weather conditions. There are several orphan crops with incredible resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses. Some are nutritious, while others provide good sources of biofuel, medicine and other industrial raw materials. Despite these benefits, orphan crops are still lacking in important genetic and genomic resources that could be used to fast track their improvement and make their production profitable. Progress has been made in generating draft genomes of at least 28 orphan crops over the last decade, thanks to the reducing cost of sequencing. The implementation of a structured breeding program that takes advantage of additional modern crop improvement tools such as genomic selection, speed breeding, genome editing, high throughput phenotyping and breeding digitization would make rapid improvement of these orphan crops possible, but would require coordinated research investment. Other production challenges such as lack of adequate germplasm conservation, poor/non-existent seed systems and agricultural extension services, as well as poor marketing channels will also need to be improved if orphan crops were to be profitable. We review the importance of breeding orphan crops under the increasing effects of climate change, highlight existing gaps that need to be addressed and share some lessons to be learned from major crops.

Advances in Cereal Crop Genomics for Resilience under Climate Change

Adapting to climate change, providing sufficient human food and nutritional needs, and securing sufficient energy supplies will call for a radical transformation from the current conventional adaptation approaches to more broad-based and transformative alternatives. This entails diversifying the agricultural system and boosting productivity of major cereal crops through development of climate-resilient cultivars that can sustainably maintain higher yields under climate change conditions, expanding our focus to crop wild relatives, and better exploitation of underutilized crop species. This is facilitated by the recent developments in plant genomics, such as advances in genome sequencing, assembly, and annotation, as well as gene editing technologies, which have increased the availability of high-quality reference genomes for various model and non-model plant species. This has necessitated genomics-assisted breeding of crops, including underutilized species, consequently broadening genetic variation of the available germplasm; improving the discovery of novel alleles controlling important agronomic traits; and enhancing creation of new crop cultivars with improved tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses and superior nutritive quality. Here, therefore, we summarize these recent developments in plant genomics and their application, with particular reference to cereal crops (including underutilized species). Particularly, we discuss genome sequencing approaches, quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and genome-wide association (GWAS) studies, directed mutagenesis, plant non-coding RNAs, precise gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and complementation of crop genotyping by crop phenotyping. We then conclude by providing an outlook that, as we step into the future, high-throughput phenotyping, pan-genomics, transposable elements analysis, and machine learning hold much promise for crop improvements related to climate resilience and nutritional superiority.