Structure elucidation of phase II metabolites by tandem mass spectrometry: an overview

N-glucuronidation and Excretion of Perfluoroalkyl Sulfonamides in Mice Following Ingestion of Aqueous Film-Forming Foam

Perfluoroalkyl sulfonamides (FASAs) and other FASA-based per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) can transform into recalcitrant perfluoroalkyl sulfonates in vivo. We conducted high-resolution mass spectrometry suspect screening of urine and tissues (kidney and liver) from mice dosed with an electrochemically fluorinated aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) to better understand the biological fate of AFFF-associated precursors. The B6C3F1 mice were dosed at five levels (0, 0.05, 0.5, 1, and 5 mg kg-1 day-1) based on perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoate content of the AFFF mixture. Dosing continued for 10 days followed by a 6-day depuration. Total oxidizable precursor assay of the AFFF suggested significant contributions from precursors with three to six perfluorinated carbons. We identified C4 to C6 FASAs and N-glucuronidated FASAs (FASA-N-glus) excreted in urine collected throughout dosing and depuration. Based on normalized relative abundance, FASA-N-glus accounted for up to 33% of the total excreted FASAs in mouse urine, highlighting the importance of phase II metabolic conjugation as a route of excretion. High-resolution mass spectrometry screening of liver and kidney tissue revealed accumulation of longer-chain (C7 and C8) FASAs not detected in urine. Chain-length-dependent conjugation of FASAs was also observed by incubating FASAs with mouse liver S9 fractions. Shorter-chain (C4) FASAs conjugated to a much greater extent over a 120-min incubation than longer-chain (C8) FASAs. Overall, this study highlights the significance of N-glucuronidation as an excretion mechanism for short-chain FASAs and suggests that monitoring urine for FASA-N-glus could contribute to a better understanding of PFAS exposure, as FASAs and their conjugates are often overlooked by traditional biomonitoring studies. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2274-2284. © 2024 The Author(s). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Simultaneous quantification of icaritin and its novel 3-methylcarbamate prodrug in rat plasma using HPLC-MS/MS and its application to pharmacokinetic study

A sensitive, rapid, and simple HPLC-MS/MS method was first developed and fully validated to determine the icaritin (ICT) and its novel 3-methylcarbamate prodrug (3N) simultaneously in rat plasma. Analytes were extracted from rat plasma using a liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) method. Chromatographic separation was performed on ACE Excel 2 C18-Amide column. Quantitation of analytes was conducted on an LCMS-8060 triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer. The quantitation mode was the multiple reaction monitoring via positive electrospray ionization. The calibration curve was linear over the concentration range of 1 to 200 ng/ml for ICT with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.9950 and 1 to 400 ng/ml for 3N with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.9956. The intra-precision RSDs were ≤12% for ICT and 3N. The inter-day precision RSDs were ≤10% for ICT and 3N. The accuracy RE was between -2.6% and 7.8% for ICT and 3N. The average ICT, 3N and IS recoveries were 87.9%, 83.6%, and 84.3%. The plasma matrix of ICT and 3N complied with the guidelines. ICT and 3N were stable in rat plasma under various tested conditions. This work has been successfully applied to studying the pharmacokinetics of ICT and 3N.

Exposure of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Crude Oil to Atlantic Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus): A Unique Snapshot of the Mercapturic Acid Pathway

