Health risk assessment of heavy metals in cosmetic products sold in Iran: the Monte Carlo simulation

Predisposing factors of using cosmetics in Iranian female students: application of prototype willingness model

Background and aim

The use of cosmetics among Iranian teenagers and youths has increased more than ever before. This study investigated the predisposing factors of cosmetic use in female students of Ardabil University of Medical Sciences by using the prototype willingness model (PWM).

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted with 384 students, selected based on multistage sampling. Data were collected using a two-part questionnaire that included demographic variables and PWM questions. Then multiple regression analysis was used in SPSS (version 20).

Results

There was a significant difference in the frequency of daily cosmetic use based on the education levels (F = 3.845, p-value = 0.034). The average daily use of cosmetics was higher in students whose use of cosmetics was high in their family (p = 0.024) and friends (p-value = 0.023). Prototypes were the strongest predictor of using cosmetics (OR = 1.317, p-value <0.001), followed by attitude (OR = 1.241, p-value <0.001).

Conclusion

Prototypes (social imagination) and attitudes were the main predictors of using cosmetics among female students. To be effective in targeting cosmetic use, interventions must target both social and individual paths.

Geographical distribution of nitrate pollution and its risk assessment using GIS and Monte Carlo simulation in drinking water in urban areas of Fars province-Iran during 2017-2021

Pollution of water resources with nitrate is currently one of the major challenges at the global level. In order to make macro-policy decisions in water safety plans, it is necessary to carry out nitrate risk assessment in underground water, which has not been done in Fars province for all urban areas. In the current study, 9494 drinking water samples were collected in four seasons in 32 urban areas of Fars province in Iran, between 2017 and 2021 to investigate the non-carcinogenic health risk assessment. Geographical distribution maps of hazard quotient were drawn using geographical information system software. The results showed that the maximum amount of nitrate in water samples in 4% of the samples in 2021, 2.5% of the samples in 2020 and 3% of the samples in 2019 were more than the standard declared by World Health Organization guidelines (50 mg/L). In these cases, the maximum amount of nitrate was reported between 82 and 123 mg/L. The HQ values for infants did not exceed 1 in any year, but for children (44% ± 10.8), teenagers (10.8% ± 8.4), and adults (3.2% ± 1.7) exceeded 1 in cities, years, and seasons, indicating that three age groups in the studied area are at noticeably significant non-carcinogenic risk. The results of the Monte Carlo simulation showed that the average value of non-carcinogenic risk was less than 1 for all age groups. Moreover, the maximum HQ values (95%) were higher than 1 for both children and teenager, indicating a significant non-carcinogenic risk for the two age groups.

Determination of high-risk factors and related spatially influencing variables of heavy metals in groundwater

Identifying high-risk factors (heavy metals (HMs) and pollution sources) by coupling receptor models and health risk assessment model (HRA) is a novel approach within the field of risk assessment. However, this coupled model ignores the contribution of spatial differentiation to high-risk factors, resulting in the assessment being subjective. Taking Dongting Plain (DTP) as an example, a coupling framework by jointly using the positive matrix factorization model (PMF), HRA, Monte Carlo simulation, and geo-detector was developed, aiming to identify high-risk factors in groundwater, and further explore key environmental variables influencing the spatial heterogeneity of high-risk factors. The results showed that at least 82.86 % of non-carcinogenic risks and 97.41 % of carcinogenic risks were unacceptable for people of all ages, especially infants and children. According to the relationships among HMs, pollution sources, and health risks, As and natural sources were defined as high-risk HMs and sources, respectively. The interactions among Holocene thickness, oxidation-reduction potential, and dissolved organic carbon emerged as the primary drivers of spatial variability in high-risk factors, with their combined explanatory power reaching up to 74%. This proposed framework provides a scientific reference for future studies and a practical reference for environmental authorities in developing effective pollution management measures.

A systematic review of heavy metals contamination in cosmetics

Background: Globally, the consumption and use of cosmetics have increased exponentially. The presence of hazardous metals raises worries about their potential long-term impacts on human health. Objective: This review's primary goal is to shed light on the presence and ranges of heavy metal concentrations in diverse cosmetic samples as well as the instrumental techniques used by various authors to analyse the hazardous metals in the articles under evaluation. Methodology: This analysis concentrated on 16 publications that measured the levels of heavy metals like lead, cadmium, iron, nickel, chromium, and mercury in various cosmetic samples that were published between the years 2012 and 2020. Results: The study's findings support the existence of these metals as pollutants or components in cosmetics, both of which pose substantial health hazards. The regulations and acceptable limits vary across different countries, which is a significant challenge for the cosmetic industry. Conclusion: Therefore, there is a pressing need to standardise the acceptable limits of these toxic metals in cosmetics. Instrumental techniques such as AAS, GFAAS, ICP-OES/ICP-AES, and ICP-MS were employed by Researchers to analyse the toxic metals in cosmetics.

