Individual differences in the development of self-regulation during pre-adolescence: connections to context and adjustment

Maternal Phubbing and Problematic Media Use in Preschoolers: The Independent and Interactive Moderating Role of Children's Negative Affectivity and Effortful Control

Purpose

Given that mother plays the main nurturing role in a family unit and their unique influence on children's development, the current study aimed to examine the influence of maternal phubbing on children's problematic media use and the independent and interactive moderating role of children's negative affectivity and effortful control.

Methods

Participants were 1986 children aged 3 to 6 years in Shanghai, China. Their mothers were asked to complete a series of questionnaires including parental phubbing scale, problematic media use measure, and child behavior questionnaire. To investigate the moderating influence of children's negative affectivity and effortful control, hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted using SPSS 24.0. Simple slopes analyses and the Johnson-Neyman technique were further used to depict moderation effects.

Results

Maternal phubbing was associated with higher levels of problematic media use in preschool children (β = 0.18, p <.001, [0.14, 0.22]). Children's negative affectivity acts as a risk factor, exacerbating the adverse effects of maternal phubbing on children's problematic media use (β = 0.05, t = 2.69, p < 0.05), whereas children's effortful control acts as a protective factor, buffering the link between maternal phubbing and children's problematic media use (β = -0.10, t = -5.00, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

These results suggest that interventions seeking to promote appropriate digital development in preschoolers should take the child's temperament into account and be complemented by active parental mediation and involvement.

Interplay Among Self-Regulation Processes Over Time for Adolescents in the Context of Chronic Stress

Developmental changes in self-regulation are theorized to underlie adolescents' engagement in risky behaviors, physical health, mental health, and transition to adulthood. Two central processes involved in self-regulation, self-management (i.e., planning, concentration, and problem-solving) and disinhibition (e.g., distractibility and impulsivity) appear to develop asynchronously and may be differentially activated based on contextual factors. Using a sample identified based on exposure to chronic stressors, we investigated how changes in self-management and disinhibition affect each other over time and whether these changes occur differently for boys and girls. Youth aged 8-16 (N = 708) who attended a U.S. summer camp self-reported on components of disinhibition and self-management. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling revealed a reciprocal relationship between self-management and disinhibition, with anger coping and distractibility emerging as critical factors in shaping this relationship. Changes in concentration, planning, and problem-solving were components of self-management that drove subsequent changes in boys' disinhibition (for girls, however, planning did not). Autocorrelations for both broad processes remained strong from year to year, indicating a high degree of stability in rank order despite the myriad of physical, cognitive and socioemotional changes that occur during adolescence. We discuss implications of the reciprocal model with a focus on the relative pliability of components from each process and strategies for shaping them. Planning, concentration and distractibility are highlighted as potential targets for intervention.

Intuitive Eating Scale-2-EA: Psychometric properties and factor structure of the adapted IES-2 for early adolescents

PURPOSE

Intuitive Eating (IE) is an approach to eating characterised by attunement to intrinsic cues, and using those cues to guide behaviours related to food and eating. Tylka and Kroon Van Diest's (2008) Intuitive Eating Scale (IES-2) is well-validated in adults, but not yet among early adolescents. The current study was designed to adapt and validate a version suited for use in early adolescence (IES-2-EA).

METHODS

Data collected from two independent samples of adolescents aged 11 to 13 (N = 471) were structurally examined using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), with a subsequent confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm hypothesised model fit. Relationships between scores on the IES-2-EA and validated measures of actual-ideal body size discrepancy, body appreciation, interoceptive awareness, and psychological distress were also examined.

RESULTS

The adapted 17-item IES-2-EA had a three-factor structure with several key differences from the original version developed for adults. Moderate-to-strong correlations were found between scores on the IES-2-EA, body appreciation, interoceptive awareness, actual-ideal body size discrepancy, and psychological distress in the first sample of adolescents (n = 245). Secondary CFA showed good model fit in the second sample of adolescents (n = 226).

CONCLUSION

The IES-2-EA is well-suited to measure intuitive eating behaviour among early adolescents. The 17 items reflect a three-component structure similar to that seen in adults completing the IES-2. These early data suggest the adapted IES-2-EA has evidence of reliability and validity; it may be an effective measure for research and clinical use.

Processing Speed is Related to the General Psychopathology Factor in Youth

The relationship between the p factor and cognition in youth has largely focused on general cognition (IQ) and executive functions (EF). Another cognitive construct, processing speed (PS), is dissociable from IQ and EF, but has received less research attention despite being related to many different mental health symptoms. The present sample included 795 youth, ages 11-16 from the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center (CLDRC) sample. Confirmatory factor analyses tested multiple p factor models, with the primary model being a second-order, multi-reporter p factor. We then tested the correlation between the p factor and a latent PS factor. There was a significant, negative correlation between the p factor and PS (r(87) = -0.42, p < .001), indicating that slower processing speed is associated with higher general mental health symptoms. This association is stronger than previously reported associations with IQ or EF. This finding was robust across models that used different raters (youth and caregiver) and modeling approaches (second-order vs. bifactor). Our findings indicate that PS is related to general psychopathology symptoms. This research points to processing speed as an important transdiagnostic construct that warrants further exploration across development.

A Developmental Pathway from Early Inhibitory Control to Social Connectedness

Social connections are critical for mental and physical health; however, the developmental pathways to children's social connectedness outcomes are not well understood. This study examined the pathways from children's inhibitory control at 4 years to two social connectedness outcomes - loneliness and friendship quality at age 10 - through behavioral problems at age 7. As part of a longitudinal study (N = 291, 54% girls), children's inhibitory control was assessed via a Go/No-Go task when children were 4 years old. Mothers reported on children's behavioral problems at ages 4 and 7 years. Children reported on their friendship quality and loneliness at ages 7 and 10 years. Greater inhibitory control at 4 years predicted lower behavioral problems at 7 years, which in turn predicted better friendship quality and lower loneliness at 10 years. Indirect effects from inhibitory control at 4 years to loneliness and friendship quality at 10 years via behavioral problems at 7 years were significant. Findings suggest that inhibitory control in early childhood may play a key role for the development of social connectedness in middle childhood via its impact on children's behavioral problems.

