Camelids: new players in the international animal production context

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis: Whole genome sequencing reveals unforeseen and relevant genetic diversity in this pathogen

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (CPS) is an important bacterial animal pathogen. CPS causes chronic, debilitating and currently incurable infectious diseases affecting a wide range of livestock and wild herbivores including camelids worldwide. Belonging to the Corynebacterium diphtheriae complex, this pathogen can also infect humans. The classical characterization of CPS is typically based on the testing of nitrate reductase activity, separating the two biovars Equi and Ovis. However, more refined resolutions are required to unravel routes of infection. This was realized in our study by generating and analyzing whole genome sequencing (WGS) data. Using newly created core genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST) profiles we were the first to discover isolates grouping in a cluster adjacent to clusters formed by CPS biovar Equi isolates. This novel cluster includes CPS isolates from alpacas, llamas, camels and dromedaries, which are characterized by a lack of nitrate reductase activity as encountered in biovar Ovis. This is of special interest for molecular epidemiology. Nevertheless, these isolates bear the genes of the nitrate locus, which are characteristic of biovar Equi isolates. However, sequence analysis of the genes narG and narH of the nitrate locus revealed indels leading to frameshifts and inactivity of the enzymes involved in nitrate reduction. Interestingly, one CPS isolate originating from another lama with an insertion in the MFS transporter (narT) is adjacent to a cluster formed by ovine CPS isolates biovar Equi. Based on this knowledge, the combination of biochemical and PCR based molecular biological nitrate reductase detection can be used for a fast and uncomplicated classification of isolates in routine diagnostics in order to check the origin of camelid CPS isolates. Further analysis revealed that partial sequencing of the ABC transporter substrate binding protein (CP258_RS07935) is a powerful tool to assign the biovars and the novel genomovar.

Circadian rhythm of salivary and serum urea concentration in alpacas and sheep receiving diets with different levels of protein

All vertebrates possess a daily rhythm, encompassing a comprehensive set of physiological, cognitive, and behavioral patterns that manifest throughout a 24-hour period. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of crude protein (CP) levels in the diet on the daily rhythm of urea in serum (US) and saliva in alpacas and sheep. Ten alpacas and ten sheep, adult, clinically healthy males, were used; they were maintained in natural light conditions and fed ad libitum with two levels of CP (16 and 7%). Blood and saliva samples were taken every 4 h for 48 h. A two-way ANOVA was conducted to analyze the parameters, including adjusted mean rhythm (MESOR), amplitude, and acrophase. It was found that both US and saliva urea exhibited circadian rhythms with a peak during the midday (10:59 - 12:16 h). The MESOR with low CP diets was higher (P < 0.05) in alpacas. The MESOR of urea levels in saliva was greater (P < 0.05) at the highest level of CP in the diet, with no differences between alpacas and sheep (P > 0.05). The amplitude was greater (P < 0.05) in alpacas and at the high level of CP compared to the low level of CP in the diet. Our findings reveal that both serum and saliva urea levels in alpacas and sheep follow a daily rhythm and the MESOR of US was higher in alpacas when they consume food with low CP content, and this difference disappears when CP levels are increased in the diet.

Analysis of potential genes, immunological and antioxidant profiles associated with trypanosomiasis susceptibility in dromedary camels

Trypanosomiasis is associated with tissue damage and may trigger an immunological response. These tissue lesions are linked to metabolic issues and oxidative stress. The current study aimed to investigate the immunological, antioxidant, and metabolic changes that may be connected to camel trypanosomiasis. Blood samples were collected from 54 camels and allocated into two groups: The control group (35 camels) and the infected group (19 camels). The genes TLR2, TLR5, IL-17, MARCHF3, RASGRP1, EPS15L1, PPIE, ASB16, CMPK2, LPCAT1, FPGT, GPHN, TNNI3K, DIO3, keap1, and OXSR1 were significantly up-regulated in trypanosomiasis camels. However, down-regulation was observed for the genes Nrf2, PRDX6, and NDUFS5. PCR-DNA sequencing was used to identify nucleotide sequence polymorphisms in the immune (TLR2, TLR5, IL-17, MARCHF3, RASGRP1, and EPS15L1), metabolic (PPIE, ASB16, CMPK2, LPCAT1, FPGT, GPHN, TNNI3K, and DIO3), and antioxidant (Nrf2, Keap1, PRDX6, NDUFS5, and OXSR1) genes between healthy and trypanosomiasis-affected camels. Exploring the serum profile also showed a significant (P ˂ 0.05) increase in Hp, SAA, Cp, IL-1β, IL-6, IL 10, TNF-α, and MDA, with significant (P ˂ 0.05) reduction in the serum levels of CAT, SOD, GSH, T3, and T4 in diseased camels compared with healthy ones. Our findings confirm the significance of nucleotide variations, gene expression patterns, and the biochemical profile of the investigated markers as indicators for the susceptibility of trypanosomiasis in dromedary camels and may be utilized to create management strategies.