Assessing the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of metals in the drinking water of Isfahan, Iran

Metals are significant contributors to water pollution, posing serious threats to human health. This study aims to assess the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks associated with metals in Isfahan drinking water. Eighty water samples were randomly collected from the city's distribution network between January and March 2020-2021. Inductively coupled plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry was used to measure toxic metals, namely Pb, Cr, Cd, Ni, and As concentrations. Results revealed that the mean concentration of Ni (70.03 µg/L) exceeded the WHO reference value (70 µg/L), while the other metals were below the standard values. The average chronic daily intake order of toxic metals was Ni > Cr > Pb > As > Cd. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment through hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) demonstrated that both THI for adults (HQingestion + HQdermal = 4.02E-03) and THI for children (HIingestion + HIdermal = 3.83E-03) were below the acceptable limit (less than 1). This indicated no non-carcinogenic risk to residents through water ingestion or dermal exposure. However, findings indicated that the ingestion route was the primary exposure pathway, with HQ values for ingestion exceeding HQ values for dermal adsorption. Carcinogenic risk assessment showed that the risk associated with As metal exceeded the acceptable limit (1 × 10-6). Therefore, implementing treatment improvement programs and appropriate control measures is essential to safeguard the health of Isfahan City residents.

Health risk assessment of exposure to benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene in shoe industry-related workplaces

Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene (BTEX) are prevalent pollutants in shoe industry-related workplaces. The aim of this study was to assess exposure to BTEX and their carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks in shoe-industry-related workplaces. This study was carried out at different shoe manufactures, small shoe workshop units, shoe markets, and shoe stores in Tabriz, Iran in 2021. Personal inhalation exposure to BTEX was measured using the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) 1501 method. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks due to inhalation exposure to BTEX were estimated by United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) method based on Mont Carlo simulation. Results showed that the concentrations of benzene and toluene were higher than the threshold limit value (TLV) in both gluing and non-gluing units of shoe manufactures. The total carcinogenic risk (TCR) due to exposure to benzene and ethyl benzene was considerable in all shoe industry-related workplaces. Also, the hazard index (HI) as a non-carcinogenic index was higher than standard levels in all shoe industry-related workplaces. Therefore, shoe industry-related workers are at cancer and non-cancer risks due to exposure to BTEX. Prevention measures need to be implemented to reduce the concentration of BTEX in shoe industry-related workplaces.

Occurrence and potential release of heavy metals in female underwear manufactured in China: Implication for women's health

Underwear is a potential source of women's exposure to heavy metals owing to its direct contact with the skin, especially the skin of the vagina and vulva, which has a strong absorptive capacity. However, information regarding the prevalence of metals in female underwear, and its potential hazards, remains scarce. In the present study, we examined the concentrations and potential release of Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, Sb, and Pb in brassieres and briefs manufactured in China. We detected higher levels of Pb and moderate levels of other metals, relative to the metal levels reported for other textiles in the literature. Cu, As, Ni and Cd, had higher migration rates (MRs) from the underwear, with medians of 100%, 100%, 30.1%, and 20.7%, respectively. The median MRs of the other metals were in the range 1.07%-15.7%. On the whole, the total and extractable concentrations of these metals differed by item and fabric type. The pollution of raw materials and the use of chemical additives containing metals commonly contributed to the metals in the underwear. On the basis of the exposure estimation, the non-carcinogenic risks posed by the underwear metals were acceptable, but the carcinogenic risks from the metals in 5.18% of brassiere samples exceeded the acceptable level.

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and Monte Carlo simulation of margin of safety for octocrylene, EHMC, 2ES, and homosalate in sunscreens

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) using a floating organic drop has been optimized and used for the sample preparation of four commonly used ultraviolet filter (UVF) substances in sunscreens. Plackett-Burman experimental design was used to screen 10 variables in DLLME. The most significant variables were then optimized by using a response surface method with a Box-Behnken design. DLLME followed by an optimized HPLC identified octocrylene, 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate, ethylhexyl salicylate, and homosalate as the frequently found UVFs in commercial sunscreens. The systemic exposure dosage and margin of safety (MoS) for the identified UVFs were estimated using in-use concentrations and application patterns. The average systemic exposure dosage values for octocrylene, 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate, ethylhexyl salicylate, and homosalate were 0.52, 0.61, 0.020, and 0.079 mg/kg body weight per day, respectively. Whereas the average MoS values for individual UVFs ranging from 296 to 3160 were all significantly higher than the limit value of 100, the combined exposure risks were slightly above the limit. The probabilistic health risk assessment using Monte Carlo simulation revealed that the combined MoS values were (mean, 10‰, 90‰) 342, 119, and 441, respectively. Regarding the usage of sunscreen cosmetics containing the UVFs studied, these results indicate a safety concern for those who apply multiple UVF products.