Longitudinal associations between specific types of emotional reactivity and psychological, physical health, and school adjustment

Using a multimethod, multiinformant longitudinal design, we examined associations between specific forms of positive and negative emotional reactivity at age 5, children's effortful control (EC), emotion regulation, and social skills at age 7, and adolescent functioning across psychological, academic, and physical health domains at ages 15/16 (N = 383). We examined how distinct components of childhood emotional reactivity directly and indirectly predict domain-specific forms of adolescent adjustment, thereby identifying developmental pathways between specific types of emotional reactivity and adjustment above and beyond the propensity to express other forms of emotional reactivity. Age 5 high-intensity positivity was associated with lower age 7 EC and more adolescent risk-taking; age 5 low-intensity positivity was associated with better age 7 EC and adolescent cardiovascular health, providing evidence for the heterogeneity of positive emotional reactivity. Indirect effects indicated that children's age 7 social skills partially explain several associations between age 5 fear and anger reactivity and adolescent adjustment. Moreover, age 5 anger reactivity, low-, and high-intensity positivity were associated with adolescent adjustment via age 7 EC. The findings from this interdisciplinary, long-term longitudinal study have significant implications for prevention and intervention work aiming to understand the role of emotional reactivity in the etiology of adjustment and psychopathology.

Self-control and cooperation in childhood as antecedents of less moral disengagement in adolescence

Moral disengagement is a social cognition people use to engage in wrongdoings even when they know it is wrong. However, little is known about the antecedents that predict moral disengagement. The current study focuses on the development of self-control and cooperation during middle childhood as two antecedents of moral disengagement among 1,103 children (50% female; 77% White, 12% Black, 6% Hispanic, and 5% other). Children's self-control at age 8 and growth in self-control from age 8 to 11 were positively linked to adolescents seeing themselves as having self-control at age 15, which then predicted less moral disengagement at age 18. Children's cooperation at age 8 also was positively linked to adolescents' self-views of cooperation at age 15, which in turn, was associated with less moral disengagement at age 18. These findings demonstrate the potential of self-control and cooperation as intrapersonal and interpersonal strengths during middle childhood for mitigating moral disengagement 10 years later.

Explaining the Prospective Association of Positive and Negative Parenting Behaviors and Child ADHD Symptoms: Pathways Through Child Executive Function and Reward Responsivity

Objective: Parenting behavior is a well-established correlate of offspring ADHD. However, little is known about how parenting exerts its effects on offspring ADHD symptomatology. We examined whether prospective associations between positive and negative parenting behaviors and child ADHD symptoms are mediated by deficits in child executive function (EF) and reward responsivity (RR). Method: One hundred and thirty-five children with and without ADHD were assessed across two Waves, when children were mean ages 6 and 8 respectively. Children completed tasks on EF, and parents completed questionnaires about their parenting behaviors and their children's RR and ADHD symptoms. Results: Negative parenting behavior at Wave 1 was indirectly associated with offspring ADHD symptoms at Wave 2 via offspring EF. Conclusion: Individual differences in EF, but not RR, during early childhood may constitute a potential pathway by which negative parenting behaviors exerts its effects on subsequent offspring ADHD symptomatology. Treatment implications are discussed.

Associations between developmental patterns of negative parenting and emotion regulation development across adolescence

Research has documented changes in parenting practices and in emotion regulation (ER) during adolescence. However, developmental trajectories of these constructs and how they may be linked are not clearly known. The present study examined longitudinal associations between developmental trajectories of negative parenting and developmental trajectories of ER (e.g., abilities and strategy use, including cognitive reappraisal and suppression). The sample included 167 adolescents (53% males) who were first recruited at age 13 or 14 years and assessed annually four times. Adolescents self-reported on the perceived degree of their parent's negative parenting and ER. Growth mixture modeling revealed two distinct trajectories of negative parenting across adolescence: Class 1 contained the majority of adolescents (84%), with moderate initial levels of negative parenting that decreased across adolescence; Class 2 contained a smaller group of adolescents (16%), reporting moderate initial levels of negative parenting that increased across adolescence. Though growth curve modeling did not reveal significant growth in ER across time in the sample as a whole, results from a two-group model demonstrated that ER development significantly differs depending on adolescents' experiences of negative parenting trajectories. Adolescents experiencing decreases in negative parenting showed significant increases in ER abilities and no significant changes in suppression. Adolescents experiencing increases in negative parenting exhibited significant decreases in ER abilities. Adolescent's cognitive reappraisal was unaffected by negative parenting. The findings underscore the significant role of differential parenting environments in the development of ER abilities during adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Inhibitory Control Moderates the Intervention Effects of a Preventive Parenting Program on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among Male Service Members

Military servicemembers face substantial challenges due to war-related trauma exposure, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Individuals with deficits in inhibitory control (IC) may have an increased risk of developing PTSD due to a reduced ability to regulate their cognitive responses to and disengage from trauma-related stimuli. After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) is a mindfulness-infused parenting program for military families that has also been found to have crossover effects on parental mental health. The present study examined whether fathers' IC at baseline affected their response to this emotional skills-focused intervention and further influenced their PTSD symptoms 1 year later. The sample included 282 male National Guard and Reserve (NG/R) service members who had recently been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. Fathers were randomly assigned to either the ADAPT program or a control condition, with IC measured at baseline and PTSD symptoms measured at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed no significant main effect of the intervention on fathers' PTSD symptoms. However, fathers' IC moderated intervention effects on PTSD symptoms, f² = 0.03. The intervention had more beneficial effects on reducing fathers' PTSD symptoms for participants with low IC at baseline. These findings are consistent with compensatory effects in the risk moderation hypothesis, which suggests that prevention or intervention programs are more effective for high-risk subgroups.