Fish exposed to xenobiotics like petroleum-derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) will immediately initiate detoxification systems through effective biotransformation reactions. Yet, there is a discrepancy between recognized metabolic pathways and the actual metabolites detected in fish following PAH exposure like oil pollution. To deepen our understanding of PAH detoxification, we conducted experiments exposing Atlantic haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) to individual PAHs or complex oil mixtures. Bile extracts, analyzed by using an ion mobility quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer, revealed novel metabolites associated with the mercapturic acid pathway. A dominant spectral feature recognized as PAH thiols set the basis for a screening strategy targeting (i) glutathione-, (ii) cysteinylglycine-, (iii) cysteine-, and (iv) mercapturic acid S-conjugates. Based on controlled single-exposure experiments, we constructed an interactive library of 33 metabolites originating from 8 PAHs (anthracene, phenanthrene, 1-methylphenanthrene, 1,4-dimethylphenanthrene, chrysene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, and dibenz[a,h]anthracene). By incorporation of the library in the analysis of samples from crude oil exposed fish, PAHs conjugated with glutathione and cysteinylglycine were uncovered. This qualitative study offers an exclusive glimpse into the rarely acknowledged mercapturic acid detoxification pathway in fish. Furthermore, this furnishes evidence that this metabolic pathway also succeeds for PAHs in complex pollution sources, a notable discovery not previously reported.

24-epibrassinolide as a multidimensional regulator of rice (Oryza sativa) physiological and molecular responses under isoproturon stress

Brassinosteroids (BRs) can regulate various processes in plant development and defense against environmental stress. In this study, the contribution of BRs in the degradation of isoproturon (IPU) in rice has been established. IPU has a significant effect on rice growth, chlorophyll content, and membrane permeability. When treated with 1.0 μmol/L 24-epibrassinolide (EBR), a BR analogue, the associated symptoms of rice poisoning were alleviated as the IPU levels in the rice and growth media were decreased. In the presence of EBR, the activities of several IPU-related detoxification enzymes were enhanced to cope with the stress due to IPU. An RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) has been performed to determine the variation of transcriptomes and metabolic mechanisms in rice treated with EBR, IPU, or IPU+EBR. Some of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were Phase I-III reaction components of plants, such as cytochrome P450 (CYP450), glutathione S-transferase (GST), glycosyltransferases (GTs), and the ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC transporter). The expression of some signal transduction genes was significantly up-regulated. The relative content of low-toxicity IPU metabolites increased due to the presence of EBR as determined by UPLC/Q-TOF-MS/MS. The IPU metabolic pathways include enzyme-catalyzed demethylation, hydroxylation, hydrolysis, glycosylation, and amino acid conjugation processes. The results suggest that EBR plays a key role in the degradation and detoxification of IPU. This study has provided evidence that BRs regulate the metabolism and detoxification of IPU in rice, and offers a new approach to ensuring cleaner crops by eliminating pesticide residues in the environment.

Feature-Based Molecular Networking Combined with Multivariate Analysis for the Characterization of Glutathione Adducts as a Smoking Gun of Bioactivation

Feature-based molecular networking (FBMN) is a powerful analytical tool for mass spectrometry (MS)-based untargeted metabolomics data analysis. FBMN plays an important role in drug metabolism studies, enabling the visualization of complex metabolomics data to achieve metabolite characterization. In this study, we propose a strategy for the characterization of glutathione (GSH) adducts formed via in vitro metabolic activation using FBMN assisted by multivariate analysis (MVA). Acetaminophen was used as a model substrate for method development, and the practical potential of the method was investigated by its application to 2-aminophenol (2-AP) and 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB). Two 2-AP GSH adducts and one DNCB GSH adduct were successfully characterized by forming networks with GSH even though the mass spectral information obtained for the parent compound was deficient. False positives were effectively filtered out by the variable influence on projection cutoff criteria obtained from orthogonal partial least-squares-discriminant analysis. The GSH adducts formed by enzymatic or nonenzymatic reactions were intuitively distinguished by the pie chart of FBMN results. In summary, our approach effectively characterizes GSH adducts, which serve as compelling evidence of bioactivation. It can be widely utilized to enhance risk assessment in the context of drug metabolism.