Insights into Health Risks of Face Paint Application to Opera Performers: The Release of Heavy Metals and Stage-Light-Induced Production of Reactive Oxygen Species

Face paints used by opera performers have been shown to contain high levels of heavy metals. However, whether frequent exposure, via dermal contact and inadvertent oral ingestion, results in occupational diseases is unknown, as is the potential exacerbation of toxicity by high-intensity irradiation from stage lights. In this study, we examined the release of Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn from 40 face paints and the consequent health risks posed by different practical scenarios involving their use. The results showed that the in vitro bioaccessibility (IVBA) of Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn in the tested products was, on average, 7.0, 5.5, 19.9, and 7.9% through oral ingestion and 1.1, 2.2, 1.6, and 1.2% through dermal contact, respectively. Stage light irradiation significantly increased the IVBA associated with dermal contact, to the average of 4.8, 34.9, 5.7, and 1.9% for Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn, respectively. The increase was mainly due to the light-induced generation of reactive oxygen species, particularly hydroxyl free radicals. The vitality and transcriptional response of 3D skin models as well as a quantitative risk assessment of skin sensitization indicated that dermal contact with face paints may induce predictable skin damage and potentially other skin diseases. Long-term exposure to face paints on stage may also pose a non-carcinogenic health risk. The demonstrated health risks to opera performers of face paint exposure should lead to strict regulations regarding the content of theatrical face paints.

ORAİBİ H. Health Risk Assessment of Some Heavy Metals in Lipsticks Sold in Local Markets in Iraq

Heavy metals found in cosmetics are a safety threat to the health of consumers. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the levels of heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and arsenic (As) in lipstick makeup. The level of heavy metals in lipstick was discovered by using an analytical technique with high selectivity and sensitivity, namely atomic absorption spectrometry. Twenty lipsticks were selected from the same brands, yet differing in price. Ten original (expensive) and ten knockoff (cheap) lipsticks were chosen from shops in Diyala, Iraq. The detection-limit (LOD) was in between 0.01 and 0.1, the quantification-limit (LOQ) was within 0.03 and 0.33, the recovery values (Rec.%) ranged from 100.17% to 101.1%, the RE values were 0.81%, and the RSD values were 1.33%. The results also revealed that the levels of metals are in the order of Pb &gt; Cd &gt; Zn &gt; Cu &gt; As &gt; Cr. However, the levels of heavy metals that were estimated in this study were less than the permissible limit set by the executive authorities, so there seems to be no concern associated with these heavy metals. However, the daily and frequent use of lipstick by women exposes them to low levels of toxic metals as these metals accumulate over time and pose adverse effects on the health of the users. The results of the hazard quotient (HQ) and health risk index (HI) indicate there was no harmful effect on human health related to heavy metals present in lipstick. Whereas the results of the biological activity of the samples indicated that there was no bacterial growth in expensive samples, cheap samples were contaminated with some types of organisms; this indicates poor quality.

Investigation of heavy metal contamination and associated health risks in groundwater sources of southwestern Punjab, India

Human body exposure to various toxic and non-toxic heavy metals in groundwater is a significant health concern, especially in developing countries. The present study was planned and carried out to appraise the potential health risks of eight heavy metals (Mn, Co, Cu, As, Se, Cd, Hg, and Pb) in different water sources of the Mansa and Muktsar districts of Punjab. The measurements of heavy metals were performed using the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) technique. The health (carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic) risks and doses (ingestion and dermal) associated with exposure to heavy metals in water were estimated from the measured concentrations using USEPA guidelines. The average concentrations of heavy metals were observed in the order of Mn (13.93) > Cu (13.12) > Se (4.14) > As (3.28) > Hg (3.27) > Pb (1.29) > Co (0.20) > Cd (0.10) μg L^-1. The results show that the Hg, Pb, As, and Se concentrations are above the guideline values of the World Health Organization (WHO) in 10.34%, 3.45%, 6.90%, and 6.90% locations, respectively. The high values of these heavy metals may be due to geogenic anthropogenic activities. The hazard quotients (non-carcinogenic risk) for ingestion and dermal exposures were observed in the range of 0.32-3.79 and 8.05 × 10^-6-1.34 × 10^-4, respectively. On the other hand, the carcinogenic health risks due to ingestion and dermal exposure were observed to be 0.02-0.38 and 6.67 × 10^-8-1.15 × 10^-6, respectively. The results of this study will be helpful to the drinking water supplying agencies, water resource development authorities, etc.

The concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in drinking water from Shiraz, Iran: a health risk assessment of samples

The existence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in water bodies has posed a menace to human health. Thus, water resources should be protected from PTEs, and their effect on the exposed population should be investigated. In the present investigation, the concentrations of PTEs such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), and iron(Fe) in the drinking water of Shiraz, Iran, were determined for the first time. In addition, hazard quotient, hazard index, cancer risk, and sensitivity analysis were applied to estimate the noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic impacts of Pb, Hg, Mn, and Fe on exposed children and adults through ingestion. The mean concentrations (µg/L) of Pb, Hg, Mn, and Fe were 0.36, 0.32, 2.28, and 8.72, respectively, in winter and 0.50, 0.20, 0.55, and 10.36, respectively, in summer. The results displayed that Fe concentration was more than the other PTEs. PTE concentrations were lower than the standard values of the Environment Protection Agency and World Health Organization. Values of the degree of contamination and heavy metal pollution index for lead, mercury, manganese, and iron were significantly low (< 1) and excellent (< 50), respectively. Based on the Spearman rank correlation analysis, positive and negative relationships were observed in the present study. The observations of the health risk assessment demonstrated that mercury, lead, iron, and manganese had an acceptable level of noncarcinogenic harmful health risk in exposed children and adults (hazard quotients < 1 and hazard index < 1). The carcinogenic risk of lead was low (< E - 06), which can be neglected. Monte Carlo simulation showed that water intake rate and mercury concentration were the most critical parameters in the hazard index for children and adults. Lead concentration was also the most crucial factor in the cancer risk analysis. The results of the present study proved that the drinking water of Shiraz is safe and healthy and can be confidently consumed by people.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in household dust: A systematic review on spatio-temporal distribution, sources, and health risk assessment

Much attention has been paid on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in household dust due to their ubiquitous occurrences in the environment. Based on the data from 59 articles sampled from 2005 to 2020, we investigated the spatio-temporal distribution, sources, and health risk of 8 PBDE homologues in household dusts worldwide. BDE-209 is the predominant PBDE in household dusts, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. The total concentrations of PBDEs (∑₈PBDEs) are found to be high in household dusts sampled from 2005 to 2008 and show a significant decline trend from 2009 to 2016 (p < 0.05) and a little upward tendency from 2017 to 2020. The concentrations of PBDEs in household dusts vary greatly in different countries of the world. The use of penta-BDE is the main source of three to five bromo-biphenyl ether monomers contributing 17.4% of ∑₈PBDEs, while BDE-209 and BDE-183 are derived from the use of household appliances contributing 82.6% of ∑₈PBDEs. Ingestion is the main exposure route for adults and toddlers, followed by dermal contact. The values of hazard index (HI) exposed to PBDEs in household dusts are all less than 1 for both adults and toddlers, indicating a low non-cancer risk. The incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCRs) of BDE-209 are less than 10^-6 for both adults and toddlers, suggesting a negligible risk. However, the total carcinogenic risk of toddlers is higher than that of adults, indicating that much attention should be paid to toddlers exposed to BDE-209 in household dust.

Exposure and health risks of metals in imported and local brands' lipsticks and eye pencils from Bangladesh

Elemental contamination in cosmetics is a serious health concern as it can pose a cumulative effect on the user's body over a long period. The prime motive of the study was to assess the concentration of 10 concerning chemical elements (Pb, Cd, Cr, As, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn) in imported and local lipsticks and eye pencil samples collected from retail outlets in central Bangladesh (Dhaka city) and to assess their dynamic health risks for users. A total of 18 lipsticks and 24 eye pencils were studied and concentrations of chemical elements were examined with atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The health risk assessment was performed for dermal and ingestion routes of the contaminants. The results reveal that the concentrations of the examined elements vary with colors, brands, and origins. Pb and As concentrations were found below the permissible limit but Cr concentration in some samples exceeded the allowable limit in cosmetics. Cd was not detected in any samples; however, other examined elements such as Co, Ni, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Fe were detected in considerable concentrations. Elements like Mn, Zn, and Fe were found at high levels. In the case of lipstick samples, elemental concentrations followed the order of Fe > Zn > Mn > Ni > Cr > Cu > Pb > Co > As, while the order was Fe > Cu > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cr > Co > Pb > As for eye pencil samples. Results of the hazards quotient (HQ) indicate that there were no non-carcinogenic or carcinogenic risks of elements in samples for dermal exposure. But the cancer risk values of Cr (HQ > 1 for ingestion) in brown color lipsticks and Ni indicate that lipsticks have some carcinogenic effects if they enter the user's body. Dermal cancer risk for eye pencils has also been calculated and for Pb, Cr, Ni, and As; the values were found within the acceptable ranges of 10^-6-10^-4. It is suggested that the allowable limit of all toxic elements in cosmetics must be established. Furthermore, continuous monitoring is urgently needed for personal care products like lipsticks and eye pencils commonly available in the local markets in the country like Bangladesh.