Examining the Impact of School Esports Program Participation on Student Health and Psychological Development

This study examined the influence of 7 high school esports developmental programs on student self-regulation, growth mindset, positive youth development (PYD), perceived general health and physical activity (PA), and sport behaviour. A total of 188 students (male n = 120; female n = 68) originally participated (89 enrolled in an esports program in their school and 99 acted as aged-matched controls), with 58 participants (n = 19 esports group; n = 39 controls) completing both pre- and post-program information. At baseline, no significant differences were found between youth e-athletes and their aged-matched controls. The analysis for the observation period showed a significant interaction effect for the PYD confidence scale, with post-hoc comparisons showing a significant decrease in the control group from pre- to post assessment whereas the esports group remained the same. Time main effects showed a decrease in the self-regulation motivation factor, PYD connection factor and PA for all participants. Overall, this study showed that students enrolled in their respective school esports program did not differ from those who did not in self-regulation, growth mindset, PYD, perceived health and PA, and sport behaviour. It was likely that all participants showed a decrease in motivation, connection, and PA due to COVID19 lockdown during the study period. This study is the first to investigate the longitudinal impact of student involvement in high school esports and showed that esports participation did not have a negative impact on any health or psychological factors.

Examining interactions between negative emotionality and effortful control in predicting preadolescent adjustment problems

Negative emotionality and effortful control consistently predict child adjustment, yet few studies explore their interactive effects on adjustment. In concurrent and longitudinal (one-year follow-up) analyses, we examined negative emotionality-by-effortful control interactions in predicting anxiety, depression, and conduct problems in 214 children aged 8-12. Temperament was assessed using behavioral tasks measuring fear, frustration, executive control, and delay ability. An interaction between frustration and executive control predicting conduct problems was observed; higher executive control was related to fewer concurrent conduct problems for those moderate to high in frustration, but did not predict conduct problems for those low in frustration. This interaction did not predict conduct problems one year later. No support was found for negative emotionality-by-effortful control interactions predicting anxiety or depression. Our findings highlight the importance of executive control during preadolescence and provide mixed evidence regarding whether facets of negative emotionality and executive control interact with one another to influence adjustment.

The validity of the higher-order structure of effortful control as defined by inhibitory control, attention shifting, and focusing: A longitudinal and multi-informant study

OBJECTIVE

Effortful control (EC) has been conceptualized as a higher-order construct defined by a class of self-regulatory mechanisms. However, the developmental higher-order structure of EC has seldom been investigated with a thorough psychometric analysis. To begin to fill this gap in the literature, data were obtained from parents and teachers of 185 children (age at T1: M = 9.43 y/o, SD = 1.17) every 2 years for 8 years.

METHOD

We used a structural equation modeling approach for assessing if EC develops as a higher-order factor superordinate to three commonly studied self-regulatory mechanisms, namely inhibitory control (IC), attention focusing (AF), and attention shifting (AS).

RESULTS

Results showed that (a) IC, AF, and AS followed a similar pattern of growth, (b) EC displayed an acceptable degree of scalar longitudinal invariance when operationalized as a latent variable indicated by IC, AF, and AS, (c) a higher-order structure explained the co-development of IC, AF, and AS, and (d) stability and change in EC negatively predicted externalizing symptoms, much better than the stability and change of IC, AF, and AS, but only for parents' reports.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the higher-order structure of EC was supported, but our results also indicated that there is a certain degree of uniqueness in its facets.

Pathways from maternal depressive symptoms to children's academic performance in adolescence: A 13-year prospective-longitudinal study

The pathways through which exposure to maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood are linked to academic performance during adolescence are poorly understood. This study tested pathways from maternal depressive symptoms (age 2–5) to adolescent academic performance (age 15) through cumulative parenting risk (age 7) and subsequent child functioning (age 10), using multi‐informant data from a prospective longitudinal community study spanning 13 years (N = 389, 47% male, 68% White). Structural equation models testing indirect effects revealed small associations between maternal depressive symptoms and increased cumulative parenting risk and poorer child functioning, and, via these pathways, with poorer academic performance. Thus, childhood exposure to maternal depressive symptoms may be associated with pathways of risk that could limit children's educational opportunities.

Self-Regulatory Development in Children from Chinese Immigrant Families: Evidence for Commonality and Specificity

A central theme of acculturative specificity is the heterogeneity of the immigrant experience. This study integrated this application of the Specificity Principle with intergenerational transmission models of self-regulation and identified both common and specific pathways in the self-regulatory development of Chinese American children in immigrant families (N = 169, M_age  = 9.2 years). Consistent with intergenerational transmission models, results indicated associations between parents' and children's effortful control, with the mediation of these associations via authoritarian parenting. Parental education, family income, and children's bilingual proficiency were also uniquely associated with children's executive function and effortful control. Together, findings provide new directions for research with ethnic minority immigrant families, and underscore the utility of within-group approaches in advancing research on ethnic minority children's development.

