Removal and seasonal variability of selected analgesics/anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive/cardiovascular pharmaceuticals and UV filters in wastewater treatment plant

Early life development and sex determination of brown trout affected by treated wastewater discharge

Artificial conditions limit the ability of laboratory studies to describe the complex effects of polluted environments on aquatic life. This study aimed to evaluate the impacts of treated wastewater discharge on the survival, growth, and sex ratio balance of the population of brown trout (Salmo trutta m. fario) in situ. Five floating incubators with 1000 eggs each were placed in the upstream reference and treated wastewater-affected sites in the Czech Republic for approximately three months. The hatched fish were grown in a natural environment for nearly one year. Water quality, including nutrients, temperature, pharmaceutical and personal care products, biological effects by bioassays and fish mortality, metabolic rate, and growth, were measured regularly. Up to 72 pharmaceutical and personal care products (7400-23000 ng/sampler) were detected in the passive samplers deployed downstream of the sewage treatment plant effluent. In vitro bioassays of the sampler extracts indicated elevated oestrogenic effects, transthyretin binding inhibition, and aryl hydrocarbon-mediated and androgenic potencies, showing endocrine-disrupting potential at the polluted site. The cumulated mortality of brown trout in the exposed group (9.67%) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in the control group (5.16%). In addition, the body size, growth, and metabolic rate of exposed fish were significantly lower (p < 0.05). The sex ratio of brown trout in the effluent-affected stretch was imbalanced, and sterile individuals were detected after several months of natural development in the stream. The observed effects of treated wastewater on the early developmental stages of aquatic wildlife could be connected to the development and readiness of adult individuals and, consequently, to the sustainability of freshwater ecosystems. Applying the hatching apparatus used in fishery practices, followed by comparing mortality, development, and sex with reference localities, seems to be a promising biomonitoring approach that can indicate hotspots for in-depth investigation and risk assessment.

Temperature-driven and discharge-driven variability of organic micropollutants in a large urban river and its implications for risk-based monitoring

Urban rivers are exposed to an increasing load of organic micropollutants from wastewater effluent posing an ecological as well as public health hazard. One-off surveys can capture a snapshot of the pollution profile but fail to reveal the full scale of spatial and temporal heterogeneity. In the present study, 41 micropollutants (non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), antihypertensives, antiepileptic, antidiabetic, antibiotics, iodinated contrast media (ICM), corrosion inhibitors, pesticides) were monitored every two weeks for one-year upstream and downstream of the Budapest metropolitan area in Danube River (336 samples total). ICMs, benzotriazoles and metamizole degradation products were detected in highest concentration regularly exceeding 100 ng/L. Median concentration of other pharmaceuticals ranged from <1 to 26 ng/L, while pesticides were typically below 10 ng/L. Variability of micropollutant concentration was primarily temporal, exhibiting two different patterns: (1) inverse correlation to river discharge, observed for corrosion inhibitors and carbamazepine (r = -0.505 to -0.665) or (2) inverse correlation to water temperature, observed primarily for ICMs, antihypertensives and antibiotics, r = -0.654 to -0.904). Temperature dependence was also significant after correcting for river discharge. Relative increase of pharmaceuticals was 2-134% after the metropolitan area, partially explained by emission estimates calculated from retail data and metabolization rates. The concentration of five ICMs (iopamidol in 100, iodixanol in 96, diatrizoate in 22, iomeprol in 21 and iohexol 13% of the samples) and two NSAIDs (ibuprofen and diclofenac (in 31.5 and 23% of the samples) exceeded the predicted no environmental effect concentration, posing a risk to algae (HQ = 1.2-6) and fish (HQ = 1.4-1.9), respectively. Results suggest that risk-based monitoring and risk management efforts should focus on ICMs, NSAIDs and industrial chemicals, taking into account that sampling in cold periods and during low flow provides the worst-case estimates.

Spatiotemporal variations and risk assessment of estrogens in the water of the southern Bohai Sea: A comprehensive investigation spanning three years

The ubiquitous and adverse effects of estrogens have aroused global concerns. Natural and synthetic estrogens in 255 water samples from the southern Bohai Sea were analyzed over three years. Total estrogen concentrations were 11.0-268 ng/L in river water and 1.98-99.7 ng/L in seawater, with bisphenol A (BPA) and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) being the predominant estrogens, respectively. Estrogen showed the highest concentrations in summer 2018, followed by spring 2021 and spring 2019, which was consistent with the higher estrogen flux from rivers during summer. Higher estrogen concentrations in 2021 than in 2019 were driven by the higher level of BPA, an additive used in personal protective equipment. Estrogen exhibited higher concentrations in the southern coast of the Yellow River Delta and the northeastern coast of Laizhou bay due to the riverine input and aquaculture. Estrogens could disturb the normal endocrine activities of organisms and edict high ecological risks (90th simulated RQT > 1.0) to aquatic organisms, especially to fish. EE2 was the main contributor of estrogenic potency and ecological risk, which requires special concern. This is the first comprehensive study of estrogen spatiotemporal variations and risks in the Bohai Sea, providing insights into the environmental behavior of estrogens in coastal regions.

Organic UV filters: Occurrence, risks and (anti-)progestogenic activities in samples from the Czech aquatic environment and their bioaccumulation in fish

The occurrence, environmental risks and contribution of organic UV filters to detected (anti-)progestogenic activities were examined in samples of wastewater treatment plant influents and effluents, various surface waters and fish from the Czech Republic. Of the 20 targeted UV filters, 15 were detected in the WWTP influent samples, 11 in the effluents, and 13 in the surface water samples. Benzophenone-3, benzophenone-4, and phenyl benzimidazole sulfonic acid (PBSA) were found in all water samples. Octocrylene, UV-327 and 4-methylbenzylidene camphor exceeded the risk quotient of 1 at some sites. In the anti-progestogenic CALUX assay, 10 out of the 20 targeted UV filters were active. Anti-progestogenic activities reaching up to 7.7 ng/L, 3.8 ng/L, and 4.5 ng/L mifepristone equivalents were detected in influents, effluents, and surface waters, respectively. UV filters were responsible for up to 37 % of anti-progestogenic activities in influents. Anti-progestogenic activities were also measured in fish tissues from the control pond and Podroužek (pond with the highest number of detected UV filters) and ranged from 2.2 to 9.5 and 1.9 to 8.6 ng/g dw mifepristone equivalents, respectively. However, only benzophenone was found in fish, but it does not display anti-progestogenic activity and thus could not explain the observed activities.

Seasonal patterns, fate and ecological risk assessment of pharmaceutical compounds in a wastewater treatment plant with Bacillus bio-reactor treatment

Pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs) pose a growing concern with potential environmental impacts, commonly introduced into the environment via wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The occurrence, removal, and season variations of 60 different classes of PhCs were investigated in the baffled bioreactor (BBR) wastewater treatment process during summer and winter. The concentrations of 60 PhCs were 3400 ± 1600 ng/L in the influent, 2700 ± 930 ng/L in the effluent, and 2400 ± 120 ng/g dw in sludge. Valsartan (Val, 1800 ng/L) was the main contaminant found in the influent, declining to 520 ng/L in the effluent. The grit chamber and BBR tank were substantially conducive to the removal of VAL. Nonetheless, the BBR process showcased variable removal efficiencies across different PhC classes. Sulfadimidine had the highest removal efficiency of 87 ± 17% in the final effluent (water plus solid phase). Contrasting seasonal patterns were observed among PhC classes within BBR process units. The concentrations of many PhCs were higher in summer than in winter, while some macrolide antibiotics exhibited opposing seasonal fluctuations. A thorough mass balance analysis revealed quinolone and sulfonamide antibiotics were primarily eliminated through degradation and transformation in the BBR process. Conversely, 40.2 g/d of macrolide antibiotics was released to the natural aquatic environment via effluent discharge. Gastric acid and anticoagulants, as well as cardiovascular PhCs, primarily experienced removal through sludge adsorption. This study provides valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of PhCs in wastewater treatment, emphasizing the need for tailored strategies to effectively mitigate their release and potential environmental risks.