Re-evaluation of the existing health-based guidance values for copper and exposure assessment from all sources

Copper is an essential micronutrient and also a regulated product used in organic and in conventional farming pest management. Both deficiency and excessive exposure to copper can have adverse health effects. In this Scientific Opinion, the EFSA 2021 harmonised approach for establishing health-based guidance values (HBGVs) for substances that are regulated products and also nutrients was used to resolve the divergent existing HBGVs for copper. The tightly regulated homeostasis prevents toxicity manifestation in the short term, but the development of chronic copper toxicity is dependent on copper homeostasis and its tissue retention. Evidence from Wilson disease suggests that hepatic retention is indicative of potential future and possibly sudden onset of copper toxicity under conditions of continuous intake. Hence, emphasis was placed on copper retention as an early marker of potential adverse effects. The relationships between (a) chronic copper exposure and its retention in the body, particularly the liver, and (b) hepatic copper concentrations and evidence of toxicity were examined. The Scientific Committee (SC) concludes that no retention of copper is expected to occur with intake of 5 mg/day and established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 0.07 mg/kg bw. A refined dietary exposure assessment was performed, assessing contribution from dietary and non-dietary sources. Background copper levels are a significant source of copper. The contribution of copper from its use as plant protection product (PPP), food and feed additives or fertilisers is negligible. The use of copper in fertilisers or PPPs contributes to copper accumulation in soil. Infant formula and follow-on formula are important contributors to dietary exposure of copper in infants and toddlers. Contribution from non-oral sources is negligible. Dietary exposure to total copper does not exceed the HBGV in adolescents, adults, elderly and the very elderly. Neither hepatic copper retention nor adverse effects are expected to occur from the estimated copper exposure in children due to higher nutrient requirements related to growth.

Human health risk assessment of edible body parts of chicken through heavy metals and trace elements quantitative analysis

Food safety and security have now been regarded as a significant emerging area within the food supply chain leading to scientific and public health concerns in the global world. The poultry sector is a substantial threat to heavy metal intoxication for Bangladeshi people due to contaminated drinking water and feed sources, as well as the poultry sector's surrounding environment and soil. This study was carried out to ascertain the residual concentrations of heavy metals (Pb, Cd) and trace elements (Cr, Fe, Cu, and Zn) in various edible chicken body parts (breast, liver, gizzard, heart, kidney, and brain) to observe the quality of the consumed chickens and to assess public health risk. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) was used to check the content of toxic heavy metals and trace elements in 108 samples of 18 broiler chickens collected from six different locations of Dhaka North City Corporation markets in Bangladesh. The measured concentrations (mg/kg fresh weight) ranged from 0.33±0.2 to 4.6±0.4, 0.004±0.0 to 0.125±0.2, 0.006±0.0 to 0.94±0.4, 4.05±4.2 to 92.31±48.8, 0.67±0.006 to 4.15±2.7, and 4.45±0.62 to 23.75±4.3, for Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe, Cu, and Zn respectively. Except for Pb and Cu most of the investigated heavy metals and trace element levels in chickens were lower than the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) set by FAO/WHO and other regulatory agencies., The estimated level of Pb was nearly six times higher in the chicken brain. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values for all the studied metals were below the preliminary tolerated daily intake (PTDI). The target hazard quotient (THQ) values of the broiler chicken meat samples varied for adults and children, and the range was found to be 0.037-0.073 for Pb, 0.007-0.01 for Cd, 0.0-0.08 for Cr, 0.002-0.004 for Fe, for 0.00-0.002 Cu, and 0.004-0.008 for Zn, not exceeding the maximum level of 1 according to USEPA. The calculated THQ and total target hazard quotient (TTHQ) values were measured at less than one, suggesting that the consumption of chicken meat has no carcinogenic danger to its consumers. The Target carcinogenic risks (TCRs) of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Cu were within acceptable limits. The TCR values for children were, to some extent, higher than that of adults, which proposes that regular monitoring of both harmful and essential elements in chicken samples is necessary to determine whether or not any possible health risk to consumers exists. In terms of health, this study demonstrated that consumers are chronically exposed to elemental contamination with carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects.

Potentially Toxic Elements in Costume Cosmetics Used by Children and Adults Are Associated with Cancer Risk

(1) Background: Costume cosmetics, such as face paints and pancakes, are used by adults and children during Halloween, Carnival, or children's parties. However, the metallic-based pigments used as dyes in these products may contain toxic elements associated with different levels of exposure. Objectives: (a) to determine the Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, and Sr concentrations in face paints and pancakes; and (b) to estimate cancer and non-cancer risks posed by the concentrations of each element in these products for dermal and ingestion exposure scenarios during children and adult use. (2) Methods: A total of 95 samples of face paints and pancakes (four brands in different textures and colors) were purchased at the largest high-street commercial center in São Paulo city, Brazil. An extraction procedure with nitric acid was carried out using a graphite-covered digester block. Toxic element determinations were performed using an ICP-MS. (3) Results: The non-cancer risks estimated were lower than 1, except for dermal exposure in adults for some target systems. High cancer risk values raise concerns in both groups. The risk for children ranged from 10^-8 to 10^-5 and proved higher in cases of accidental exposure by ingestion. For occupational exposure in adults, cancer risks were even higher, ranging from 10^-3 to 10^-5, with the highest values associated with dermal exposure. (4) Conclusions: The study results suggest the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in cosmetics should be regulated/monitored to protect human health, especially for occupational exposure and use by children.