Attention Problems and Restlessness as Transdiagnostic Markers of Severity and Treatment Response in Youth with Internalizing Problems

Transdiagnostic models of psychopathology suggest that disorders may share common features that could influence their severity. Attention problems and psychomotor restlessness are included in the diagnostic criteria for several disorders, including disorders on the internalizing spectrum, but their transdiagnostic significance has received little attention. The present study identifies patterns of attention problems and restlessness among youth with internalizing problems, in order to understand their clinical significance in terms of internalizing symptom severity and response to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Participants were 142 adolescents age 11-18 clinically referred for mood and/or anxiety problems. Latent class analysis was used to identify patterns of self-reported attention problems and psychomotor restlessness, and classes were compared on internalizing, depression, and anxiety severity. Differences in treatment response were examined in a subset of youth (n = 82; age 14-18) who participated in group CBT. Youth in the Attention Problems class (42% of sample) and youth in the Restless class (15% of sample) endorsed significantly more internalizing, depression, and anxiety problems than youth with Low Symptoms of attention problems or psychomotor restlessness (43% of sample). Youth in the Restless class responded significantly better to CBT than youth in the Low Symptoms of attention problems or psychomotor restlessness class in terms of decrease in overall internalizing problems. Attention problems and psychomotor restlessness appear to be important transdiagnostic markers of severity across the internalizing spectrum; however, they do not limit the effectiveness of CBT and, in the case of psychomotor restlessness, may forecast a good treatment response.

Children with euthymic bipolar disorder during an emotional go/nogo task: Insights into the neural circuits of cognitive-emotional regulation

BACKGROUND

Pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD), manifested by alternating episodes of depression and mania, is more likely to relapse than adult BD and develop into chronic BD. Although it can be asymptomatic during the remission of PBD, subtle changes in the brain neural response can still exist. Abnormal activities in the neural circuits of cognitive-emotional regulation have been found in adult BD patients using fMRI. However, few fMRI studies focus on emotional regulation on cognitive function in euthymic PBD, especially during an emotional go/nogo task. Therefore, this study aims to compare differences in the activities of both emotional and cognitive circuits between euthymic BD children and healthy controls.

METHODS

18 euthymic PBD and 17 healthy subjects from 12 to 17 years of age were enrolled in our study. Simultaneous neural activity was recorded during the overall task and the effect of emotional factors on task performances was assessed.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in behavioral performances between the PBD group and the control group. During a task with emotional versus neutral distractors, euthymic PBD patients showed increased activities in the DLPFC, inferior parietal lobule, superior/middle frontal gyrus, superior/middle temporal gyrus, insula, posterior cingulate gyrus and posterior cerebellum lobe relative to healthy controls. The insula and DLPFC activities in response to emotional versus neutral distractors were positively associated with the differences in false response errors.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms the enhanced neural activities in euthymic PBD during a task with emotional versus control distractors. These brain regions supporting the cognitive and emotional dysregulation of PBD mainly coincide with the salience and executive control networks. As neural responses are more sensitive than behavioral manifestations in euthymic PBD, our findings will inspire more clinical studies to unveil the characteristic neuromechanism of PBD.

Transactional relations between developmental trajectories of executive functioning and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology in adolescence

Adolescence is a period of social, physical, and neurobiological transitions that may leave individuals more vulnerable to the development of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Extant research demonstrates that executive functioning (EF) is associated with psychopathology outcomes in adolescence; however, it has yet to be examined how EF and psychopathology develop transactionally over time. Data were collected from 167 adolescents (47% female, 13-14 years old at Time 1) and their primary caregiver over 4 years. At each time point, adolescents completed three behavioral tasks that capture the underlying dimensions of EF, and both adolescents and their primary caregiver completed measures of adolescent psychopathology. Latent growth curve modeling was used to test the associations between initial levels and trajectories of EF and psychopathology. Results indicated that higher initial levels of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology were associated with lower EF at Time 4 (controlling for Time 1 EF). Initial levels of EF did not predict changes in internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. These findings suggest that early psychopathology may be a risk factor for maladaptive EF development in adolescence.

The Mediating Effect of Self-Regulation in the Association Between Poverty and Child Weight: A Systematic Review

Deficits in self-regulation (SR) have been proposed as a potential contributor to child overweight/obesity, a public health concern that disproportionately affects children living in poverty. Although poverty is known to influence SR, SR has not been considered as a potential mechanism in the association between poverty and child obesity. The aim of the current paper was to systematically review the current literature to determine whether SR is a viable mechanism in the relationship between child exposure to poverty and later risk of overweight/obesity. We systematically review and summarize literature in three related areas with the aim of generating a developmentally informed model that accounts for the consistent association between poverty and child weight, specifically how: (1) poverty relates to child weight, (2) poverty relates to child SR, and (3) SR is associated with weight. To quantify the strength of associations for each pathway, effect sizes were collected and aggregated. Findings from the studies included suggest small but potentially meaningful associations between poverty and child SR and between SR and child weight. The conceptualization and measurement of SR, however, varied across literature studies and made it difficult to determine whether SR can feasibly connect poverty to child obesity. Although SR may be a promising potential target for obesity intervention for low-income children, additional research on how SR affects risk of obesity is crucial, especially based on the lack of success of the limited number of SR-promoting interventions for improving children's weight outcomes.

Pathways from early adversity to later adjustment: Tests of the additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and diurnal cortisol in early childhood

Additive and bidirectional effects of executive control and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulation on children's adjustment were examined, along with the effects of low income and cumulative risk on executive control and the HPA axis. The study utilized longitudinal data from a community sample of preschool age children (N = 306, 36-39 months at Time 1) whose families were recruited to overrepresent low-income contexts. We tested the effects of low income and cumulative risk on levels and growth of executive control and HPA axis regulation (diurnal cortisol level), the bidirectional effects of executive control and the HPA axis on each other, and their additive effects on children's adjustment problems, social competence and academic readiness. Low income predicted lower Time 4 executive control, and cumulative risk predicted lower Time 4 diurnal cortisol level. There was little evidence of bidirectional effects of executive control and diurnal cortisol. However, both executive control and diurnal cortisol predicted Time 4 adjustment, suggesting additive effects. There were indirect effects of income on all three adjustment outcomes through executive control, and of cumulative risk on adjustment problems and social competence through diurnal cortisol. The results provide evidence that executive control and diurnal cortisol additively predict children's adjustment and partially account for the effects of income and cumulative risk on adjustment.