The one-humped camel: The animal of future, potential alternative red meat, technological suitability and future perspectives

The 2020 world population data sheet indicates that world population is projected to increase from 7.8 billion in 2020 to 9.9 billion by 2050 (Increase of more than 25%). Due to the expected growth in human population, the demand for meats that could improve health status and provide therapeutic benefits is also projected to rise. The dromedary also known as the Arabian camel, or one-humped camel ( Camelus dromedarius), a pseudo ruminant adapted to arid climates, has physiological, biological and metabolic characteristics which give it a legendary reputation for surviving in the extreme conditions of desert environments considered restrictive for other ruminants. Camel meat is an ethnic food consumed across the arid regions of Middle East, North-East Africa, Australia and China. For these medicinal and nutritional benefits, camel meat can be a great option for sustainable meat worldwide supply. A considerable amount of literature has been published on technological aspects and quality properties of beef, lamb and pork but the information available on the technological aspects of the meat of the one humped camel is very limited. Camels are usually raised in less developed countries and their meat is as nutritionally good as any other traditional meat source. Its quality also depends on the breed, sex, age, breeding conditions and type of muscle consumed. A compilation of existing literature related to new technological advances in packaging, shelf-life and quality of camel meat has not been reviewed to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, this review attempts to explore the nutritional composition, health benefits of camel meat, as well as various technological and processing interventions to improve its quality and consumer acceptance. This review will be helpful for camel sector and highlight the potential for global marketability of camel meat and to generate value added products.

Detailed mineral profile of milk, whey, and cheese from cows, buffaloes, goats, ewes and dromedary camels, and efficiency of recovery of minerals in their cheese

Milk and dairy products are important in the human diet not only for the macro nutrients, such as proteins and fats, that they provide, but also for the supply of essential micronutrients, such as minerals. Minerals are present in milk in soluble form in the aqueous phase and in colloidal form associated with the macronutrients of the milk. These 2 forms affect the nutritional functions of the minerals and their contribution to the technological properties of milk during cheese-making. The aim of the present work was to study and compare the detailed mineral profiles of dairy foods (milk, whey, and cheese) obtained from cows, buffaloes, goats, ewes and dromedary camels, and to analyze the recovery in the curd of the individual minerals according to a model cheese-making procedure applied to the milk of these 5 dairy species. The detailed mineral profile of the milk samples was obtained by inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectroscopy (ICP - OES). We divided the 21 minerals identified in the 3 different matrices into essential macro- and micro-minerals, and environmental micro-minerals, and calculated the recovery of the individual minerals in the cheeses. The complete mineral profiles and the recoveries in the cheeses were then analyzed using a linear mixed model with Species and Food, and their interaction included as fixed effects, and Sample within Species as a random effect. The mineral profiles of each food matrix were then analyzed separately with a general linear model in which only the fixed effect of Species was included. The results showed that the species could be divided into 2 groups: those producing a more diluted milk characterized by a higher content of soluble minerals (in particular K), and those with a more concentrated milk with a higher colloidal mineral content in the skim of the milk (such as Ca and P). The recoveries of the minerals in the curd were in line with the initial content in the milk, and also highlighted the fact that the influence of the brine was not limited to the Na content but to its whole mineral makeup. These results provide valuable information for the evaluation of the nutritional and technological properties of milk, and for the uses made of the byproducts of cheese making from the milk of different species.

Wilder rangelands as a natural climate opportunity: Linking climate action to biodiversity conservation and social transformation

Rangelands face threats from climate and land-use change, including inappropriate climate change mitigation initiatives such as tree planting in grassy ecosystems. The marginalization and impoverishment of rangeland communities and their indigenous knowledge systems, and the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, are additional major challenges. To address these issues, we propose the wilder rangelands integrated framework, co-developed by South African and European scientists from diverse disciplines, as an opportunity to address the climate, livelihood, and biodiversity challenges in the world's rangelands. More specifically, we present a Theory of Change to guide the design, monitoring, and evaluation of wilder rangelands. Through this, we aim to promote rangeland restoration, where local communities collaborate with regional and international actors to co-create new rangeland use models that simultaneously mitigate the impacts of climate change, restore biodiversity, and improve both ecosystem functioning and livelihoods.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis response to photoperiod changes in female guanacos (Lama guanicoe)

The guanaco, a wild South American camelid, is renowned for its remarkable resilience to extreme conditions. Despite this, little is known about how reproductive hormones in female camelids are influenced during their seasonal breeding period, which occurs during long photoperiod. To explore this, the study investigated the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in female guanacos during short days (10L:14D; July) and long days (16L:8D; December) in the Mediterranean ecosystem (33°38'28″S, 70°34'27″W). Blood samples from 14 adult animals were collected, and measurements of melatonin, 17β-estradiol, FSH, and LH concentrations were taken. The results showed that melatonin concentration was lower (P < 0.05) during long days than short days, whereas 17β-estradiol, FSH, and LH concentrations were higher (P < 0.05) during long days compared to short days. Furthermore, the study detected the expression of the melatonin receptor 1A and kisspeptin in the hypothalamus and pituitary, suggesting that the pineal gland of female guanacos is sensitive to seasonal changes in day length. These findings also indicate a seasonal variation in the concentration of reproductive hormones, likely linked to the distinct modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of female guanacos during short and long days.