A mechanistic approach for toxicity and risk assessment of heavy metals, hydroquinone and microorganisms in cosmetic creams

The demand and importance of fairness creams as a major cosmetic have increased significantly in recent years. However, some of these cosmetics contain heavy metals, hydroquinone and microorganism that can cause various health problems. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine and examine the concentration of metals (i.e. Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn, Hg), hydroquinone and microorganisms in nine different fairness creams produced by local and international brands. The health risk assessment of the tested substances for consumers was accessed through systemic exposure dosage (SED), margin of safety (MoS), lifetime cancer risk (LCR), hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI). The concentration of Zn and Hg were found the highest and measured in the range of 17.82-138.06 mg.kg^-1 and 2.3-141 mg.kg^-1, respectively. The concentrations of other metals were determined as 0.06-0.67 mg.kg^-1 of Cd, 0.43-1.55 mg.kg^-1 of Cr, 0.14-1.43 mg.kg^-1 of Ni and 0.3-1.34 mg.kg^-1 of Pb. HPLC results showed a significant presence of hydroquinone in the range of 0.12-7.2%. The total viable counts of cosmetic samples showed the substantial presence of microorganisms, and 44% of the collected samples surpassed the permissible limit of 100 cfu/g recommended by European Union. Many of the collected samples exceeded the MoS, HQ and HI tolerance limits. However, the LCR value in all samples was significantly higher than the acceptable limit. Therefore, it is advised to avoid overuse of these products in order to ensure human safety and reduce the risks to skin health.

Contamination of breast milk with lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Breast milk is a complete food for the development of the newborn, but it can also be an important route for environmental pollutants transmission to the infants. This study was aimed to evaluate the status of heavy metals including lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) in the breast milk of Iranian mothers. The international databases including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and the Persian electronic databases including Scientific Information Database, IranMedex and Magiran were examined to find relevant articles published until July 2021. A total of 23 studies examined the levels of toxic metals in Iranian breast milk samples. According to the findings, the pooled average concentrations (µg/L) of Pb, Cd, Hg and As were 25.61, 2.40, 1.29 and 1.16, respectively. The concentration of Hg and Pb in colostrum milk was more than twice of mature milk. The Hg mean concentration in the breast milk of mothers with at least one amalgam-filled tooth was approximately three times that of mothers without amalgam-filled teeth. Risk assessment analysis indicated that the intake of Pb and Hg by infants through breastfeeding can be considered a health concern in Iran. It seems necessary to reduce the Pb exposure of pregnant and lactating women in Iran. However, more extensive studies are needed to clarify the toxic metals' exposure status of infants through breast milk in other parts of the country.

Heavy metal concentrations and health risk assessment in urban soils of Neyshabur, Iran

This study aimed to determine and analyze heavy metal pollution in the street dust of Neyshabur city of Iran. In this regard, the concentration of ten heavy metals, including Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Co, and Cd, was measured at 60 street dust samples. The samples from Neyshabur city in three zones were collected, including high traffic, low traffic, and rural. Twenty samples in each area, 10-sample in summer and 10-sample in winter, were studied. The average concentration of the target heavy metals (mg kg^-1) in the street dust samples was as follows: 50514.09 for Al, 42473.33 for Fe, 647.4 for Mn, 230.07 for Zn, 146.44 for Cu, 96.18 for Cr, 73.25 for Ni, 40.56 for Pb, 14.86 for Co, and 1.32 for Cd. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that non-carcinogenic risk assessment for all quantified heavy metals was less than the allowed values. In addition, the carcinogenic risk assessment of these metals indicated high carcinogenic-risk indexes through exposure to Cr for adults and exposure to Cr, Co, and Ni for children. As a consequence of this investigation, efforts to avoid the transmission of heavy metals in the environmental soil of Neyshabur city should be encouraged.

Human exposure to toxic elements through facial cosmetic products: Dermal risk assessment

Facial cosmetics are the most commonly consumed product, mainly by the women from all over the world irrespective of their age. The facial cosmetics may be contaminated with several toxic elements, which can get absorb on to the facial skin and migrate to the blood vessels. Hence the absorbed toxic elements can cause further adverse effects on the human body. The present study aims to assess the toxic element contents (arsenic, lead, nickel, mercury, and cadmium) in commonly consumed facial cosmetics (face powder, foundation, lightening creams, moisturizer, eye shadow, lipsticks, eyeliner, blush, mascara, sunscreen) and to carry out the risk assessment through different methods. The dermal risk was evaluated as SED, NOAEL, MoS, HQ and ILCR, which is linked with the exposure of selected toxic elements. The total CDDE for all selected elements in facial cosmetic products was found in increasing order as follow: face powder > foundation > lightening creams > moisturizer > eye shadow > lipsticks > eyeliner > blush > mascara > sunscreen. The HQ and HI values for selected elements were found to be < 1 in all facial cosmetics. Whereas the probable MoS of selected toxic elements in all facial cosmetics except eyeliner were found to be 3-4 folds lower than the minimum value of 100 regulated by the WHO.