The development of effortful control from late childhood to young adulthood

The present study investigated the developmental precursors of effortful control, a temperament trait that involves the propensity to regulate one's impulses and behaviors, to motivate the self toward a goal when there are conflicting desires, and to focus and shift attention easily. Data came from the California Families Project, a multimethod longitudinal study of 674 Mexican-origin youth (and their parents), who were assessed at ages 10, 12, 14, 16, and 19. Effortful control (measured via self- and parent-reports) was moderately stable over time (r = .47 from age 10 to 19), and its developmental trajectory followed a u-shaped pattern (decreasing from age 10 to 14, before increasing from age 14 to 19). Findings from latent growth curve models showed that youth who experience more hostility from their parents, associate more with deviant peers, attend more violent schools, live in more violent neighborhoods, and experience more ethnic discrimination tend to exhibit an exacerbated dip in effortful control. In contrast, youth with parents who closely monitor their behavior and whereabouts exhibited a shallower dip in effortful control. Analyses of the facets of effortful control revealed important disparities in their trajectories; specifically inhibitory control showed linear increases, attention control showed linear decreases, and activation control showed the same u-shaped trajectory as overall effortful control. Moreover, most of the precursors of effortful control replicated for inhibitory control and attention control, but not for activation control. We discuss the broader implications of the findings for adolescent personality development and self-regulation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Parenting and the Development of Impulse Control in Youth with Type 1 Diabetes: The Mediating Role of Negative Affect

Parents are important for the development and maintenance of regulatory control. The current longitudinal study examined associations between parental coercion and autonomy support and impulse control in 117 youth (ages 8-16; Mage= 12.87, SD=2.53; 44% male) with Type 1 diabetes and explored whether youth negative affect mediated these associations. Parental coercion (but not autonomy support) was concurrently associated with lower impulse control and higher negative affect within individuals. Increases in youth negative affect partially mediated the within-person association between parental coercion and impulse control. These findings suggest that parent-directed interventions to reduce parental coercion may be most beneficial for impulse control if combined with youth-directed interventions to help them regulate negative affect. Replication of the current findings in a larger sample of youth with and without a chronic illness is needed to address the theoretical and empirical importance of negative affect as a potential mechanism through which parental coercion impacts youth impulsivity.

The development of inhibitory control in adolescence and prospective relations with delinquency

INTRODUCTION

Despite the central role of inhibitory control in models of adolescent development, few studies have examined the longitudinal development of inhibitory control within adolescence and its prospective association with maladaptive outcomes. The current study evaluated: 1) growth in inhibitory control from early- to middle-adolescence, and 2) the relation between inhibitory control and later delinquency.

METHODS

Participants included 387 parent-child dyads (11-13 years old at Wave 1; 55% female; USA). Across three annual assessments, teens completed the Stop Signal Task (SST), and parents completed the Inhibitory Control subscale of the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised. Teens self-reported their delinquent behaviors in early (Mage = 12.1) and middle adolescence (Mage = 14.1) and emerging adulthood (Mage = 18.2).

RESULTS

Latent growth curve models indicated that SST performance improved curvilinearly from early to middle adolescence (ages 11-15), with growth slowing around middle adolescence. However, no growth in parent-reported inhibitory control was observed. Lower task-based and parent-reported inhibitory control in early adolescence predicted greater increases in delinquency from middle adolescence to emerging adulthood. However, rate of growth in task-based inhibitory control was unrelated to later delinquency.

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal study provides a novel examination of the development of inhibitory control across early and middle adolescence. Results suggest that the degree to which inhibitory control confers risk for later delinquency may be captured in early adolescence, consistent with neurodevelopmental accounts of delinquency risk. Differences across assessment tools also highlight the need for careful measurement considerations in future work, as task-based measures may be better suited to capture within-person changes over time.

Parenting and Self-Control Across Early to Late Adolescence: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Self-control plays a significant role in positive youth development. Although numerous self-control challenges occur during adolescence, some adolescents control themselves better than others. Parenting is considered a critical factor that distinguishes adolescents with good self-control from those with poor self-control, but existing findings are inconsistent. This meta-analysis summarizes the overall relationship between parenting and self-control among adolescents aged 10 to 22 years. The analysis includes 191 articles reporting 1,540 effect sizes (N = 164,459). The results show that parenting is associated with adolescents' self-control both concurrently (r = .204, p < .001) and longitudinally (r = .157, p < .001). Longitudinal studies also reveal that adolescents' self-control influences subsequent parenting (r = .155, p < .001). Moderator analyses show that the effect sizes are largely invariant across cultures, ethnicities, age of adolescents, and parent and youth gender. Our results point to the importance of parenting in individual differences in adolescent self-control and vice versa.

Associations between Effortful Control, Cortisol Awakening Response, and Depressive Problems in Latino Preadolescents

The present study examined associations between effortful control, a trait marker of self-regulation, adaptive HPA system functioning (as reflected by the CAR), and concurrent and longitudinal depressive problems, in a sample of preadolescent Latino youth (N = 119, mean age = 11.53 years, 59% female). We hypothesized that trait readiness for self-regulation (e.g., effortful control) could be related to physiological state readiness for self-regulation (e.g., CAR), and that both may counter depressive problems. We found that youth's CAR was positively associated with effortful control, and negatively with youth depressive problems. Effortful control and youth depressive problems were also negatively associated. Longitudinal relations of CAR and effortful control on depressive problems at T2 were not significant in the structural equation model after controlling for T1 depressive problems, although these variables were significant in the bivariate correlations. Results suggest that both trait-regulation and physiological regulation may counter depressive problems in Latino youth.