Spatiotemporal distribution and potential risks of antibiotics in coastal water of Beibu Gulf, South China Sea: Livestock and poultry emissions play essential effect

Antibiotics have been the subject of much attention in recent years due to their widespread use and the potential ecological risks and resistance risks. In this study, we conducted an extensive survey of 19 antibiotics in a wide range of waters of the Beibu Gulf during summer and winter (154 samples). The total concentrations of the 19 antibiotics (Σ19ABs, ng/L) were significantly higher in winter (n.d.-364) than in summer (n.d.-70.1) and were mainly concentrated in areas of seagoing rivers (1.50-364). The primary route for antibiotics entering Beibu Gulf was through riverine input. Precisely, florfenicol (FF) (n.d.-278 ng/L) discharged from livestock and poultry farms upstream of Nanliu River, predominantly in swine farming, constitutes the main pollutant in Beibu Gulf throughout the year. The Nanliu River (988 kg/a) accounts for 85% of the gulf's total annual antibiotic emission flux. Source analysis identified livestock and poultry farming, particularly swine farming, as the primary pollution source, contributing 58% in summer. Risk assessment reveals that algae (0.51 ± 0.56) exhibited relatively high sensitivity to antibiotics, presenting a medium-high risk at specific sites in Nanliu River during winter. Additionally, FF discharged from swine farming demonstrates a certain level of antibiotic resistance risk. Therefore, reinforcing control measures for antibiotic discharges from livestock and poultry farming, especially upstream of Nanliu River, can effectively mitigate antibiotic-related risks in the water bodies of Beibu Gulf.

Electrochemistry-mass spectrometry bridging the gap between suspect and target screening of valsartan transformation products in wastewater treatment plant effluent

Degradation of xenobiotics in wastewater treatment plants may lead to the formation of transformation products with higher persistence or increased (eco-)toxic potential compared to the parent compounds. Accordingly, the identification of transformation products from wastewater treatment plant effluents has gained increasing attention. Here, we show the potential of electrochemistry hyphenated to liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for the prediction of oxidative degradation in wastewater treatment plants using the antihypertensive drug valsartan as a model compound. This approach identifies seven electrochemical transformation products of valsartan, which are used to conduct a suspect screening in effluent of the main wastewater treatment plant in the city of Münster in Germany. Apart from the parent compound valsartan, an electrochemically predicted transformation product, the N-dealkylated ETP336, is detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent. Subsequently, a targeted liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry method for the detection of valsartan and its electrochemical transformation products is set up. Here, electrochemical oxidation is used to generate reference materials of the transformation products in situ by hyphenating electrochemistry online to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Using this setup, multiple reaction monitoring transitions are set up without the need for laborious and costly synthesis and isolation of reference materials for the transformation products. The targeted method is then applied to extracts from wastewater treatment plant effluent and the presence of ETP336 and valsartan in the samples is verified. The presented workflow can be used to set up targeted analysis methods for previously unknown transformation products even without the need for expensive high-resolution mass spectrometers.

LC-HRMS method for study of pharmaceutical uptake in plants: effect of pH under aeroponic condition

Global climate changes cause water scarcity in many regions, and the sustainable use of recycled water appears crucial, especially in agriculture. However, potentially hazardous compounds such as pharmaceuticals can enter the food chain and pose severe risks. This paper aims to study the presence of selected pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) and their metabolites in crops grown in aeroponic conditions and evaluate the potential of PhAC plant uptake. A solvent extraction with an acidified mixture of acetonitrile and water followed by LC-HRMS was developed and validated for quantifying nine pharmaceuticals and their nine metabolites in three plants. We aimed for a robust method with a wide linear range because an extensive concentration range in different matrices was expected. The developed method proved rapid and reliable determination of selected pharmaceuticals in plants in the wide concentration range of 10 to 20,000 ng g-1 and limit of detection range 0.4 to 9.0 ng g-1. The developed method was used to study the uptake and translocation of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in plant tissues from an aeroponic experiment at three different pH levels. Carbamazepine accumulated more in the leaves of spinach than in arugula. On the other hand, sulfamethoxazole and clindamycin evinced higher accumulation in roots than in leaves, comparable in both plants. The expected effect of pH on plants' uptake was not significant.

Do the lockdown-imposed changes in a wastewater treatment plant catchment's socio-demographics impact longitudinal temporal trends in psychoactive pharmaceutical use?

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) includes the analysis of human metabolic biomarkers of xenobiotics in influent wastewater. WBE complements existing drug utilization approaches and provides objective, spatio-temporal information on the consumption of pharmaceuticals in the general population. This approach was applied to 24-h composite influent wastewater samples from Leuven, Belgium. Daily samples were analysed from September 2019 to December 2019 (n = 76), and on three days of the week (Monday, Wednesday, Saturday) from January 2020 to April 2022 (n = 367). Sample analysis consisted of 96-well solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Measured concentrations of 21 biomarkers for antidepressant and opioid use were converted to population-normalized mass loads (PNML) by considering the flow rate and catchment population. To capture population movements, mobile phone data was used. Amitriptyline, hydroxy-bupropion, norcitalopram, citalopram, normirtazapine, trazodone, O-desmethylvenlafaxine, codeine, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), methadone, morphine, O-desmethyltramadol, and tramadol were included in the temporal assessment since concentrations were above the lower limit of quantification. The PNML of most biomarkers increased (with 3-119 %) throughout the sampling period. The population disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a major change in the socio-demographics of the catchment area, resulting in temporal differences in the PNML of the different biomarkers. As such, higher PNML were observed during the different lockdown phases, which were characterized by the outflow of university students and a decreasing commuting in and out the catchment area. The effects of the fluctuating socio-demographics of the catchment population were further evidenced by the different week-weekend pattern of PNMLs over the course of the sampling campaign. Mean parent/metabolite ratios (i.e., citalopram/norcitalopram, tramadol/O-desmethyltramadol, venlafaxine/O-desmethylvenlafaxine, and methadone/EDDP) remained relatively stable throughout the entire sampling campaign (RSD% below 25 % for all ratios, except for methadone/EDDP) and therefore were not affected by this population change.

Novel nontarget LC-HRMS-based approaches for evaluation of drinking water treatment

A conventional evaluation methodology for drinking water pollution focuses on analysing hundreds of compounds, usually by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. High-resolution mass spectrometry allows comprehensive evaluation of all detected signals (compounds) based on their elemental composition, intensity, and numbers. We combined target analysis of 192 emerging micropollutants with nontarget (NT) full-scan/MS/MS methods to describe the impact of treatment steps in detail and assess drinking water treatment efficiency without compound identification. The removal efficiency based on target analytes ranged from - 143 to 97%, depending on the treatment section, technologies, and season. The same effect calculated for all signals detected in raw water by the NT method ranged between 19 and 65%. Ozonation increased the removal of micropollutants from the raw water but simultaneously caused the formation of new compounds. Moreover, ozonation byproducts showed higher persistence than products formed during other types of treatment. We evaluated chlorinated and brominated organics detected by specific isotopic patterns within the developed workflow. These compounds indicated anthropogenic raw water pollution but also potential treatment byproducts. We could match some of these compounds with libraries available in the software. We can conclude that passive sampling combined with nontargeted analysis shows to be a promising approach for water treatment control, especially for long-term monitoring of changes in technology lines because passive sampling dramatically reduces the number of samples and provides time-weighted average information for 2 to 4 weeks.

Selective accumulation of pharmaceutical residues from 6 different soils by plants: a comparative study on onion, radish, and spinach

The accumulation of six pharmaceuticals of different therapeutic uses has been thoroughly investigated and compared between onion, spinach, and radish plants grown in six soil types. While neutral molecules (e.g., carbamazepine (CAR) and some of its metabolites) were efficiently accumulated and easily translocated to the plant leaves (onion > radish > spinach), the same for ionic (both anionic and cationic) molecules seems to be minor to moderate. The maximum accumulation of CAR crosses 38,000 (onion), 42,000 (radish), and 7000 (spinach) ng g-1 (dry weight) respectively, in which the most majority of them happened within the plant leaves. Among the metabolites, the accumulation of carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide (EPC - a primary CAR metabolite) was approximately 19,000 (onion), 7000 (radish), and 6000 (spinach) ng g-1 (dry weight) respectively. This trend was considerably similar even when all these pharmaceuticals applied together. The accumulation of most other molecules (e.g., citalopram, clindamycin, clindamycin sulfoxide, fexofenadine, irbesartan, and sulfamethoxazole) was restricted to plant roots, except for certain cases (e.g., clindamycin and clindamycin sulfoxide in onion leaves). Our results clearly demonstrated the potential role of this accumulation process on the entrance of pharmaceuticals/metabolites into the food chain, which eventually becomes a threat to associated living biota.