Tick-borne pathogens in camels: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence in dromedaries

Published data on tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in camels worldwide have been collected to provide an overview of the global prevalence and species diversity of camelid TBPs. Several TBPs have been detected in dromedary camels, raising concerns regarding their role as natural or maintenance hosts for tick-borne pathogens. Insubstantial evidence exists regarding the natural infection of camels with Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Anaplasma spp., and Ehrlichia spp., particularly because most of the camels were considered healthy at the time of sampling. Based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, a pooled prevalence of 35.3% (95% CI: 22.6-48.1%) was estimated for Anaplasma, which was the most frequently tested TBP in dromedaries, and DNA of Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma platys, and A. platys-like were isolated, of which ruminants and dogs are reservoirs. Similarly, the estimated pooled prevalence for the two piroplasmid genera; Babesia and Theileria was approximately equal (10-12%) regardless of the detection method (microscopy or PCR testing). Nevertheless, Babesia caballi, Theileria equi, and Theileria annulata DNA have frequently been detected in camels but they have not yet been proven to be natural hosts. Scarce data detected Babesia microti, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) DNA in blood of dromedaries, although ticks of the genus Ixodes are distributed in limited areas where dromedaries are raised. Interestingly, a pooled seroprevalence of 47.7% (26.3-69.2%) was estimated for Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and viral RNA was detected in dromedary blood; however, their contribution to maintain the viral transmission cycles requires further experimental investigation. The substantially low incidence and scarcity of data on Rickettsia and Ehrlichia species could imply that camels were accidentally infected. In contrast, camels may play a role in the spread of Coxiella burnetii, which is primarily transmitted through the inhalation of aerosols emitted by diseased animals and contaminated environments. Bactrian camels showed no symptoms due to the examined TBPs, meanwhile, clinical disease was seen in alpacas infected with A. phagocytophilum. Similar to dromedaries, accidental tick bites may be the cause of TBP DNA found in the blood of Bactrian camels.

Establishment of biochemical and hematological profiles of dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) under extensive and intensive production systems

In Algeria, camel husbandry is undergoing a shift from a traditional extensive system to one more intensive. Such a move in the production system of the dromedary camel should be well investigated in terms of animal welfare, health, and production status. The main objective of this study was to define and evaluate the effects of production systems on physiological responses (hematological and biochemical parameters) in Sahraoui dromedary camels to understand possible changes caused by intensive livestock farming. We analyzed the biochemical and hematological blood profiles in Sahraoui dromedary camel to evaluate and establish the differential responses to intensive conditions. Blood samples were taken from 41 healthy Sahraoui dromedary camels as part of routine veterinary analysis in southern Algeria. In total, 28 camels were from an intensive production system (IS) fed with formulated concentrate and a supply of minerals, and 13 camels were reared in a traditional extensive system (ES) maintained exclusively on grazing. Animals were of a different sex: 16 males and 25 females, and they were divided into three age categories: less than 4 years, 4 to 8, and above 8 years. All animals were healthy. This enabled us to simultaneously check the effect of age and sex on the blood profiles. Results showed that the production system affected the blood parameters of Sahraoui dromedary camel; as total protein, total cholesterol, and urea concentration were significantly higher in the plasma of animals in the intensive production system (P < 0.05). Glucose, triglycerides, and urea values differed significantly (P < 0.05) in camel plasma between age categories. Sex in our study had no effect on enzyme activities (P > 0.05). However, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in camels reared in the extensive production system (1454.13 ± 290 IU/l) than those reared in intensive production system (1313.17 ± 32 IU/l). Age and sex had a marginal effect on mineral status in dromedary camel plasma as only iron concentrations were significantly higher in male camels (P < 0.05), while Ca, P, and K concentrations were increased in the intensive system. On the other hand, our findings showed that sex, age, and production system did not affect the hematological parameters of Sahraoui dromedary (P > 0.05), except for hematocrit (PCV %) that was significantly higher in the extensive system. This work contributes to a better understanding of Sahraoui dromedary camel biology regarding the effect of different production systems on hemato-biochemical parameters.

Purification and biochemical characterization of a novel carbonic anhydrase II from erythrocytes of camel (Camelusdromedarius)

A novel carbonic anhydrase II (CA II) from erythrocytes of camel (Camelus dromedarius) was purified to homogeneity using affinity chromatography and biochemically characterized. Specific activity of 140.88 U/mg was obtained with 745.17-fold purification and 25.37% yield. The enzyme was a monomer with a lower molecular weight (25 kDa) and lower Zn content (0.50 mol of Zn per mol of protein). The enzyme showed higher optimum temperature (70 °C) and pH (pH 9.0), moreover, it was stable at higher temperatures and strongly alkaline pH as judged by thermodynamic parameters (Ea, kd, Ed, t1/2, D-value, Z-value, ΔH, ΔG and ΔS). The enzyme was inhibited by cations (Al3+, Ca2+, Cd2+, Co2+, Cr3+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Mg2+ and Zn2+) as well as by anions (Br‾, CH3COO‾, ClO4‾, CN‾, F‾, HCO3‾, I‾, N3‾, NO3‾ and SCN‾), some anions (C6H5O73-, CO32-, SeO3‾ and SO42-) does not affect enzyme activity. Effect of various chemicals on enzyme activity was also investigated. Km, Vmax, kcat and kcat/Km values for 4-NPA were found to be 1.74 mM, 0.0093 U/mL, 0,0039 s-1 and 0,0023 s-1 mM-1, respectively. With these interesting biochemical properties, camel CA II represents promising candidate for harsh industrial applications, in particular, for a successful biomimetic CO2 sequestration process.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci (MRS) and Mammaliicocci (MRM) in Dromedary Camels from Algeria: First Detection of SCCmec-mecC Hybrid in Methicillin-Resistant Mammaliicoccus lentus