The role of effortful control in the development of ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms

Many adolescents have difficulty regulating their impulses and become prone to externalizing problems (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], oppositional defiant disorder [ODD], and conduct disorder [CD]) and other adverse consequences. Using multimethod data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674), assessed annually from age 10 to 16, we examined the relations between effortful control and ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms over time. Bivariate latent growth curve models showed negative correlations between the trajectories of effortful control and ADHD, ODD, and CD, indicating that steeper decreases in effortful control were related to steeper increases in ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms. Using a novel statistical technique, the factor of curves model (FOCUS), we found that ADHD, ODD, and CD share a common "externalizing" trajectory during adolescence. Although effortful control was strongly associated with this common trajectory, it had few unique associations with the individual disorder trajectories, above and beyond their shared trajectory. When we extended the FOCUS model to include the effortful control trajectory as an indicator, we found that ADHD and ODD had strong loadings, whereas effortful control and CD had comparatively weak loadings on the shared developmental trajectory. Follow-up analyses showed that a two-factor solution, with externalizing symptom trajectories on one factor and the effortful control facet trajectories on a separate factor, was a better fit to the data than a one-factor solution. Finally, parent ASPD symptoms were related to increases in CD, but had no significant influence on effortful control, ADHD, or ODD. We discuss the implications for personality and externalizing problem development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

School climate is associated with cortical thickness and executive function in children and adolescents

A positive school climate has been found to support mental and physical health, academic achievement and social adjustment among youth. However, links between school climate and brain structure have not been investigated to date. In this study, we investigated whether school climate was associated with executive function (EF) and brain structure (cortical thickness and surface area) in children and adolescents. We further examined whether these links varied as a function of socioeconomic background. Participants who ranged from 9 to 18 years of age (N = 108) completed EF tasks and a high-resolution, 3-Tesla, T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Overall school climate, academic support, and family socioeconomic background were assessed using questionnaires. Higher academic support was associated with greater EF task performance and increased global cortical thickness. Additionally, academic support moderated the association between family income and EF, such that children from lower income families performed similarly to their more advantaged peers on EF tasks in the context of positive academic support. This work is the first to link school climate to brain structure and contributes to the growing body of evidence suggesting that academic support may be an important protective factor in the context of socioeconomic disadvantage.

Commonality between executive functioning and effortful control related to adjustment

This study examined the association between executive functioning (EF) and effortful control (EC), and tested whether cognitive control as the commonality of EF and EC, predicted competence and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology in children (N = 218, 6-8 years) and adolescents (N = 157, 13-14 years). Confirmatory factor analyses suggested cognitive control-inhibitory control and attentional control-as a significant overlap between EF and EC. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that the cognitive control latent factor was associated with competence and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology among children and externalizing symptomatology among adolescents. The results provide evidence that inhibitory control and attentional control are the commonality between EF and EC and highlight that they are linked with positive and negative adjustment outcomes.

Structural Home Environment Effects on Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control and Adolescent Risk Taking

Extant literature has demonstrated that self-control is critical for health and adjustment in adolescence. Questions remain regarding whether there are individuals that may be most vulnerable to impaired self-control development and whether aspects of the structural home environment may predict membership in these subgroups, as well as the behavioral consequences of impaired self-control trajectories. The present study utilized growth mixture modeling and data from 1083 individuals (50% female, 82% White) from age 8.5 to 15 years to identify four latent classes of self-control development. Additionally, higher household chaos and lower socioeconomic status at age 8.5 were associated with maladaptive trajectories of self-control at ages 8.5-11.5. In turn, maladaptive self-control trajectories at ages 8.5-11.5 were associated with higher risk taking at age 15. The results highlight the importance of increased structure and support for at-risk youth.

Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) in Spanish Adolescents: Factor Structure and Rasch Analysis

Background: The Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) is an instrument employed to measure the generalized ability to regulate behavior. Self-regulation is related to the management of risk behaviors, such as drug abuse or anti-social behaviors. The SRQ has been used in young adult samples. However, some risk behaviors are increasing among adolescents. The aim of this study is to examine the psychometric properties of the SRQ among Spanish adolescents.

Methods: 845 high-school Spanish students (N = 443; 52.43% women), from 12 to 17 years old and ranging from the first to the fourth year of studies, completed the SRQ. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out in order to establish structural adequacy. Then, a study of each subscale was conducted using the Rasch model for dimensionality, adjustment of the sample questions, functionality of the response categories, and reliability.

Results: While controlling for method effects, the data showed goodness of fit with the four-factor solution and 17 items (Goal setting, Decision making, Learning from mistakes, and Perseverance), and the four sub-scales were unidimensional according to the Rasch analysis. The Rasch model itself was shown to be reliable, but not at the level of persons. This means that the instrument was not sensitive enough to discriminate people with different self-regulation levels.

Discussion: These results support the use of the Spanish Short SRQ in adolescent samples. Some suggestions are made to improve the instrument, particularly in its application as a diagnostic tool.

The codevelopment of effortful control and school behavioral problems

Effortful control refers to the propensity to regulate one's impulses and behaviors, to focus and shift attention easily, and to motivate the self toward a goal when there are competing desires. Although it seems likely that these capacities are relevant to successful functioning in the school context, there has been surprisingly little longitudinal research examining whether youth with poor effortful control are more likely to act out in the classroom, get suspended, and skip school. Conversely, there is even less research on whether youth who exhibit these school behavioral problems are more likely to decline over time in effortful control. We used multimethod data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674), assessed biennially from 5th to 11th grade, to examine the codevelopment of effortful control and school behavioral problems. Bivariate latent growth curve models revealed a negative association between the trajectories of effortful control and school behavioral problems, indicating that steeper decreases in effortful control were related to steeper increases in school behavioral problems. Furthermore, this codevelopmental pattern was bidirectional; cross-lagged regression analyses showed that low effortful control was associated with relative increases in school behavioral problems, and school behavioral problems were associated with relative decreases in effortful control. Gender, nativity status, Mexican cultural values, and school-level antisocial behavior had concurrent associations with effortful control and school behavioral problems, but they did not moderate the codevelopmental pathways. We discuss the theoretical implications for personality development, as well as the practical implications for reducing school behavioral problems during adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal Relations of Economic Hardship and Effortful Control to Active Coping in Latino Youth