Performance evaluation of a diffusive hydrogel-based passive sampler for monitoring of polar organic compounds in wastewater

An upscaled passive sampler variant (diffusive hydrogel-based passive sampler; HPS) based on diffusive gradients in thin films for polar organic compounds (o-DGT) with seven times higher surface area (22.7 cm²) than a typical o-DGT sampler (3.14 cm²) was tested in several field studies. HPS performance was tested in situ within a calibration study in the treated effluent of a municipal wastewater treatment plant and in a verification study in the raw municipal wastewater influent. HPS sampled integratively for up to 14 days in the effluent, and 8 days in the influent. Sampling rates (R_s) were derived for 44 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 3 perfluoroalkyl substances, 2 anticorrosives, and 21 pesticides and metabolites, ranging from 6 to 132 mL d^-1. Robustness and repeatability of HPS deteriorated after exposures longer than 14 days due to microbial and physical damage of the diffusive agarose layer. In situ R_s values for the HPS can be applied to estimate the aqueous concentration of the calibrated polar organic compounds in wastewater within an uncertainty factor of four. When accepting this level of accuracy, the HPS can be applied for monitoring trends of organic micropollutants in wastewater.

Occurrence, effects, and ecological risks of chemicals in sanitizers and disinfectants: A review

In response to the novel coronavirus referred to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) – a virus that causes COVID-19 disease has led to wide use of sanitizers and disinfectants. This, in turn, triggered concerns on their potential deleterious effects to human health and the environment due to numerous chemicals incorporated in both product categories. Here, the current state of science regarding the occurrence and ecological effects of different classes of chemicals in these products (e.g., ultraviolent filters, fragrances, etc.) are summarized in different natural (e.g., rivers) and engineered (e.g., wastewater treatment plants) systems. Data collected in the literature suggests chemicals incorporated in sanitizers and disinfectants are present in the environment, and a large portion are toxic to fish, algae, and daphnia. Using the risk quotient approach based on occurrence data, we found eight chemicals that posed the highest risk to aquatic organisms in freshwater systems were benzalkonium chloride, 4-chloro-m-cresol, sodium ortho phenyl phenate, hydrogen peroxide, 1, 2-propanediol, 4-Methyl-benzilidine-camphor, ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate, and octocrylene. Considering limited occurrence and effects information for most chemicals, further studies on environmental monitoring and potential consequences of long-term exposure in aquatic ecosystems are recommended.

Invertebrates differentially bioaccumulate pharmaceuticals: Implications for routine biomonitoring

Surface water quality monitoring programs have been developed to examine traditional contaminants, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). However, urbanization, which is increasing around the world, is increasing discharge of treated wastewater and raw sewage in many regions. Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites represent typical markers of such trajectories in urbanization. We selected an ongoing monitoring program, which was designed for routine surveillance of nonionizable POPs in different aquatic matrices, to examine the occurrence of 67 pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in water and multiple bioindicator matrices: benthic invertebrates, juvenile fish, and adult fish (plasma and muscle tissue) from ten river systems with varying levels of watershed development. In addition, we placed zebra mussels and passive samplers in situ for a fixed period. A statistically significant relationship between pharmaceutical levels in passive samplers and biota was found for caged zebra mussels and benthic invertebrates, while only a few pharmaceuticals were identified in fish matrices. Invertebrates, which have received relatively limited study for pharmaceutical bioaccumulation, accumulated more pharmaceuticals than fish, up to thirty different substances. The highest concentration was observed for sertraline in zebra mussels and telmisartan in benthic invertebrates (83 and 31 ng/g ww, respectively). Our results across diverse study systems indicate that ongoing surface water quality monitoring programs, which were originally designed for traditional organic pollutants, need to be revised to account for bioaccumulation dynamics of pharmaceuticals and other ionizable contaminants. Aquatic monitoring programs routinely examine accumulation of nonionizable organic pollutants; however, we identified that these efforts need to be revised to account for bioaccumulation of ionizable contaminants, which reached higher levels in invertebrates than in fish.

Desorption of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs from different stabilized sludge types across pH

Pharmaceutical and illicit drug residues in sewage sludge may present important risks following direct application to agricultural soils, potentially resulting in uptake by plants. Leaching/desorption tests were performed on different types of stabilized sewage sludge originating from multiple treatment technologies in the Slovak Republic. Acid rain and base-rich condition of soil with different pH conditions were simulated to model the effect of widely varying pH (pH 2, 4, 7, 9, and 12) on the leaching/desorption of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs. Twenty-nine of 93 target analytes were found above the limit of quantification in sludge or associated leachates. Total desorbed amounts of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs ranged from 810 to 4000 µg/kg, and 110 to 3600 µg/kg of the dry mass of anaerobic and aerobic sludge, respectively. Desorbed fractions were calculated as these values are normalized to initial sludge concentration and, therefore, were more suitable for qualitative description of the behavior of individual compounds. Using principal component analysis, qualitative analysis of the desorbed fraction confirmed the differences among sludge types, pharmaceuticals, and desorption pH. Desorbed fractions could not be related to the octanol/water distribution coefficient. Desorbed fractions also did not reflect the expected ionization of studied molecules unless converted into their relative values. Generally, the lowest mobility was observed within the environmentally relevant pH range of 4-9, and high pH generally resulted in high desorption, especially in anaerobically stabilized sludges.

Risk-based screening for prioritisation of organic micropollutants in Swedish freshwater

Concerns about environmental contamination by organic micropollutants (OMPs) are increasing, due to their potential bioaccumulative and toxic properties. This study evaluated the risk posed by OMPs to aquatic ecosystems in Swedish freshwaters. The assessment was based on measured environmental concentrations (MEC) of OMPs in surface waters upstream and downstream of Swedish wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). A novel optimised risk quotient (RQ_f) was used to identify potential high-risk substances in the aquatic environment. A secondary objective was to assess the impact of WWTP effluent on aquatic ecosystems using a novel impact factor (I) based on the risk quotient (RQ). Among the 126 substances investigated, four compounds (metformin, N,N-dimethyltetradecylamine, oxazepam, and venlafaxine) were identified as likely to pose a risk to aquatic ecosystems in Swedish surface waters (RQ_f>1), and five compounds (clindamycin, gemfibrozil, sertraline, o-desmethylvenlafaxine, and diclofenac) were identified as posing a moderate risk to aquatic ecosystems ( 0.1 <RQ_f<1). WWTP effluent appeared to pose an environmental risk for all recipient sites, but the impact of calculated RQ was site-specific. These results can be used by authorities to prioritise OMPs and contaminated hotspots, in order to decrease negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems. SYNOPSIS: A novel optimised risk assessment approach for identification of high-concern organic micropollutants in aquatic environments.

Removal efficiency for emerging contaminants in a WWTP from Madrid (Spain) after secondary and tertiary treatment and environmental impact on the Manzanares River

The effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can be an important contamination source for receiving waters. In this work, a comprehensive study on the impact of a WWTP from Madrid on the aquatic environment has been performed, including a wide number of pharmaceuticals and pesticides, among them those included in the European Watch List. 24-h composite samples of influent (IWW) and effluent wastewater after secondary (EWW2) and after secondary + tertiary treatment (EWW3) were monitored along two campaigns. Average weekly concentrations in IWW and EWW2 and EWW3 allowed estimating the removal efficiency of the WWTP for pharmaceutical active substances (PhACs). In addition, the impact of EWW3 on the water quality of the Manzanares River was assessed, in terms of PhAC and pesticide concentrations, through analysis of the river water collected upstream and downstream of the discharge point. After a preliminary risk assessment, a detailed evaluation of the impact on the aquatic environment, including a toxicological study and screening of pharmaceutical metabolites, was made for the seven most relevant PhACs: sulfamethoxazole, azithromycin and clarithromycin (antibiotics), metoprolol (antihypertensive), diclofenac (anti-inflammatory/analgesic), irbesartan (antihypertensive), and the antidepressant venlafaxine. Among selected PhACs, irbesartan, clarithromycin and venlafaxine presented moderate or high risk in the river water downstream of the discharge. Albeit no acute toxicity was detected, more detailed studies should be carried out for these substances, including additional toxicological studies, to set up potential sublethal and chronic effects on aquatic organisms.