Dromedary camels are an important source of food and income in many countries. However, it has been largely overlooked that they can also transmit antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The aim of this study was to identify the Staphylococcaceae bacteria composition of the nasal flora in dromedary camels and evaluate the presence of methicillin-resistant Mammaliicoccus (MRM) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus (MRS) in dromedary camels in Algeria. Nasal swabs were collected from 46 camels from seven farms located in two different regions of Algeria (M'sila and Ouargla). We used non-selective media to determine the nasal flora, and antibiotic-supplemented media to isolate MRS and MRM. The staphylococcal isolates were identified using an Autoflex Biotyper Mass Spectrometer (MALDI-TOF MS). The mecA and mecC genes were detected by PCR. Methicillin-resistant strains were further analysed by long-read whole genome sequencing (WGS). Thirteen known Staphylococcus and Mammaliicoccus species were identified in the nasal flora, of which half (49.2%) were coagulase-positive staphylococci. The results showed that four out of seven farms were positive for MRS and/or MRM, with a total of 16 isolates from 13 dromedary camels. The predominant species were M. lentus, S. epidermidis, and S. aureus. Three methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) were found to be ST6 and spa type t304. Among methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis (MRSE), ST61 was the predominant ST identified. Phylogenetic analysis showed clonal relatedness among M. lentus strains, while S. epidermidis strains were not closely related. Resistance genes were detected, including mecA, mecC, ermB, tet(K), and blaZ. An SCCmec type VIII element was found in a methicillin-resistant S. hominis (MRSH) belonging to the ST1 strain. An SCCmec-mecC hybrid element was detected in M. lentus, similar to what was previously detected in M. sciuri. This study highlights that dromedary camels may be a reservoir for MRS and MRM, and that they contain a specific set of SCCmec elements. This emphasizes the need for further research in this ecological niche from a One Health perspective.

The occurrence of Sarcocystis spp. in the myocardium of alpacas (Vicugna pacos) with associated risk factors in the Peruvian Andes

Sarcocystis masoni n. sp. (known as "S. lamacanis") infects alpacas affecting their productivity and can cause a food poisoning syndrome in humans by consuming contaminated, undercooked cardiac muscle. There are few studies estimating the prevalence of this parasite in alpacas, although this information is crucial for the control and prevention of sarcocystosis. This study aimed to determine the frequency and density of Sarcocystis masoni n. sp. in the heart of alpacas in Huancavelica, a province of the Andean region of Peru. Heart samples were taken for histopathology from 104 alpacas slaughtered at the municipal slaughterhouse of Huancavelica, the official abattoir in the Huancavelica district. No macroscopic sarcocysts were observed. All alpacas (100%) had microscopic sarcocysts of Sarcocystis masoni n. sp., with no inflammatory reactions. The alpacas showed an average sarcocyst density of 60.8 ± 23.3/mm². Sarcocysts density was significantly higher (p < 0.05) as the age of the animals increased. In addition, sarcocysts density was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in male animals aged 4 and 5 years compared to females of the same age. These results confirmed that heart sarcocystosis is highly endemic in Peruvian alpacas. Therefore, it is recommended that alpaca hearts be well-cooked at the time of consumption. The present study showed current data and contributes to the knowledge of this parasitosis. Studies of this nature are necessary because they are the basis for developing animal health programs.

Efficacy of different treatment protocols for endometritis in Camelus dromedarius

Endometritis is considered a significant cause of infertility problems in dromedary camels. This study aimed to compare the efficacy of different treatment protocols for endometritis in dromedary camels under Abu Dhabi Emirates' conditions. A total of 112 dromedary she-camels with uterine infection were subjected to uterine swabbing for bacterial culture and received one of the following treatments: (i) uterine douching with lotagen every other day for three doses, (ii) single parenteral oxytetracycline injection, (iii) subcutaneous injection with ceftiofur for 5 days, or (vi) combined oxytetracycline-ceftiofur injection. The results showed that Escherichia coli was the most isolated bacteria, followed by Streptococcus species. Treatment efficacy was (P < 0.05) higher in ceftiofur and oxytetracycline-ceftiofur protocols compared with lotagen and oxytetracycline protocols. The fertility indexes, services per conception and pregnancy rate, were improved in ceftiofur and mixed oxytetracycline plus ceftiofur protocols as the pregnancy rate was (P < 0.05) higher in those protocols compared with lotagen and oxytetracycline protocols (71.4 and 67.9% vs. 39.3 and 42.9%, respectively). On the other hand, the number of services per conception was significantly lower in ceftiofur and oxytetracycline-ceftiofur protocols (1.2 for each protocol) than in lotagen and oxytetracycline protocols (1.8 and 1.7, respectively). In conclusion, subcutaneous injection of 1 ml ceftiofur per 50 kg body mass for 5 days can be used as an efficient treatment for uterine infection in female dromedary camels caused by E. coli and Streptococcus species for improving their fertility indexes.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in camels recently imported to Egypt from Sudan and a global systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are closely related intracellular protozoan parasites of medical and veterinary concern by causing abortions and systemic illness. Limited or ambiguous data on the prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum in camels triggered us to conduct this study.