Determination of potentially toxic metals in depilatory products in the Iranian markets: human health risk assessment

This study aimed to investigate the concentrations of heavy metals, including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), and arsenic metalloid (As), to assess their health risks in the popular depilatory products of the Iranian markets. Twenty-one samples of 7 popular brands of depilatory products, inclusive of cream and powder, were examined. Selected elements were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) using the appropriate procedure for acid digestion and the measurement of heavy metal contents. The differences in heavy metal concentrations were investigated according to the type of product, brand, country of production, and product price using t test and one-way analysis of variance and post hoc Tukey test. Finally, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessments were calculated for the studied elements. The results showed that Pb (5.46±2.30 mg/kg) and Co (0.16±0.69 mg/kg) had the highest and lowest concentrations in these products, respectively. In general, the concentration of heavy metals in depilatory creams was less than the concentration of elements in depilatory powders and less than the maximum allowable limits as defined by the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI). There was a direct and significant relationship between the concentration of heavy metals in depilatory powders and the product's price. Moreover, the amount of As in one of the brands of depilatory powder was determined to exceed the standard value (2 mg/kg). Also, hazard index (HI) and lifetime cancer risk (LCR) were below 1 and 10-6, respectively, which indicated that this mentioned heavy metal had no probable non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for consumers. According to this study, it was evident that the chances of cancer and non-cancer risk using depilatory products were unlikely, but continuous use can be harmful due to the excessive accumulation of these heavy metals.

Trace Metal Lead Exposure in Typical Lip Cosmetics From Electronic Commercial Platform: Investigation, Health Risk Assessment and Blood Lead Level Analysis

Lead (Pb) in lipstick products has become an increasing concern, which can cause safety problems to human body directly with diet. To investigate the Pb exposure and potential health risk level of typical popular lip cosmetics in Chinese e-commerce market, Python crawler was introduced to identify and select 34 typical popular lip cosmetics, including 12 lipsticks, 13 lip glosses, and 9 lip balms. And then this study used ICP-MS to determine the content of Pb. Furthermore, the ingestion health risk assessment method issued by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and Monte Carlo simulation algorithm were applied to assess the probabilistic health risks of adults exposure. Finally, taking the possible exposure of children contacting with lip products, the health risk assessment of children blood Pb was carried out. The results showed that the concentration of Pb in lip products ranged from 0 to 0.5237 mg/kg, which was far lower than the limit set by various countries. The probabilistic non-carcinogenic risks and carcinogenic risks were 4.93 ×10^-7~2.82 ×10^-3 and 1.68 ×10^-12~9.59 ×10^-9, respectively, which were in an acceptable level. The results of blood Pb assessment suggested that the Pb content of lip cosmetics had no obvious influence on blood Pb concentration of children, and background Pb exposure is the main factor affecting children's blood Pb level (BLL). Overall, the samples of lip products are selected by Python crawler in this study, which are more objective and representative. This study focuses on deeper study of Pb, especially for the health risk assessment of blood Pb in children exposed to lip products. These results perhaps could provide useful information for the safety cosmetics usage for people in China and even the global world.

Comparative Analysis of the Heavy Metals Content in Selected Colored Cosmetic Products at Saudi Market

Heavy metal impurities in cosmetics are common due to their natural abundance. However, they should be kept to a minimum wherever technically feasible. Although human external contact with a substance rarely results in a significant systemic exposure, local exposure to cosmetics may pose a risk of heavy metal contamination. In this study, we sought to investigate the heavy metal concentration present in various cosmetic products from different brands and qualities that are available in the Saudi Market, also to analyze and compare the determined values relative to the reported permissible levels according to international standards. In this study, we have selected several facial cosmetics from the Saudi market and classified their quality into three main classifications based on their price. This was followed by an analysis and reporting of heavy metal content using an inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer. We found that three metals were below the permissible limits (Pb, As, and Cd) for cosmetics according to the Saudi Food and Drug Administration and Canadian Standards, besides (Cr) which was also below the limit of the United States Food and Drug Administration. The level of (Ni) exceeded the recommended range in the three-class classifications. On contrary, Pb, Cr, As, and Cd have all exceeded the acceptable levels based on European standards. Further assessment and careful selection of heavy metals content in cosmetics are urgently needed, as there are fluctuations in values between different international standards which might pose a potential harmful effect to human health from the daily use of cosmetics containing heavy metals impurities.