Profiling of the spatiotemporal distribution, risks, and prioritization of antibiotics in the waters of Laizhou Bay, northern China

We investigated the spatiotemporal distributions, risks, and prioritization of 15 widely used antibiotics in Laizhou Bay (LZB). Water samples (145) were collected from LZB and its estuaries and analyzed. Twelve antibiotics, with total concentrations of 241-1450 and 69-289 ng L^-1 in estuarine water and seawater, respectively, were detected, with the contributions of norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and amoxicillin exceeding 70%. Amoxicillin was firstly determined, which contributed to 20% and 46% of the total antibiotics during summer and spring, respectively. Higher antibiotic concentrations were observed in the sea located adjacent to aquaculture bases and the Yellow River Estuary, which are significantly influenced by mariculture and riverine inputs, respectively. Veterinary antibiotics showed higher total concentrations in summer compared to spring, indicating a higher degree of their usage in mariculture in summer. The antibiotic mixtures posed high risk to algae and low to medium risks to crustaceans and fish. Amoxicillin and norfloxacin were identified as high-risk pollutants. Additionally, amoxicillin and ciprofloxacin showed medium to high resistance development risks. Previous studies on antibiotics in the LZB did not determined amoxicillin and thus underestimated antibiotic contamination, ecological risk, and resistance development risk. Amoxicillin, norfloxacin, and ciprofloxacin should be prioritized in risk management.

A novel multiscale biophysical model to predict the fate of ionizable compounds in the soil-plant continuum

Soil pollution from emerging contaminants poses a significant threat to water resources management and food production. The development of numerical models to describe the reactive transport of chemicals in both soil and plant is of paramount importance to elaborate mitigation strategies. To this aim, in the present study, a multiscale biophysical model is developed to predict the fate of ionizable compound in the soil-plant continuum. The modeling framework connects a multi-organelles model to describe processes at the cell level with a semi-mechanistic soil-plant model, which includes the widely used Richards-based solver, HYDRUS. A Bayesian probabilistic framework is used to calibrate and assess the capability of the model in reproducing the observations from an experiment on the translocation of five pharmaceuticals in green pea plants. Results show satisfactory fitting performance and limited predictive uncertainty. The subsequent validation with the cell model indicates that the estimated soil-plant parameters preserve a physically realistic meaning, and their calibrated values are comparable with the existing literature values, thus confirming the overall reliability of the analysis. Model results further suggest that pH conditions in both soil and xylem play a crucial role in the uptake and translocation of ionizable compounds.

Instrumental and bioanalytical assessment of pharmaceuticals and hormone-like compounds in a major drinking water source-wastewater receiving Zayandeh Rood river, Iran

Zayandeh Rood river is the most important river in central Iran supplying water for a variety of uses including drinking water for approximately three million inhabitants. The study aimed to investigate the quality of water concerning the presence of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) and hormonelike compounds, which have been only poorly studied in this region. Sampling was performed at seven sites along the river (from headwater sites to downstream drinking water source, corresponding drinking water, and treated wastewater) affected by wastewater effluents, specific drought conditions, and high river-water demand. The targeted and nontargeted chemical analyses and in vitro bioassays were used to evaluate the presence of PhACs and hormonelike compounds in river water. In the samples, 57 PhACs and estrogens were detected with LC-MS/MS with the most common and abundant compounds valsartan, carbamazepine, and caffeine present in the highest concentrations in the treated wastewater in the concentrations of 8.4, 19, and 140 μg/L, respectively. A battery of in vitro bioassays detected high estrogenicity, androgenicity, and AhR-mediated activity (viz., in treated wastewater) in the concentrations 24.2 ng/L, 62.2 ng/L, and 0.98 ng/L of 17β-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone and 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalents, respectively. In surface water samples, estrogenicity was detected in the range of <0.42 (LOD) to 1.92 ng/L of 17β-estradiol equivalents, and the drinking water source contained 0.74 ng/L of 17β-estradiol equivalents. About 19% of the estrogenicity could be explained by target chemical analyses, and the remaining estrogenicity can be at least partially attributed to the potentiation effect of detected surfactant residues. Drinking water contained several PhACs and estrogens, but the overall assessment suggested minor human health risk according to the relevant effect-based trigger values. To our knowledge, this study provides some of the first comprehensive information on the levels of PhACs and hormones in Iranian waters.

Water reuse for aquaculture: Comparative removal efficacy and aquatic hazard reduction of pharmaceuticals by a pond treatment system during a one year study

Aquaculture is increasing at the global scale, and beneficial reuse of wastewater is becoming crucial in some regions. Here we selected a unique tertiary treatment system for study over a one-year period. This experimental ecosystem-based approach to effluent management included a treated wastewater pond (TWP), which receives 100% effluent from a wastewater treatment plant, and an aquaculture pond (AP) that receives treated water from the TWP for fish production. We examined the fate of a wide range of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in this TWP-AP system and a control pond fed by river water using traditional grab sampling and passive samplers. We then employed probabilistic approaches to examine exposure hazards. Telmisartan, carbamazepine, diclofenac and venlafaxine, exceeded ecotoxicological predicted no effect concentrations in influent wastewater to the TWP, but these water quality hazards were consistently reduced following treatment in the TWP-AP system. In addition, both grab and passive sampling approaches resulted in similar occurrence patterns of studied compounds, which highlights the potential of POCIS use for water monitoring. Based on the approach taken here, the TWP-AP system appears useful as a tertiary treatment step to reduce PhACs and decrease ecotoxicological and antibiotic resistance water quality hazards prior to beneficial reuse in aquaculture.

Influence of selected antibiotics on respirometric activity of activated sludge

The main topic of this study is to determine the effect of selected antibiotics on the respirometric activity of sewage sludge microorganisms. Within the practical part of the work, several respirometric measurements were performed with activated sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, while the influence of three selected antibiotics — sulfamethoxazole, sulfapyridine, and ciprofloxacin, on sludge activity was monitored. The aim of the work was to point out the inhibitory effect of all monitored compounds on sludge activity and to quantify the inhibitory effect. For sulfamethoxazole (in the concentration range of 0.142—1.42 mg·L−1), the determined inhibition was in the range of 9.67—27.7 %, depending on the concentration of the test substance and the type of respirometric measurements. For sulfapyridine, inhibition values ranged from 1.13 % to 31.9 % for the concentration range from 0.134 to 1.34 mg·L−1. Ciprofloxacin inhibited the activity of activated sludge microorganisms in the range of 4.55 % to 28.8 % (at CPX concentrations from 0.104 to 1.04 mg·L−1).

Removal of Ibuprofen from Water by Different Types Membranes

Ibuprofen separation from water by adsorption and pertraction processes has been studied, comparing 16 different membranes. Tailor-made membranes based on Matrimid, Ultem, and diaminobenzene/diaminobenzoic acid with various contents of zeolite and graphene oxide, have been compared to the commercial polystyrene, polypropylene, and polydimethylsiloxane polymeric membranes. Experimental results revealed lower ibuprofen adsorption onto commercial membranes than onto tailor-made membranes (10–15% compared to 50–70%). However, the mechanical stability of commercial membranes allowed the pertraction process application, which displayed a superior quantity of ibuprofen eliminated. Additionally, the saturation of the best-performing commercial membrane, polydimethylsiloxane, was notably prevented by atomic layer deposition of (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in a typical urbanized bay of Yellow Sea, China: Distribution, risk assessment, and identification of priority pollutants

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in water are receiving particular attention as they pose adverse effects on aquatic systems, even at trace concentrations. A comprehensive study was conducted on 14 EDCs (five estrogens and nine household and personal care products (HPCPs)) in the water of the urbanized Jiaozhou Bay in the Yellow Sea during summer and winter. Results showed that the total concentration of 14 EDCs ranged from 100 to 658 ng L^-1 and 56.7-212 ng L^-1 in the estuarine and bay water, respectively. The average total concentration of five estrogens in summer was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that in winter due to the higher precipitation dilution and degradations during summer, whereas the average total concentration of nine HPCPs was significantly (p < 0.05) higher during the summer than that during the winter because of the higher usage and emissions during the summer. Estrogens and HPCPs were dominated by 17α-ethinylestradiol and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA), respectively. High PHBA concentrations may be related to the hydrolysis of parabens. The total concentrations of EDCs were higher in the eastern coastal seawater of the bay due to the strong influence of domestic and industrial wastewater discharge. Estrogens may interfere with the endocrine system of aquatic organisms in the bay because the total estradiol equivalent concentration exceeded 1 ng L^-1. 17α-ethinylestradiol was the main contributor to the estrogenic activity. The EDC mixtures posed high risks (RQ > 1) to mollusks, crustaceans, and fish, and low to moderate risks (RQ < 1) to algae. Fish was the most sensitive aquatic taxon to the EDC mixtures. Given the concentration and frequency of EDCs, the optimized risk quotient method revealed that 17α-ethinylestradiol, estrone, triclocarban, triclosan, and 17β-estradiol should be prioritized in ecological management because of their high risks (prioritization index of >1).