METHODS

Camels (n = 460) recently imported from Sudan and destined mainly for human consumption, were tested for specific antibodies against these protozoans using commercially available ELISAs. From the two only quarantine stations for camels from Sudan, 368 camels were sampled between November 2015 and March 2016 in Shalateen, Red Sea governorate, and 92 samples were collected between September 2018 and March 2021 from Abu Simbel, Aswan governorate.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Overall, seropositive rates in camels were 25.7%, 3.9% and 0.8% for T. gondii, N. caninum and mixed infection, respectively. However, marked differences were found between the two study sites and/or the two sampling periods: For T. gondii, a higher rate of infection was recorded in the Red Sea samples (31.5%, 116/368; odds ratio 20.7, 5.0-85.6; P<0.0001) than in those collected in Aswan (2.2%, 2/92). The opposite was found for N. caninum with a lower rate of infection in the Red Sea samples (0.82%, 3/368; odds ratio 23.7, 6.7-83.9; P<0.0001) than in the samples from Aswan (16.3%, 15/92). Additionally, our systematic review revealed that the overall published seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum was 28.6% and 14.3% in camels worldwide, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first record of seroprevalence of both T. gondii and N. caninum in recently imported camels kept under quarantine conditions before delivery to other Egyptian cities and regions. In addition, our review provides inclusive data on the prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum in camel globally. This knowledge provides basic data for the implementation of strategies and control measures against neosporosis and toxoplasmosis.

Genomic Characterization and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Dromedary-Associated Staphylococcaceae from the Horn of Africa

Members of the Staphylococcaceae family, particularly those of the genus Staphylococcus, encompass important human and animal pathogens. We collected and characterized Staphylococcaceae strains from apparently healthy and diseased camels (n = 84) and cattle (n = 7) in Somalia and Kenya. We phenotypically characterized the strains, including their antimicrobial inhibitory concentrations. Then, we sequenced their genomes using long-read sequencing, closed their genomes, and subsequently compared and mapped their virulence- and resistance-associated gene pools. Genome-based phylogenetics revealed 13 known Staphylococcaceae and at least two novel species. East African strains of different species encompassed novel sequence types and phylogenetically distant clades. About one-third of the strains had non-wild-type MICs. They were resistant to at least one of the following antimicrobials: tetracycline, benzylpenicillin, oxacillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, trimethoprim, gentamicin, or streptomycin, encoded by tet(K), blaZ/bla_ARL, mecA/mecA1, msrA/mphC, salA, dfrG, aacA-aphD, and str, respectively. We identified the first methicillin- and multidrug-resistant camel S. epidermidis strain of sequence type (ST) 1136 in East Africa. The pool of virulence-encoding genes was largest in the S. aureus strains, as expected, although other rather commensal strains contained distinct virulence-encoding genes. We identified toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems such as the hicA/hicB and abiEii/abiEi families, reported here for the first time for certain species of Staphylococcaceae. All strains contained at least one intact prophage sequence, mainly belonging to the Siphoviridae family. We pinpointed potential horizontal gene transfers between camel and cattle strains and also across distinct Staphylococcaceae clades and species. IMPORTANCE Camels are a high value and crucial livestock species in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and gain importance giving the impact of climate change on traditional livestock species. Our current knowledge with respect to Staphylococcaceae infecting camels is very limited compared to that for other livestock species. Better knowledge will foster the development of specific diagnostic assays, guide promising antimicrobial treatment options, and inform about potential zoonotic risks. We characterized 84 Staphylococcaceae strains isolated from camels with respect to their antimicrobial resistance and virulence traits. We detected potentially novel Staphylococcus species, resistances to different classes of antimicrobials, and the first camel multidrug-resistant S. epidermidis strain of sequence type 1136.

Comparative Genomic Analysis of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli from South American Camelids in Central Germany

South American camelids (SAC) are increasingly kept in Europe in close contact with humans and other livestock species and can potentially contribute to transmission chains of epizootic, zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) agents from and to livestock and humans. Consequently, SAC were included as livestock species in the new European Animal Health Law. However, the knowledge on bacteria exhibiting AMR in SAC is too scarce to draft appropriate monitoring and preventive programs. During a survey of SAC holdings in central Germany, 39 Escherichia coli strains were isolated from composite fecal samples by selecting for cephalosporin or fluoroquinolone resistance and were here subjected to whole-genome sequencing. The data were bioinformatically analyzed for strain phylogeny, detection of pathovars, AMR genes and plasmids. Most (33/39) strains belonged to phylogroups A and B1. Still, the isolates were highly diverse, as evidenced by 28 multi-locus sequence types. More than half of the isolates (23/39) were genotypically classified as multidrug resistant. Genes mediating resistance to trimethoprim/sulfonamides (22/39), aminoglycosides (20/39) and tetracyclines (18/39) were frequent. The most common extended-spectrum-β-lactamase gene was bla_CTX-M-1 (16/39). One strain was classified as enteropathogenic E. coli. The positive results indicate the need to include AMR bacteria in yet-to-be-established animal disease surveillance protocols for SAC.

Molecular Epidemiology and Species Diversity of Tick-Borne Pathogens of Animals in Egypt: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TTBPs) are listed among the most serious concerns harming Egyptian livestock’s productivity. Several reports on tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) from various geographical regions in the country were published. However, data on the molecular characterization of TBPs are the most beneficial for understanding the epidemiology of this important group of pathogens. In this study, we present the first meta-analysis on the molecular epidemiology and species diversity of TBPs infecting animals in Egypt. All published studies on TBPs were systematically collected from various databases (PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, the Egyptian Knowledge Bank, and Google Scholar). Data from eligible papers were extracted and subjected to various analyses. Seventy-eight studies were found to be eligible for inclusion. Furthermore, ticks infesting animals that were molecularly screened for their associated pathogens were also included in this study to display high species diversity and underline the high infection risk to animals. Theileria annulata was used as parasite model of TBPs to study the genetic diversity and transmission dynamics across different governorates of Egypt. This study extends cross-comparisons between all published molecular data on TBPs in Egypt and provides resources from Egyptian data in order to better understand parasite epidemiology, species diversity, and disease outcome as well as the development and implementation of prevention and control methods for public health, veterinary care practitioners, and animal owners all over the country.