How Latino youth cope with stressors may have implications for their adjustment. We examined how a temperamental characteristic (effortful control) and a contextual factor (economic hardship) were associated with Latino youth's coping. Individual differences in effortful control, a core facet of self-regulation, may contribute to coping as effortful control is consistently linked to adaptive behaviors during adolescence. We examined relations of effortful control and economic hardship to active coping in a sample of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) across three time points (fifth to ninth grades). Although economic hardship negatively predicted coping and effortful control, effortful control positively predicted coping (controlling for prior levels). Findings support a resilience perspective by suggesting that effortful control may contribute to coping and thus counteract the negative effects of economic hardship.

Behavioral Self-Regulation, Early Academic Achievement, and the Effectiveness of Urban Schools for Low-Income Ethnic Minority Children

The independent and joint associations between child behavioral self-regulation ability and school effectiveness in relation to academic achievement were examined in a sample of low-income African American (n = 132) and Latino (n = 198) children attending kindergarten and first grade across a large metropolitan area. Child behavioral self-regulation and school effectiveness were positively associated with both reading and mathematics performance. School effectiveness moderated the effect of behavioral self-regulation on reading but not math achievement. Lower child behavioral self-regulation during early elementary school was associated with lower reading achievement the following year but only among children attending less effective schools. Behavioral self-regulation was not related to reading achievement among children attending more effective schools. Implications of these findings for policies addressing disparities in early academic achievement are discussed.

Children's sleep problems are associated with poorer student-teacher relationship quality

OBJECTIVE

Children's sleep problems are associated with poorer student functioning in the school environment, including impairment in peer relationships; yet, no studies have examined sleep functioning in relation to the student-teacher relationship. The objective of this study was to examine whether child-rated total sleep problems or specific sleep problem domains (bedtime problems, nighttime problems, or daytime sleepiness) were associated with teacher-rated student-teacher closeness and conflict after controlling for student mental health symptoms known to be associated with both greater sleep problems and poorer student-teacher relationship quality. The study also examined whether age moderated the relation between sleep problems and student-teacher relationship quality.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 175 children (81 boys and 94 girls) in the first to sixth grades (age = 6-13 years) and their teachers.

METHODS

Children completed the Sleep Self-Report. Teachers completed a measure of student mental health symptoms (ie, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and anxiety/depression) and a measure of their relational closeness and conflict with each student.

RESULTS

Total sleep problems were associated with greater student-teacher conflict, after controlling for child mental health symptoms and demographic factors. This association was moderated by age such that sleep problems were associated with conflict for younger children but not older children. Notably, daytime sleepiness specifically was associated with less student-teacher closeness.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to demonstrate a relation between student sleep functioning and the student-teacher relationship. Results of the study suggest that sleep may be an important component of school-based screening and evaluation efforts, as sleep is an important malleable factor related to school success.

Reward sensitivity, impulse control, and social cognition as mediators of the link between childhood family adversity and externalizing behavior in eight countries

Using data from 1,177 families in eight countries (Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States), we tested a conceptual model of direct effects of childhood family adversity on subsequent externalizing behaviors as well as indirect effects through psychological mediators. When children were 9 years old, mothers and fathers reported on financial difficulties and their use of corporal punishment, and children reported perceptions of their parents' rejection. When children were 10 years old, they completed a computerized battery of tasks assessing reward sensitivity and impulse control and responded to questions about hypothetical social provocations to assess their hostile attributions and proclivity for aggressive responding. When children were 12 years old, they reported on their externalizing behavior. Multigroup structural equation models revealed that across all eight countries, childhood family adversity had direct effects on externalizing behaviors 3 years later, and childhood family adversity had indirect effects on externalizing behavior through psychological mediators. The findings suggest ways in which family-level adversity poses risk for children's subsequent development of problems at psychological and behavioral levels, situated within diverse cultural contexts.

The Adolescent's Competency for Interacting with Alcohol as a Determinant of Intake: The Role of Self-Regulation

The competency for interacting with alcohol is a highly useful Educational Psychology model for preventing and for understanding the different behavioral levels of this interaction. Knowledge of facts, concepts and principles about alcohol use, self-regulated behavior, and attitudes toward alcohol are predictive of adequate interaction with alcohol. The objective of this study was to empirically evaluate this postulated relationship. A total of 328 Spanish adolescents participated, between the ages of 12 and 17. All were enrolled in 1st–4th year of compulsory secondary education, in the context of the ALADO Program for prevention of alcohol intake in adolescents. An ex post facto design was used, with inferential analyses and SEM analyses. Results show an interdependence relationship, with significant structural prediction between the behavioral levels defined and the level of alcohol intake, with principles, self-regulating control and attitudes carrying more weight. Analyses are presented, as are implications for psychoeducational intervention using preventive programs based on this competency model.

How Early do Social Determinants of Health Begin to Operate? Results From the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study

PURPOSE

From a life course perspective, important insights about how social determinants of health operate can be gained by analyzing the various forms that social climate can take in different life periods. For children, a critical aspect of social climate is exposure to bullying. Bullying can serve as a proxy for power imbalance and social exclusion analogous to adult social climate of discrimination and racism.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We used the Year 9 follow-up data of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=3301) that, for the first time included interviews with the children. We drew on a national sample of children and their families, which allowed us to account for broader contextual variables and represented a broad range of geographic areas and schools. Multinomial logistic regression was used to estimate the effects of exposure to bullying on self-rated health among primarily 9- to 10-year-old children while controlling for socio-demographic and diagnosed health-conditions.