Assessing the distributions and fate of household and personal care chemicals (HPCCs) in the Songhua Catchment, Northeast China

Many household and personal care chemicals (HPCCs) are of environmental concern due to their potential toxicity to humans and wildlife. However, few studies investigate the spatiotemporal variations and fate of HPCCs in large-scale river systems. Here, river water and sediment samples from the Songhua River in Northeast China were analyzed for seven classes of HPCCs. Correlation analysis suggested similar sources and environmental behavior for compounds from the same HPCC classes. In the river water, the concentrations of most HPCCs in the cold season were significantly higher than that of the warm season (p < 0.01). Significantly higher levels of target compounds were found in the downstream water samples of a city, suggesting the influence of human activities on the distributions of HPCCs. The concentrations and distributions of most HPCCs were controlled by primary emission sources. The derived dissolved concentrations of HPCCs suggested that small amounts of caffeine and parabens were partitioned onto particles, while large amounts of many other HPCCs were bound to the particle phase. Water-sediment distribution coefficients (log K_d) ranged from 1.59 for caffeine to 3.95 for benzalkonium chloride-C14. This work presents new insights into the environmental behavior of HPCCs and the factors affecting their fate in river systems.

Screening and Seasonal Behavior of Analgesics, Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs, and Antibiotics in Two Urban Wastewater Treatment Plants

Pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) belonging to analgesics, antibiotics, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) therapeutic classes were monitored in wastewater influents and effluents from two Portuguese urban wastewater treatment plants (UWWTPs) for 24 months. Both facilities were chosen due to their effluents are discharged in highly touristic and sensitive areas, Tagus river and Ria Formosa coastal lagoon, respectively. Target PhACs, acetaminophen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, sulfadiazine, and sulfamethoxazole were measured using solid-phase extraction (SPE) coupled to liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). PhACs occurrence in the influents was higher than 98%, with acetaminophen presenting the highest concentrations, with values between 16.3 µg/L and 124 µg/L. In the effluents, distinct behavior was observed with diclofenac and sulfamethoxazole showing recalcitrant characteristics, whereas acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and naproxen showed removal efficiencies above 95%. Acetaminophen and ibuprofen amount in influents showed consistently higher concentration levels in autumn (in Beirolas and Faro Nw UWWTPs) and winter (only in Beirolas UWWTP) seasons. These seasonal trends were observed to a greater extent in Beirolas UWWTP than in Faro Nw UWWTP. This study enabled the comprehensive definition of a behavior pattern for these target contaminants, contributing to better characterization and build-up a library of PhACs occurrence. It also allowed a robust seasonal profiling of the target compounds due to the high number of samples analyzed by each season and a longer monitoring campaign, making the obtained results more significant.

Occurrence, Profiles and Ecological Risk of Bisphenol Analogues in a Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant

Due to the strict control on bisphenol A (BPA) in many countries, bisphenol analogues (BPs) are being widely used as alternative materials to manufacture epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics, resulting in their occurrence in sewage treatment plants (STPs). In this study, the occurrence and distribution of 7 BPs in a large-scale STP in Beijing China was investigated. Wastewater samples were collected from the influents and effluents of each processing unit, and extracted by solid-phase extraction. Target compounds were quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The total concentrations of seven BPs (ΣBPs) were 400.42 ± 48.12 ng/L in the raw sewage, 438.60 ± 46.50 ng/L in the primary effluent, 17.21 ± 13.12 ng/L in the secondary effluent, and 11.33 ± 4.84 ng/L in the tertiary effluent, respectively. Bisphenol S (BPS) and BPA were the predominant congener in raw sewage with an overall contribution of 29.32% and 70.22% to the ΣBPs, indicating that there was a large amount of BPS and BPA consumption in the study area. During a one-week sampling period, ΣBPs changed slightly at the same sampling site. It was found that high removal efficiencies were achieved for BPs in anoxic and oxic secondary clarifier treatment units, suggesting that biodegradation and sorption played major roles in BPs elimination in the STP. After tertiary treatment, all BPs except BPA were completely removed, suggesting the necessity to investigate the fate and toxicity of BPA in the aquatic environment.

Traces of tramadol in water impact behaviour in a native European fish

Tramadol is a widely used analgesic with additional antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. This compound has been reported in continental waters reaching concentrations of µg/L as a consequence of its inefficient removal in sewage treatment plants and increasing use over time. In this study, European chubs (Squalius cephalus) were exposed to 1 µg/L of tramadol in water for 42 days with a subsequent 14 days of depuration. Our results revealed that chubs exposed to this analgesic underwent changes in their behaviour as compared to the control group. The behavioural outcome was also influenced by the individual concentration of tramadol in brain tissue. In particular, experimental fish presented anxiolytic-like effects, characterized by less bold and less social individuals. Exposed animals were less frequently out of the shelter and moved a shorter distance, indicating that they explored the new environment less during the boldness test. In the novel object recognition experiment, although they distinguished the new item, they examined it less and displayed a reduced activity. Shoal cohesion was disrupted as observed in an increased distance between individuals. After the depuration phase, this alteration remained whereas the boldness effect disappeared. Moreover, the degree of behavioural changes was correlated with the concentration of the substance in brain. According to our findings, chronic presence of tramadol in the environment can impact the fitness of exposed aquatic fauna by altering evolutionary crucial behaviours.

Occurrence and removal of chemicals of emerging concern in wastewater treatment plants and their impact on receiving water systems

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered the main sources of chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) in aquatic environments, and can negatively impact aquatic ecosystems. In this study, WWTP influent, effluent, and sludge, and upstream and downstream waters from the WWTP recipient were investigated at 15 locations for a total of 164 CECs, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, industrial chemicals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), and pesticides. In addition, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo toxicity tests (ZFET) were applied to WWTP influent and effluent, and upstream and downstream waters from WWTP recipients. A total of 119 CECs were detected in at least one sample, mean concentrations ranging from 0.11 ng/L (propylparaben) to 64,000 ng/L (caffeine), in wastewater samples and from 0.44 ng/L (ciprofloxacin) to 19,000 ng/L (metformin) in surface water samples. Large variations of CEC concentrations were found between the selected WWTPs, which can be explained by differences in CEC composition in influent water and WWTP treatment process. The sludge-water partitioning coefficient (K_d) of CECs showed a significant linear correlation to octanol/water partition coefficient (K_OW) (p < 0.001), and thus could be used for predicting their fate in the aqueous and solid phase. The ΣCEC concentrations in WWTPs declined by on average 60%, based on comparisons of WWTP influent and effluent concentrations. The high concentrations of CECs in WWTP effluent resulted in, on average, 50% higher concentrations of CECs in water downstream of WWTPs compared with upstream. Some WWTP samples showed toxicity in ZFET compared with the respective control group, but no individual CECs or groups of CECs could explain this toxicity. These results could provide a theoretical basis for optimization of existing treatment systems of different designs, and could significantly contribute to protecting recipient waters.

Inhibition of staphylococci and S. aureus in wastewater by ferrates and electrochemical methods

Increasing concentration of antibiotics in environment and their subinhibitory concentrations in wastewater may result in increased antibiotic resistance of present bacteria. Therefore, this study was aimed to analyze the efficiency of coagulase-positive staphylococci and Staphylococcus aureus inhibition in wastewater by electrochemical methods and addition of ferrates. Advanced electrochemical oxidation by boron doped diamond electrodes in anode; cathode and anode-cathode connection were used for wastewater disinfection. Results showed that the most effective connection was the anodic one, as complete inhibition of coagulase-positive staphylococci as well as of S. aureus was observed after 40 min. Energy consumption was 3.69 kWh/m3 for effluent wastewater disinfection. The second studied method of wastewater disinfection was the application of powdered ferrates. Addition of 100 mg of ferrates resulted in the inhibition of 84—96 % of coagulase-positive staphylococci and 97—99 % of S. aureus in influent water, while the inhibition of coagulase-positive staphylococci and S. aureus was 61—83 % and 83—86 %, respectively, in effluent wastewater.