Microscopic and serological survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in Tunisian dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Camels are the most adapted species to the harsh ecosystems of the African continent where they represent 80% of world's population. However, they can be susceptible to many pathogens such as Trypanosoma evansi. This parasite is widely distributed in Africa and represents a real threat to animal health and production. In Tunisia, despite its importance, this disease is underestimated and only a few data are available. The present study aims to investigate the prevalence of the disease by combining microscopic and serological tests. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 307 dromedary camels randomly selected from Southern Tunisia. Collected blood samples were microscopically examined and tested with Card Agglutination Trypanosomiasis Test to detect anti-T. evansi antibodies. The microscopic and serological prevalence were estimated at 2.93 and 62.54%, respectively. Microscopic examination showed morphological features of T. evansi. All positives samples were collected from aged males (>5 years old). Seroprevalence was similar for both sexes but it was higher in dry season and in the southwest of Tunisia. The present study revealed high prevalence of T. evansi infection among dromedary camels. This highlights the need for adequate control measures based on the detection and treatment of infected animals and vector control. We recommend investigating the prevalence of infection in other domestic animals living in the same environment.

The Inclusion of Alhagi maurorum in Growing Camel Diet: Effect on Performance, Liver-Related Blood Metabolites, and Antioxidant Status

This study determined the effect of dietary inclusion of camelthron [Alhagi maurorum (AM)] on the performance, blood metabolites, and antioxidant status of growing camels. A total of 18 Sindhi camel calves of 9–10 months of age and 115 ± 7 kg body weight (BW) were randomly assigned to three diets (with a forage:concentrate ratio of 50:50) that were formulated by partial and total substitution of alfalfa hay with AM as follows: (1) diet without AM (control), (2) diet containing 25% of AM (AM-25), and (3) diet containing 50% of AM (AM-50) (dry matter basis) for 150 days. Dry matter intake (DMI) was recorded daily. The camels were weighed individually on days 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150. Blood samples were collected on days 0, 75, and 150. DMI was increased (p = 0.004) with AM-50 feeding followed by AM-25. Total weight gain (p = 0.048) and average daily gain (ADG) (p = 0.043) decreased with AM-50; however, no differences were observed between the AM-25 and CON groups. Feed cost per kg BW gain tended to decrease (p = 0.092) and return per kg BW gain tended to increase (p = 0.087) by AM feeding. The plasma triglycerides (TGs) (p = 0.046) and cholesterol (CHOL) (p = 0.025) concentration were reduced with AM inclusion. Additionally, the AM50-fed camels showed the lowest concentration of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (p = 0.008) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (p = 0.0036), followed by AM-25. The plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) was depressed (p = 0.037) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was enhanced (p = 0.016) with both the AM-25 and AM-50. Moreover, feeding the AM containing diets led to higher (p = 0.004) glutathione peroxidase (GPx) along with a tendency for superoxide dismutase (SOD) (p = 0.075) and catalase (CAT) (p = 0.094). Overall, feeding camels with AM for up to 25% of their dry matter (DM) diet positively influenced the antioxidant status without severe deleterious effects on performance.

Composition and aptitude for cheese-making of milk from cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, dromedary camels, and donkeys

Bovines account for about 83% of the milk and dairy products consumed by humans worldwide, the rest represented by bubaline, caprine, ovine, camelid, and equine species, which are particularly important in areas of extensive pastoralism. Although milk is increasingly used for cheese production, the cheese-making efficiency of milk from the different species is not well known. This study compares the cheese-making ability of milk sampled from lactating females of the 6 dairy species in terms of milk composition, coagulation properties (using lactodynamography), curd-firming modeling, nutrients recovered in the curd, and cheese yield (through laboratory model-cheese production). Equine (donkey) milk had the lowest fat and protein content and did not coagulate after rennet addition. Buffalo and ewe milk yielded more fresh cheese (25.5 and 22.9%, respectively) than cow, goat, and dromedary milk (15.4, 11.9, and 13.8%, respectively). This was due to the greater fat and protein contents of the former species with respect to the latter, but also to the greater recovery of fat in the curd of bubaline (88.2%) than in the curd of camelid milk (55.0%) and consequent differences in the recoveries of milk total solids and energy in the curd; protein recovery, however, was much more similar across species (from 74.7% in dromedaries to 83.7% in bovine milk). Compared with bovine milk, the milk from the other Artiodactyla species coagulated more rapidly, reached curd firmness more quickly (especially ovine milk), had a more pronounced syneresis (especially caprine milk), had a greater potential asymptotical curd firmness (except dromedary and goat milk), and reached earlier maximum curd firmness (especially caprine and ovine milk). The maximum measured curd firmness was greater for bubaline and ovine milk, intermediate for bovine and caprine milk, and lower for camelid milk. The milk of all ruminant species can be used to make cheese, but, to improve efficiency, cheese-making procedures need to be optimized to take into account the large differences in their coagulation, curd-firming, and syneresis properties.