Prenatal exposure to chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) in a sample of Iranian pregnant women: urinary levels and associated socio-demographic and lifestyle factors

Heavy metals have been well documented to pose detrimental health effects. The current study aimed to measure the concentration of chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) in urinary samples of Iranian pregnant females and determine their potential correlations with different lifestyle variables. The study was conducted in 2019-2020 in Isfahan, Iran, and the urine samples were collected from 140 pregnant women. The concentrations of Cr and Ni in the urinary samples were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Data on socio-demographic characteristics, use of cleaning products, and lifestyle profiles was collected by validated questionnaires. Cr and Ni were detected in 100% of urinary samples with the mean concentration of 4.1±3.4 and 7.5±4.8 μg/g creatinine, respectively. Significant associations were found between the mean concentration of Cr and Ni with using cooking utensils made of copper, aluminum, Teflon, steel, and enameled, as well as with cosmetic use, and second-hand smoking exposure during pregnancy. The results also showed that the mean urinary Ni and Cr concentrations were significantly different among individuals who consumed seafood and canned food (p-value <0.05). Furthermore, the mean of urinary Cr and Ni concentrations at high levels of physical activity and scratched utensils used was significantly different from the other categories (p-value <0.05). According to our findings, the lifestyle determinants and cosmetic products had superiority to socio-demographic characteristics in predicting urinary heavy metals in Iranian pregnant women.

Effect of cigarette butt on concentration of heavy metals in landfill leachate: health and ecological risk assessment

Cigarette butt is known as hazardous waste with numerous toxic and carcinogenic pollutants which impose serious concern for both the environment and human. Heavy metals are recognized as the most common pollutant in the cigarette butts. The concentration of some heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, nickel, lead and zinc) in leachate obtained from the pilot landfill with commingled waste and freshly smoked cigarettes butts were analyzed. The results showed that the addition of 0.76% (in weight) freshly smoked cigarette butts in landfilled waste increased total heavy metal concentration by 4.8%, while addition of 1.3% (in weight) freshly smoked cigarette butts leads to increased 3.72% of total heavy metals concentrations. An increased 10.52% and 3.43% health risk values were found from the leachate of the landfill pilot, where 1% freshly smoked cigarette butt and a littered cigarette were added, respectively. Overall, it can be concluded that cigarette butt landfilling is not recommended for management of this type of waste and is necessary to be replaced with less hazardous ways such as recycling.

Investigation and probabilistic health risk assessment of trace elements in good sale lip cosmetics crawled by Python from Chinese e-commerce market

A growing body of evidence suggests that the lip products are polluted by heavy metals, which would inevitably cause safety problems with long-term exposure, but few studies have focused on their deeper health risk assessments. This study sets out to identify the lip cosmetics in good sale from Chinese e-commerce market utilizing Python crawler and then explore the probabilistic health risks caused by 6 trace elements in 34 most popular lip cosmetics with Monte Carlo simulation. The results found that there was no obvious non-carcinogenic risk to humans. As for high users, the carcinogenic risk levels of Cr exceeded the acceptable risk recommended by USEPA, approximately 10% and 25% for lipsticks and lip glosses, respectively. Cr was regarded as the priority metal for risk control in the present study. Finally, it was recommended that the minimum use period limit for using up one lip product ranged from 0.54 months to 5.74 months. Overall, this study appears to be the first to conduct a probabilistic health risk assessment of trace elements in lip products, which would be of significance for policy makers to take effective strategies to minimize exposure health risk and contamination.

Metal(loid) contamination in water, sediment, epilithic periphyton and fish in three interconnected ecosystems and health risk assessment through intake of fish cooked in Indian style

Samples of water, sediment and epilithic periphyton (EP) were collected from a lake (Dimna, DL), an intermediate canal (IC), and a river (Subarnarekha River, SR) to compare the pollution status of an urban ecosystem, and the concentrations of metal(loid) s were determined. Water characteristics were analysed by the water quality index (WQI). Sediment pollution was assessed using the ecological risk index (ERI). Accumulation of metal(loid) s in EP was determined by using bioaccumulation factor (BAF) and biota-sediment accumulation factor (BSAF). The result showed that the DL was least polluted (WQI = 30.39) and SR (WQI = 90.13) was the most polluted ecosystem. Sediment analysis revealed that Ni, Cr and Cd are the significant pollutants, especially in SR. The THQ value for fish dishes cooked in Indian style was found higher than that of raw fish, suggesting calculations considering the cooking process can provide better results. Health risk assessment shows that people inhabiting DL are vulnerable to Cr and Cu exposure, whereas people inhabiting IC and SR are susceptible to As and Co exposure due to the consumption of cooked fish. Moreover, for a developing country like India, it is important to upgrade the assessment methods and include regular monitoring of interconnecting ecosystems for the safeguard of human and ecological health.