Neuroactive drugs and other pharmaceuticals found in blood plasma of wild European fish

To gain a better understanding of which pharmaceuticals could pose a risk to fish, 94 pharmaceuticals representing 23 classes were analyzed in blood plasma from wild bream, chub, and roach captured at 18 sites in Germany, the Czech Republic and the UK, respectively. Based on read across from humans, we evaluated the risks of pharmacological effects occurring in the fish for each measured pharmaceutical. Twenty-three compounds were found in fish plasma, with the highest levels measured in chub from the Czech Republic. None of the German bream had detectable levels of pharmaceuticals, whereas roach from the Thames had mostly low concentrations. For two pharmaceuticals, four individual Czech fish had plasma concentrations higher than the concentrations reached in the blood of human patients taking the corresponding medication. For nine additional compounds, determined concentrations exceeded 10% of the corresponding human therapeutic plasma concentration in 12 fish. The majority of the pharmaceuticals where a clear risk for pharmacological effects was identified targets the central nervous system. These include e.g. flupentixol, haloperidol, and risperidone, all of which have the potential to affect fish behavior. In addition to identifying pharmaceuticals of environmental concern, the results emphasize the value of environmental monitoring of internal drug levels in aquatic wildlife, as well as the need for more research to establish concentration-response relationships.

De facto reuse at the watershed scale: Seasonal changes, population contributions, instream flows and water quality hazards of human pharmaceuticals

With increasing population growth and climate change, de facto reuse practices are predicted to increase globally. We investigated a longitudinal gradient within the Uhlava River, a representative watershed, where de facto reuse is actively occurring, during Fall and Spring seasons when instream flows vary. We observed human pharmaceutical levels in the river to continuously increase from the mountainous areas upstream to downstream locations and a potable intake location, with the highest concentrations found in small tributaries. Significant relationship was identified between mass flow of pharmaceuticals and the size of human populations contributing to wastewater treatment plant discharges. Advanced ozonation and granular activated carbon filtration effectively removed pharmaceuticals from potable source waters. We observed a higher probability of encountering a number of targeted pharmaceuticals during colder Spring months when stream flows were elevated compared to warmer conditions with lower flows in the Fall despite a dilution paradigm routinely applied for surface water quality assessment and management efforts. Such observations translated to greater water quality hazards during these higher Spring flows. Future water monitoring efforts should account for periods when higher chemical uses occur, particularly in the face of climate change for regions experiencing population growth and de facto reuse.

Water reuse and aquaculture: Pharmaceutical bioaccumulation by fish during tertiary treatment in a wastewater stabilization pond

With increasing demand for aquaculture products, water reuse is likely to increase for aquaculture operations around the world. Herein, wastewater stabilization ponds (WSP) represents low cost and sustainable treatment technologies to reduce nutrients and various contaminants of emerging concern from effluent. In the present study, we examined bioaccumulation of selected pharmaceuticals from several therapeutic classes by two important fish species in aquaculture with different feeding preferences (Cyprinus carpio and Sander lucioperca) and their common prey to test whether species specific accumulation occurs. Forty and nineteen from 66 selected pharmaceuticals and their metabolites were positively found in water and sediment samples, respectively from the representative WSP. After a six-month study, which corresponds to aquaculture operations, fourteen pharmaceuticals and their metabolites were detected (at a frequency of higher than 50% of samples) in at least one fish tissue collected from the WSP. We observed striking differences for species and organ specific BAFs among study compounds. Though muscle tissues consistently accumulated lower levels of the target analytes, several substances were elevated in brain, liver and kidney tissues (e.g., sertraline) of both species. Low residual concentrations of these target analytes in aquaculture products (fish fillets) suggest WSPs are promising to support the water-food nexus in aquaculture.

Occurrence and ecological risks of pharmaceuticals in a Mediterranean river in Eastern Spain

Pharmaceuticals are biologically active molecules that may exert toxic effects to a wide range of aquatic organisms. They are considered contaminants of emerging concern due to their common presence in wastewaters and in the receiving surface waters, and the lack of specific regulations to monitor their environmental occurrence and risks. In this work, the environmental exposure and risks of pharmaceuticals have been studied in the Mijares River, Eastern Mediterranean coast (Spain). A total of 57 surface water samples from 19 sampling points were collected in three monitoring campaigns between June 2018 and February 2019. A list of 40 compounds was investigated using a quantitative target UHPLC-MS/MS method. In order to complement the data obtained, a wide-scope screening of pharmaceuticals and metabolites was also performed by UHPLC-HRMS. The ecological risks posed by the pharmaceutical mixtures were evaluated using species sensitivity distributions built with chronic toxicity data for aquatic organisms. In this study, up to 69 pharmaceuticals and 9 metabolites were identified, out of which 35 compounds were assessed using the quantitative method. The highest concentrations in water corresponded to acetaminophen, gabapentin, venlafaxine, valsartan, ciprofloxacin and diclofenac. The compounds that were found to exert the highest toxic pressure on the aquatic ecosystems were principally analgesic/anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics. These were: phenazone > azithromycin > diclofenac, and to a lower extent norfloxacin > ciprofloxacin > clarithromycin. The monitored pharmaceutical mixtures are expected to exert severe ecological risks in areas downstream of WWTP discharges, with the percentage of aquatic species affected ranging between 65% and 82% in 3 out of the 19 evaluated sites. In addition, five antibiotics were found to exceed antibiotic resistance thresholds, thus potentially contributing to resistance gene enrichment in environmental bacteria. This work illustrates the wide use and impact of pharmaceuticals in the area under study, and the vulnerability of surface waters if only conventional wastewater treatments are applied. Several compounds included in this study should be incorporated in future water monitoring programs to help in the development of future regulations, due to their potential risk to the aquatic environment.

Membrane Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Water: Which Kind of Membranes Should We Use?

Membrane technologies are nowadays widely used; especially various types of filtration or reverse osmosis in households, desalination plants, pharmaceutical applications etc. Facing water pollution, they are also applied to eliminate emerging contaminants from water. Incomplete knowledge directs the composition of membranes towards more and more dense materials known for their higher selectivity compared to porous constituents. This paper evaluates advantages and disadvantages of well-known membrane materials that separate on the basis of particle size, usually exposed to a large amount of water, versus dense hydrophobic membranes with target transport of emerging contaminants through a selective barrier. In addition, the authors present several membrane processes employing the second type of membrane.

Environmental concentration of methamphetamine induces pathological changes in brown trout (Salmo trutta fario)

Methamphetamine, mainly consumed as an illicit drug, is a potent addictive psychostimulant that has been detected in surface water at concentrations ranging from nanograms to micrograms per litre, especially in Middle and East Europe. The aim of this study was to expose brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) to environmental (1 μg L^-1) and higher (50 μg L^-1) concentrations of methamphetamine for 35 days with a four-day depuration phase to assess the possible negative effects on fish health. Degenerative liver and heart alterations, similar to those described in mammals, were observed at both concentrations, although at different intensities. Apoptotic changes in hepatocytes, revealed by activated caspase-3, were found in exposed fish. The parent compound and a metabolite (amphetamine) were detected in fish tissues in both concentration groups, in the order of kidney > liver > brain > muscle > plasma. Bioconcentration factors ranged from 0.13 to 80. A therapeutic plasma concentration was reached for both compounds in the high-concentration treatment. This study indicates that chronic environmental concentrations of methamphetamine can lead to health issues in aquatic organisms.

Sorption Characteristics and Removal Efficiency of Organic Micropollutants in Drinking Water Using Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) in Pilot-Scale and Full-Scale Tests

Granulated active carbon (GAC) is commonly used as a chemical barrier for the removal of organic micropollutants (OMPs) in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). However, little is known about the impact of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and its long-term performance with regard to OMP removal efficiency. This study examined the performance of two GAC types (Norit 830W and Filtrasorb 400) in the removal of OMPs and DOC from natural lake water, in pilot-scale and full-scale tests run for almost one year. Potential early warning indicators of the exhaustion of GAC sorption capacity were also evaluated. The seven OMPs investigated (carbamazepine, lamotrigine, cetirizine, fexofenadine, oxazepam, fluconazole and N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET)) all showed decreasing removal efficiencies after ~20,000 bed volumes (BV) in the pilot-scale Norit 830W and Filtrasorb 400 columns. However, columns with an 18-min empty bed contact time (EBCT) showed better performances than columns with 6-min EBCT. DEET was the OMP adsorbed most weakly. We found that DOC concentrations, methylene blue sorption kinetics, UV and fluorescence did not sufficiently explain the OMP breakthrough in the GAC columns. We concluded that carbamazepine, lamotrigine and fexofenadine can be used as indicators of decreasing GAC adsorption performance, due to their later breakthrough. Based on the results, UV and fluorescence removal could be used for the early detection of declining DOC removal, and online solid-phase extraction (SPE)–liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) could be used for the early detection of OMPs in drinking water.