The Youngest, the Heaviest and/or the Darkest? Selection Potentialities and Determinants of Leadership in Canarian Dromedary Camels

Simple Summary

Genetic selection of camels for behavioral traits is not an extended practice in livestock scenarios. Given the existence of pleiotropic genes that influence two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits, here we studied the sociodemographic, zoometric and phaneroptical characteristics potentially determining the intraherd leadership role in Canarian camels. This local endangered breed is mainly reared in same-sex groups because of biased morphostructural preferences, that is, tourism/leisure and milk production for males and females, respectively. The attribute most influencing leadership role was sexual status, as gelded animals more frequently initiated group movements. Furthermore, younger camels were mainly endorsed as group leaders, a condition that could be ascribed to their recognized fluid intelligence and need for constant social and environmental interaction. Referring to zoometrics and phaneroptics, the heaviest and darkest-coated dromedaries were significantly more prone to reaching higher positions in the leadership hierarchy. The presence of white-haired zones in the extremities, head and neck as well as iris depigmentation had non-negligible influence on this type of social organization. This information is valuable for application both in refining animal handling procedures and in genetic selection of animals for their social behavior.

Abstract

Several idiosyncratic and genetically correlated traits are known to extensively influence leadership in both domestic and wild species. For minor livestock such as camels, however, this type of behavior remains loosely defined and approached only for sex-mixed herds. The interest in knowing those animal-dependent variables that make an individual more likely to emerge as a leader in a single-sex camel herd has its basis in the sex-separated breeding of Canarian dromedary camels for utilitarian purposes. By means of an ordinal logistic regression, it was found that younger, gelded animals may perform better when eliciting the joining of mates, assuming that they were castrated just before reaching sexual maturity and once they were initiated in the pertinent domestication protocol for their lifetime functionality. The higher the body weight, the significantly (p < 0.05) higher the score in the hierarchical rank when leading group movements, although this relationship appeared to be inverse for the other considered zoometric indexes. Camels with darker and substantially depigmented coats were also significantly (p < 0.05) found to be the main initiators. Routine intraherd management and leisure tourism will be thus improved in efficiency and security through the identification and selection of the best leader camels.

Concentrations of Fat, Protein, Lactose, Macro and Trace Minerals in Alpaca Colostrum and Milk at Different Lactation Stages

Although alpacas are not used for milk production a detailed knowledge on the composition of the colostrum and milk is needed for development of colostrum and milk replacers. The aim of the present study was to measure the concentration of fat, protein, lactose, and minerals in alpaca colostrum and milk. Colostrum samples were taken daily over four days after parturition from 20 multiparous alpaca mares. Milk samples were obtained monthly, during the first four months of lactation from 17 alpacas. Composition of colostrum and milk differed in numerous indicators. The concentrations of fat and lactose increased from day 1 (0.5%, 4.0%) to day 4 (5.3%, 5.0%), protein decreased from 20.4% on day 1 to 8.3% on day 4. In milk these three indicators did not change during the lactation. Minerals have been little studied in alpaca colostrum and milk in the past, many of which had the highest concentrations in colostrum immediately after birth. The results of the present study do not support that goat's milk is the preferred substitute for feeding crias. This study contributes to the knowledge of the composition of alpaca colostrum and milk which can be of particular use in developing replacers.

Molecular detection and identification of Babesia bovis and Trypanosoma spp. in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) breeds in Egypt

Background and Aim:

Camels are a unique source of milk and meat, which helps recover from several diseases that affect humans worldwide. In Egypt, one of the great obstacles for this industry is tick-borne diseases. This study aimed to characterize blood parasite infections, such as Babesia (B.) bovis and Trypanosoma (T.) spp. in one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) (n=142) breeds in Halayeb and Shalateen, Egypt, through phylogenetic analysis.

Materials and Methods:

The prevalence of B. bovis and Trypanosoma spp. was identified in camels using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays targeting the Rhoptry-Associated Protein-1 and internal transcribed spacer 1 genes, respectively. A nested PCR technique was conducted to detect B. bovis. At the same time, KIN multispecies PCR assay was employed to diagnose and classify trypanosome DNA in camels.

Results:

B. bovis was detected in 4/142 camels with an infection rate of 2.81%. Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses revealed that the strain of B. bovis isolated from this population was closely related to strains isolated from Argentine, the United States, and Brazil. Moreover, Trypanosoma evansi was detected in 8/142 camels with an infection rate of 5.63%. Sequencing and phylogenetic analyses revealed that this isolated strain T. evansi was closely related to Trypanosoma theileri detected from cattle in Brazil.

Conclusion:

The obtained data indicated the existence of B. bovis and T. evansi in camels from two provinces of Egypt. The obtained findings have economic significance and reflect the importance of implementing effective prevention and control methods across Egypt to reduce the incidence of B. bovis and T. evansi in camels.

Case Report: Successful Management of Refractory Keratomycosis in an Alpaca Using Penetrating Keratoplasty and Combination Antifungal Therapy (Caspofungin 0.5% and Terbinafine 1%)

Fungal keratitis is a common disease in certain parts of the world and affects several species, including equids, camelids, and homo sapiens, leading to blindness or loss of the eye if the infection is not adequately controlled. Reports of clinical use of antifungals caspofungin and terbinafine are limited across both veterinary and human medical literature. The alpaca presented in this case demonstrates that deep keratomycosis can be caused by Scopulariopsis brevicaulis and Fusarium verticillioides, two previously unreported fungi to cause keratomycosis in camelids. This report demonstrates successful management with a combination of surgery and topical ophthalmic treatment with caspofungin 0.5% solution and terbinafine 1% dermatologic cream, after initially failing treatment with topical voriconazole 1% solution. Combination therapy appears more effective than monotherapy with some fungal organisms, and synergy between antifungal agents is thought to play a role in the success of combination therapy. Surgery to remove the bulk of the fungal infection is especially helpful in cases that fail initial medical therapy.