RESULTS

Both frequency and forms of bullying were positively associated with lower odds of reporting excellent, very good or good health. The effect of forms of bullying on children's self-rated health fell on a gradient. Subgroup analysis indicated a significant effect on self-rated health for children who experienced peer rejection but not for those who experienced physical aggression.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the study provide new evidence that the harmful health consequences of power imbalance and discriminatory practices may extend to children in early development. It also accentuates the need to study social determinants of health from both an ecological/contextual and a developmental angle.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Echoing a plethora of nursing literature on the critical role of psycho-social pediatric care, this study further encourages pediatric nurses to expand their assessment and intervention priorities beyond a familial and developmental perspective, and to consider the evident physical health consequence of a child's overall social climate determinants.

Effect of Victimization on Impulse Control and Binge Drinking among Serious Juvenile Offenders from Adolescence to Young Adulthood

A vast literature has found longitudinal effects of early life stress on substance use and self-regulatory processes. These associations may vary by period-specific development among youth involved in the juvenile justice system. The current study used an accelerated longitudinal design and auto-regressive latent trajectory with structure residuals (ALT-SR) model to examine the within-person cross-lagged associations between binge drinking, impulse control, and victimization from 15 to 25 years of age. A large sample (N = 1100) of justice-involved youth were followed longitudinally for 7 years (M age baseline  = 15.8, M age conclusion  = 22.8). In general, the sample was ethnically diverse (41% Black, 34% Hispanic, 21% White, 4.3% Other) and primarily male (87.2%). Participants reported on their frequency of binge drinking, impulse control, and frequency of victimization at each time point. The results indicated that, during adolescence, victimization and binge drinking attenuated impulse control, which resulted in more binge drinking and victimization during young adulthood. The current study highlights the importance of assessing developmental processes and period-specific transitions among at risk youth, especially for youth experiencing early life stress.

Age and gender differences in self-control and its intergenerational transmission

BACKGROUND

Few studies have been conducted in people of Asian descent that have reported to demonstrate the distinct developmental trends in good self-control and poor control. To fill this gap, we conducted a national cross-sectional survey among adolescents and young adults in China to further clarify the age and gender differences in self-control from a dual-systems perspective.

METHODS

A total of 2910 adolescents (female, n = 1698) and their parents from five different provinces in China were surveyed using the Dual-Modes of Self-Control Scale (DMSC-S) and the Parents' Perceived Self-Control Scale. The mean age of the adolescent sample was 17.47 years (ranging from 12.50 to 25.42 years).

RESULTS

Boys exhibited greater good self-control than girls. Poor control increased between 12 and 17 years of age and declined thereafter; however, good self-control increased over the entire study period. Both good self-control and poor control in student participants were significantly associated with parents' perceived self-control; moreover, the association between good self-control and parental self-control was mediated by SES.

CONCLUSION

The roles of age, gender, parental self-control and SES varied in a dual-systems model of self-control: good self-control and poor control. Implications of these results are discussed.

The Child and Youth Mental Health Assessment (ChYMH): An examination of the psychometric properties of an integrated assessment developed for clinically referred children and youth

Background

The Child and Youth Mental Health (ChYMH) assessment system was developed by interRAI (i.e., an international collective of researchers and clinicians from over thirty countries) in response to the unprecedented need for a coordinated approach to delivery of children’s mental health care. Many interRAI instruments are used across Canada and internationally, but the ChYMH represents the first assessment specifically for children and youth. In the present paper, a short overview of the development process of the ChYMH is provided, and then the psychometric properties of several embedded scales on the ChYMH are examined.

Methods

Participants included 1297 children and youth and their families who completed the ChYMH after being referred to mental health agencies within Ontario, Canada. In addition, smaller subsets of participants (N = 48–53) completed additional criterion measures, including the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS), the Child and Adolescent Functional Assessment Scale (CAFAS), the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and the Brief Child and Family Phone Interview (BCFPI).

Results

Results demonstrated that the ChYMH subscales had strong internal-consistency (Cronbach’s higher than .70), and correlated well with the criterion measures.

Conclusions

Findings support the clinical utility of the ChYMH for use among clinically referred children and youth. Implications for children’s mental health assessment and practice are discussed.

Family Financial Stress and Adolescent Sexual Risk-Taking: The Role of Self-Regulation

The ability to control one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors is known as self-regulation. Family stress and low adolescent self-regulation have been linked with increased engagement in risky sexual behaviors, which peak in late adolescence and early adulthood. The purpose of this study was to assess whether adolescent self-regulation, measured by parent and adolescent self-report and respiratory sinus arrhythmia, mediates or moderates the relationship between family financial stress and risky sexual behaviors. We assessed these relationships in a 4-year longitudinal sample of 450 adolescents (52 % female; 70 % white) and their parents using structural equation modeling. Results indicated that high family financial stress predicts engagement in risky sexual behaviors as mediated, but not moderated, by adolescent self-regulation. The results suggest that adolescent self-regulatory capacities are a mechanism through which proximal external forces influence adolescent risk-taking. Promoting adolescent self-regulation, especially in the face of external stressors, may be an important method to reduce risk-taking behaviors as adolescents transition to adulthood.

Variable- and Person-Centered Approaches to Examining Temperament Vulnerability and Resilience to the Effects of Contextual Risk

Using both variable- and person-centered approaches, this study examined the role of temperament in relation to children's vulnerable or resilient responses to cumulative risk. Observed reactivity and regulation dimensions of temperament were tested as mediating and moderating the relation between family cumulative risk and teacher-reported adjustment problems in a sample of 259 preschool-age children. Further, latent profile analyses were used to examine whether profiles of temperament, accounting for multiple characteristics simultaneously, provided additional information about the role of temperament in children's responses to risk. Results support a diathesis-stress model in which high frustration, low fear, and low delay ability confer particular vulnerability for children in high-risk contexts. Benefits of multiple approaches are highlighted.