Psychoactive pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems: A comparative assessment of environmental monitoring approaches for water and fish

Environmental monitoring and surveillance studies of pharmaceuticals routinely examine occurrence of substances without current information on human consumption patterns. We selected 10 streams with diverse annual flows and differentially influenced by population densities to examine surface water occurrence and fish accumulation of select psychoactive medicines, for which consumption is increasing in the Czech Republic. We then tested whether passive sampling can provide a useful surrogate for exposure to these substances through grab sampling, body burdens of young of year fish, and tissue specific accumulation of these psychoactive contaminants. We identified a statistically significant (p < 0.05) relationship between ambient grab samples and passive samplers in these streams when psychoactive contaminants were commonly quantitated by targeted liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, though we did not observe relationships between passive samplers and tissue specific pharmaceutical accumulation. We further observed smaller lotic systems with elevated contamination when municipal effluent discharges from more highly populated cities contributed a greater extent of instream flows. These findings identify the importance of understanding age and species specific differences in fish uptake, internal disposition, metabolism and elimination of psychoactive drugs across surface water quality gradients.

Annual release of selected UV filters via effluent from wastewater treatment plants in Australia

Studies conducted globally have identified wastewater effluent as a key source of UV filters released into the aquatic environment. We assessed the annual release of UV filters from wastewater treatment plant effluent in Australia and evaluated the removal of these chemicals during wastewater treatment. Effluent samples were collected from 33 sites alongside matching influent samples. Sample collection predominately occurred during the Australian Census in August 2016, which allowed for accurate per capita normalisation of the results. A subset of sites was also sampled over the Southern Hemisphere summer (December-February) period. Five UV filters were detected with at least one detected in 95% of effluent samples. The summed concentration of UV filters ranged from 130 ng L^-1 to 8400 ng L^-1 and averaged 2800 (±1900) ng L^-1. Of the target UV filters, 2-phenylbenzimidazole-5-sulfonic acid (PBSA) and benzophenone 4 (BP4) showed the lowest removal efficiencies (11 ± 36% and 51 ± 43%, respectively) across all sites and were the most abundant in effluent. Average estimated removal efficiencies of the other compounds were between 59 (±24) % (4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC)) and 74 (±22) % (benzophenone 1 (BP1)). We did not find a trend in seasonal differences in the per capita release of UV filters in effluent samples. We estimate that approximately 40% of UV filter loads measured in influent are breaking through to the effluent resulting in the release of approximately 20 kg day^-1 of the selected UV filters into the aquatic environment from treated wastewater effluent in Australia.

Uptake of atenolol, carbamazepine and triclosan by crops irrigated with reclaimed water in a Mediterranean scenario

Water scarcity is a natural condition in the Mediterranean rim countries. In this region, reuse of reclaimed water (RW) from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is becoming a potential source for highly water-demanding activities such as agriculture. However, the removal capacity of contaminants in regular WWTPs has been found to be limited. Considering a Mediterranean scenario, this research investigated the plant uptake and translocation of three representative pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) typically present in RW samples from a WWTP located in an urban area in Spain, and assessed the potential risk to humans from plant consumption. The RW samples were collected and analyzed for three representative PPCPs (atenolol -ATN-, carbamazepine -CBZ- and triclosan -TCS-). The target contaminants were also spiked at two levels in the RW samples to consider two worst-case scenarios. Three plant models (lettuce, maize and radish) were grown outdoors and irrigated with four treatments: tap water; RW samples, and the two spiked RW samples. Generally speaking, results revealed an efficient root uptake for the three PPCPs regardless of plant species and fortification level, and suggested an interaction effect of treatment and plant organ. Different bioaccumulation and translocation potentials of the three PPCPs were seen into the aerial organs of the plants. Overall, these observations support the idea that factors including the physico-chemical properties of the PPCPs and physiological plant variables, could be responsible for the differential accumulation and translocation potentials observed. These variables could be critical for crops irrigated with RW in regions with extended dry seasons, high solar incidence and low annual rainfall such as those in the Mediterranean rim where plants are subjected to high transpiration rates. However, the results obtained from this experimental approach suggested a negligible risk to humans from consumption of edible plants irrigated with RW samples with presence of PPCPs, despite the fact that the three representative PPCPs under study accumulated efficiently in the plants.

Ultrafast laser diode thermal desorption method for analysis of representative pharmaceuticals in soil leachate samples

We developed and evaluated a novel analytical method combining ambient ionization technique - laser diode thermal desorption with chemical ionization (LDTD-APCI) and tandem mass spectrometry detection. The LDTD/APCI-MS/MS method was developed for determination of representative pharmaceuticals from different classes (carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, irbesartan, fexofenadine) in leachate samples from soil sorption experimentation. We then optimized laser pattern, laser energy and spiked sample volume, which are crucial parameters for this LDTD/APCI-MS/MS method. We further identified utility of a chelating agent (Na₂-EDTA) to obtain the highest achievable and reproducible signal of target analytes. Achieved method performance parameters (LODs, LOQs, trueness and precision) were comparable with those obtained from LC-MS/MS. However, application of this novel LDTD/APCI-MS/MS method reduced analysis time by two orders of magnitude (to 12 s), compared to more conventional LC-MS/MS approaches, without use of organic solvents. We expect this novel method will reduce costs and increase throughput for future analyses of pharmaceuticals in the environment while advancing a timely principle of green chemistry.

Soil influences on uptake and transfer of pharmaceuticals from sewage sludge amended soils to spinach

Sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants, which may contain various contaminants including pharmaceuticals, is often used as a soil amendment. These contaminants may subsequently be taken up by plants. In the present study we examined uptake of select pharmaceuticals from sewage sludge applied to soils by spinach plants. Seven soils were amended with sewage sludge from two wastewater treatment plants (A and B). Concentrations of compounds in plant tissues (roots and leaves) of spinach planted 45 days in these soils under greenhouse conditions were evaluated after harvest. The largest bioaccumulation in the roots and leaves was observed for sertraline (bioaccumulation factors (BAF) of 3.3-37.9 and 1-13.4, respectively), tramadol (1.3-10.0 and 4.8-30.0), and carbamazepine (2.2-17.2 and 6.1-48.8) and its metabolite carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide (not-quantified to 7.3 and 9.3-96.7). Elevated bioaccumulation in spinach roots was also identified for telmisartan (3.0-20.3) and miconazole (4.3-15.1), and leaves for metoprolol acid (not-quantified to 24.3). BAF values resulting from application of sludge B were similar to or moderately higher than BAFs from sludge A. The BAF values of carbamazepine and carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide in all tissues were negatively correlated with soil cation exchange capacity (CEC). This negative correlation between BAF and CEC was also observed for tramadol (A-roots and B-leaves), citalopram (B-roots), and telmisartan (B-roots) or between BAF and clay content for metoprolol acid (A-leaves and B-roots), tramadol (B-roots and A-leaves) and venlafaxine (B-roots). However, in the case of some other compounds (i.e. sertraline, amitriptyline, mirtazapine, metoprolol), uptake and the subsequent translocation and transformation from 3 soils of a higher pH and base cation saturation (Stagnic Chernozem Siltic, Haplic Chernozem and Greyic Phaeozem) significantly differed from 4 soils with a lower pH and base cation saturation (Haplic Luvisol, Haplic Cambisol, Dystric Cambisol and Arenosol Epieutric). Such observations proved strong compound dependent influences of soil conditions on various compounds bioaccumulations in plants and necessity of studying these processes always in diverse soils.

Spatial and temporal occurrence of pharmaceuticals in UK estuaries

There is a lack of data on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in estuaries worldwide, with little understanding of their temporal and spatial variations globally. Ibuprofen, paracetamol, diclofenac, trimethoprim and citalopram were measured in twelve estuaries in the UK. Initially, these compounds were monitored in the Humber Estuary, where samples were taken every two months over a twelve month period in order to assess their spatial and temporal variations. Ibuprofen was found at some of the highest concentrations ever measured in an estuary globally (18-6297 ng l^-1), with paracetamol also measured at relatively high concentrations (4-917 ng l^-1) in comparison to the other compounds. In terms of spatial distribution, a pattern was observed where the highest concentrations were found at a site at which wastewater is discharged, whilst compound concentrations were often lower upstream and downstream of this site. The downstream profile of pharmaceuticals differed temporally with concentrations highest downstream when input from wastewater effluent was highest. Eleven further estuaries were sampled around the UK in order to put the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the Humber Estuary into a wider context. Pharmaceutical concentrations in the other estuaries sampled were <210 ng l^-1 but, again, ibuprofen and paracetamol were found at concentrations higher than other compounds, whereas diclofenac and citalopram were absent in many estuaries. The Humber, which is the receiving environment for the sewage effluent of approximately 20% (13.6 million people) of the population of England, was observed to have the highest overall concentration of pharmaceuticals in contrast to the other estuaries sampled, thereby representing a worst case scenario for pharmaceutical pollution.