The First Protocol for Assessing Welfare of Camels

The aim of this study was to develop and describe a protocol for assessing welfare in camels reared in intensive or semi-intensive systems. A literature review was conducted searching for scientific papers on assessment of animal welfare and camel behavior, management, physiology, and pathology. The paradigms of Five Freedoms, the Five Domains Model, and the welfare principles and criteria applied by the Welfare Quality® and AWIN methods were then adapted to camels. A combination of animal-, resource- and management-based indicators were selected and categorized according to three levels of assessment: (i) Caretaker, (ii) Herd, and (iii) Animal. The Caretaker level is an interview of 23 questions exploring the caretaker's background, experience, and routine management practices. The Herd level is a check of the herd and of the place (i.e., box/pen) where camels are kept. The Animal level is a visual inspection aiming at evaluating individual camel behavior and health status. The selected indicators are presented for each welfare principle and level; for instance for the principle of “Appropriate nutrition,” feeding management is investigated at Caretaker level; feed availability and quality, the number of feeding points, and camel feeding behavior are recorded at Herd level, while body condition score (BCS) is evaluated at Animal level. In this study recording sheets for the assessment at the three levels are proposed and how to conduct the assessment is described. Limitations of the proposed protocol are also discussed. Further applications of this protocol for assessing camel welfare on a large number of farms is needed to validate the proposed indicators and identify the thresholds for their acceptability as well as to develop overall welfare indices and welfare standards in camels.

Functional and Genomic Characterization of Ligilactobacillus salivarius TUCO-L2 Isolated From Lama glama Milk: A Promising Immunobiotic Strain to Combat Infections

Potential probiotic or immunobiotic effects of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from the milk of the South American camelid llama (Lama glama) have not been reported in published studies. The aim of the present work was to isolate beneficial LAB from llama milk that can be used as potential probiotics active against bacterial pathogens. LAB strains were isolated from llama milk samples. In vitro functional characterization of the strains was performed by evaluating the resistance against gastrointestinal conditions and inhibition of the pathogen growth. Additionally, the adhesive and immunomodulatory properties of the strains were assessed. The functional studies were complemented with a comparative genomic evaluation and in vivo studies in mice. Ligilactobacillus salivarius TUCO-L2 showed enhanced probiotic/immunobiotic potential compared to that of other tested strains. The TUCO-L2 strain was resistant to pH and high bile salt concentrations and demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative intestinal pathogens and adhesion to mucins and epithelial cells. L. salivarius TUCO-L2 modulated the innate immune response triggered by Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 activation in intestinal epithelial cells. This effect involved differential regulation of the expression of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines mediated by the modulation of the negative regulators of the TLR signaling pathway. Moreover, the TUCO-L2 strain enhanced the resistance of mice to Salmonella infection. This is the first report on the isolation and characterization of a potential probiotic/immunobiotic strain from llama milk. The in vitro, in vivo, and in silico investigation performed in this study reveals several research directions that are needed to characterize the TUCO-L2 strain in detail to position this strain as a probiotic or immunobiotic that can be used against infections in humans or animals, including llama.

Global trends of epidemiological research in livestock tuberculosis for the last four decades

Animal tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) bacteria remains as one of the most significant infectious diseases of livestock, despite decades of eradication programmes and research efforts, in an era where the livestock sector is among the most important and rapidly expanding commercial agricultural segments worldwide. This work provides a global overview of the spatial and temporal trends of reported scientific knowledge of TB in livestock, aiming to gain insights into research subtopics within the animal TB epidemiology domain and to highlight territorial inequalities regarding data reporting and research outputs over the years. To deliver such information, peer-reviewed reports of TB studies in livestock were retrieved from the Web of Science and Google Scholar, systematized and dissected. The validated data set contained 443 occurrence observations, covering the 1981-2020 period (39 years). We highlight a clear move towards transdisciplinary areas and the One Health approach, with a global temporal increase in publications combining livestock with wildlife and/or human components, which reflect the importance of non-prototypical hosts as key to understanding animal TB. It becomes evident that cattle is the main host across works from all continents; however, many regions remain poorly surveyed. TB research in livestock in low-/middle-income countries is markedly growing, reflecting changes in animal husbandry, but also mirroring the globalization era, with a marked increase in international collaboration and capacitation programmes for scientific and technological development. This review gives an overview of the most prolific continents, countries and research fields in animal TB epidemiology, clearly outlining knowledge gaps and key priority topics. The estimated growth trend of livestock production until 2050, particularly in Asia and Africa, in response to human population growth and animal-protein demand, will require further investment in early surveillance and adaptive research to accommodate the higher diversity of livestock species and MTC members and raising the possibility to fine-tune funding schemes.

Draft Genome Sequence of Ligilactobacillus salivarius TUCO-L2, Isolated from Lama glama Milk

Ligilactobacillus salivarius TUCO-L2 was isolated from llama milk in Bio-Bio, Chile, and sequenced with the Illumina MiSeq platform. TUCO-L2 genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 1,600,747 bp with 1,691 protein-coding genes and a GC content of 33%. This draft genome sequence will contribute to a better understanding of the microbiome of llama milk.

Ligilactobacillus salivarius TUCO-L2 was isolated from llama milk in Bio-Bio, Chile, and sequenced with the Illumina MiSeq platform. TUCO-L2 genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 1,600,747 bp with 1,691 protein-coding genes and a GC content of 33%. This draft genome sequence will contribute to a better understanding of the microbiome of llama milk.