Environmentally relevant concentrations of methamphetamine and sertraline modify the behavior and life history traits of an aquatic invertebrate

Pharmaceutically active compounds are major contaminants of aquatic environments that show direct and indirect effects on aquatic organisms even at low concentrations. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of the illicit drug methamphetamine and the antidepressant sertraline on clonal marbled crayfish Procambarus virginalis. Crayfish exposed to the environmentally relevant concentrations of methamphetamine of ∼1 μg L^-1 did not exhibit significant differences from unexposed controls in distance moved, velocity, and activity level with or without available shelter. Sertraline-exposed (∼1 μg L^-1) crayfish were significantly more active, regardless of available shelter, and moved greater distances when shelter was available, compared to control crayfish. Crayfish exposed to methamphetamine and sertraline spent significantly more time outside the shelters compared to controls. Sertraline-exposed crayfish spawned more frequently and showed higher mortality than controls. The results suggest that the low environmental concentrations of the tested compounds could alter the behavior and life history traits of crayfish, resulting in higher reproductive effort and mortality.

Behaviour and cardiac response to stress in signal crayfish exposed to environmental concentrations of tramadol

Evidence of the ecological and biological impact of pharmaceuticals in surface waters on aquatic organisms is increasing. Tramadol is a synthetic opioid analgesic used to treat chronic and acute pain. To investigate its long-term effects at environmentally relevant levels, we evaluated heart rate (HR) and locomotion of signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus during a 21-day exposure to 1 μg L-1 tramadol followed by 14 days depuration. Locomotion and HR were recorded over a period 30 min before and 30 min after exposure to physiological fluids of an injured conspecific, a natural stressor, four times during the tramadol exposure and four times during depuration. A significant increase in HR following stress induction was found in the majority of tramadol-exposed and control crayfish, as well as significant group-specific HR changes between both groups. Locomotor activity during tramadol treatment differed from that during depuration, in general showing less time spent in locomotion and lower distance moved. The tramadol exposed crayfish exhibited higher velocity during depuration than during the exposure period. Results may suggest a potential shift in prey-predator relationships.

Two-generational effects of Benzophenone-3 on the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius

Organic UV-filters are emergent contaminants continuously released into the aquatic ecosystems. These compounds are persistent showing potential for bioaccumulation. Partial life-cycle tests may underestimate the toxicity of UV-filters especially since these compounds have shown to act as endocrine disruptors. In the present study, the benthic aquatic insect Chironomus riparius was exposed to a gradient of Benzophenone-3 (BP3) concentrations over two generations to assess effects over a full life cycle from the first-instar larvae in the parental (P) generation (emergence, fecundity and fertility) until emergence in the subsequent generation (filial - F1). Recovery from exposure was also assessed after one generational exposure. Our results showed that concentrations of up to 8mg BP3/kg, elicited no effects regarding emergence rate and development time of C. riparius in the P generation. Our results also showed that C. riparius fecundity was not affected by BP3 exposure, but a strong dose-response relationship was observed for fertility with none of the egg ropes hatching at 8mg BP3/kg. Regarding effects observed in the F1 generation, emergence and development time were impaired by continuous exposure to BP3. Moreover, reduced emergence and changes in development time were observed in the F1 generation maintained in control/clean conditions but whose parents were exposed to BP3. Results found in this two-generational study clearly show reproductive effects of BP3 on C. riparius that would not be detected using standard tests. Full life cycle and multigenerational assays are critical to properly evaluate the population level effects of endocrine disrupting compounds such as organic UV-filters.

Foraging behaviour of top predators mediated by pollution of psychoactive pharmaceuticals and effects on ecosystem stability

Although pharmaceuticals are recognized as a major threat to aquatic ecosystems worldwide, little is known about their ecological effect on aquatic biota and ecosystems. Drug-induced behaviour changes could have a substantial impact on consumer-resource interactions influencing stability of the community and ecosystem. We combined laboratory experiments and functional response modelling to investigate effects of real wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, as well as environmentally relevant concentrations of the antidepressants citalopram and opioid pain medication tramadol, on trophic interactions. Our biological system consisted of dragonfly Aeshna cyanea larvae as predator of common carp Cyprinus carpio fry. Exposure to WWTP effluent significantly increased A. cyanea maximum feeding rate, while those parameters in tramadol and citalopram-exposed larvae were significantly lower from unexposed control group. This suggested the potential of all tested pollutants to have an effect on consumer-resource equilibrium in aquatic ecosystems. While WWTP effluent strengthened interaction strength (IS) of consumer-resource interaction dynamics making the food web more vulnerable to fluctuation and destabilization, tramadol and citalopram could inhibit the potential oscillations of the consumer-resource system by weakening the IS. Similar studies to reveal the potential of pervasive pharmaceuticals to change of consumer-resource interactions dynamics are needed, especially when real WWTP effluent consisting of mixture of various pharmaceuticals displayed very different effect from single compounds tested.

Per capita loads of organic UV filters in Australian wastewater influent

Per capita loads of six UV filters were estimated in wastewater influent samples from 36 wastewater treatment plants in Australia collected over a weekend period during the 2016 Australian Census. Of the analysed samples, 99% contained at least one of the target compounds. Phenyl benzimidazole sulfonic acid (PBSA) was the most prevalent (99%), followed by benzophenone 4 (BP4) (97%), benzophenone 3 (BP3) (87%), benzophenone 1 (BP1) (84%), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) (22%) and isoamyl 4-methoxycinnamate (IMC) (1.5%). The highest concentrations were 3780 and 5070 ng L^-1 for PBSA and BP4, respectively. Total per capita UV filter loads in influent across all plants were calculated using population data from the Australian Census and ranged from 0.21 to 3.4 mg day^-1 person^-1. Notably, a relationship was found between latitude and total per capita daily mass load of UV filters with an increase in mass load from southern to northern catchments. Compared to international studies, mass loads were generally similar with higher loads of BP4 found in Australia. This study provides insight into the occurrence of UV filters in influent wastewater from across Australia and provides the first comprehensive nationwide baseline of UV filter loads.

Oxazepam Alters the Behavior of Crayfish at Diluted Concentrations, Venlafaxine Does Not

Pharmaceutically active compounds are only partially removed from wastewaters and hence may be major contaminants of freshwaters. Direct and indirect effects on aquatic organisms are reported at dilute concentrations. This study was focused on the possible effects of environmentally relevant concentrations (~1 µg L−1) of two psychoactive compounds on the behavior of freshwater crayfish. Experimental animals exposed to venlafaxine did not show any behavioral alteration. Crayfish exposed to the benzodiazepine oxazepam exhibited a significant alteration in the distance moved and activity, and the effects were different when individuals were ready for reproduction. Results suggested that even the low concentration of selected psychoactive pharmaceuticals could alter the behavioral patterns of crayfish, as reported for other pharmaceuticals. These results provide new information about the possible adverse effects of pharmaceuticals at dilute concentrations. From previous knowledge and our results, it is obvious that different compounds have different effects and the effects are even specific for different taxa. Detailed studies are therefore needed to assess the possible ecological consequences of particular substances, as well as for their mixtures.

Pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs - A new threat to the application of sewage sludge in agriculture

The occurrence of 93 pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and their metabolites has been investigated in stabilized sewage sludge from five municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Slovak Republic. The total population connected to the tested WWTPs was approximately 600,000 p.e. which represents >20% of the Slovak population connected to public sewer systems. The sludge production from the five tested plants was >8100tons in 2016, which is approximately 15% of the total Slovak sewage sludge production in 2016. The highest total concentration of all pharmaceuticals was found in WWTP Bratislava Devínska Nová Ves (DNV) and Senec - 11,800 and 11,300ng/g dry matter (DM), respectively. Among individual pharmaceuticals, the highest concentrations were recorded for fexofenadine (mean 2340ng/g DM, maximum 5600ng/g DM in Bratislava DNV) and telmisartan (mean 1170ng/g DM, with a maximum of 3370ng/g DM in Senec). A principal component analysis revealed differences between pharmaceutical patterns in aerobically and anaerobically stabilized sludge. The worst-case scenario based on no further degradation of pharmaceuticals between sludge production and field application was used to predict pharmaceutical mass loads in agriculture. For the result, we estimated an annual load to soil in the Slovak Republic of up to several hundred kilograms of pharmaceuticals and drugs, with the maximum for fexofenadine (120kg/year) and verapamil (29kg/year).