Interactions between sulfonamide homologues and glycosyltransferase induced metabolic disorders in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Sulfadiazine and its derivatives (sulfonamides, SAs) could induce distinct biotoxic, metabolic and physiological abnormalities, potentially due to their subtle structural differences. This study conducted an in-depth investigation on the interactions between SA homologues, i.e. sulfadiazine (SD), sulfamerazine (SD1), and sulfamethazine (SD2), and the key metabolic enzyme (glycosyltransferase, GT) in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Untargeted screening of SA metabolites revealed that GT-catalyzed glycosylation was the primary transformation pathway of SAs in rice. Molecular docking identified that the binding sites of SAs on GT (D0TZD6) were responsible for transferring sugar moiety to synthesize polysaccharides and detoxify SAs. Specifically, amino acids in the GT-binding cavity (e.g., GLY487 and CYS486) formed stable hydrogen bonds with SAs (e.g., the sulfonamide group of SD). Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that SAs induced conformational changes in GT ligand binding domain, which was supported by the significantly decreased GT activity and gene expression level. As evidenced by proteomics and metabolomics, SAs inhibited the transfer and synthesis of sugar but stimulated sugar decomposition in rice leaves, leading to the accumulation of mono- and disaccharides in rice leaves. While the differences in the increased sugar content by SD (24.3%, compared with control), SD1 (11.1%), and SD2 (6.24%) can be attributed to their number of methyl groups (0, 1, 2, respectively), which determined the steric hindrance and hydrogen bonds formation with GT. This study suggested that the disturbances on crop sugar metabolism by homologues contaminants are determined by the interaction between the contaminants and the target enzyme, and are greatly dependent on the steric hindrance effects contributed by their side chains. The results are of importance to identify priority pollutants and ensure crop quality in contaminated fields.

Uptake and Biotransformation of the Tire Rubber-derived Contaminants 6-PPD and 6-PPD Quinone in the Zebrafish Embryo (Danio rerio)

N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6-PPD) is a widely used antioxidant in tire rubber known to enter the aquatic environment via road runoff. The associated transformation product (TP) 6-PPD quinone (6-PPDQ) causes extreme acute toxicity in some fish species (e.g., coho salmon). To interpret the species-specific toxicity, information about biotransformation products of 6-PPDQ would be relevant. This study investigated toxicokinetics of 6-PPD and 6-PPDQ in the zebrafish embryo (ZFE) model. Over 96 h of exposure, 6-PPD and 6-PPDQ accumulated in the ZFE with concentration factors ranging from 140 to 2500 for 6-PPD and 70 to 220 for 6-PPDQ. A total of 22 TPs of 6-PPD and 12 TPs of 6-PPDQ were tentatively identified using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. After 96 h of exposure to 6-PPD, the TPs of 6-PPD comprised 47% of the total peak area (TPA), with 4-hydroxydiphenylamine being the most prominent in the ZFE. Upon 6-PPDQ exposure, >95% of 6-PPDQ taken up in the ZFE was biotransformed, with 6-PPDQ + O + glucuronide dominating (>80% of the TPA). Among other TPs of 6-PPD, a reactive N-phenyl-p-benzoquinone imine was found. The knowledge of TPs of 6-PPD and 6-PPDQ from this study may support biotransformation studies in other organisms.

Multiple Metabolism Pathways of Bentazone Potentially Regulated by Metabolic Enzymes in Rice

Bentazone (BNTZ) is a selective and efficient herbicide used in crop production worldwide. However, the persistence of BNTZ residues in the environment has led to their increasing accumulation in farmland and crops, posing a high risk to human health. To evaluate its impact on crop growth and environmental safety, a comprehensive study was conducted on BNTZ toxicity, metabolic mechanism, and resultant pathways in rice. The rice growth was compromised to the treatment with BNTZ at 0.2-0.8 mg/L (529.95-1060.05 g a.i./ha), while the activities of enzymes including SOD, POD, CAT, GST, GT, and CYP450 were elevated under BNTZ stress. A genome-wide RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed to dissect the variation of transcriptomes and metabolic mechanisms in rice exposed to BNTZ. The degradative pathways of BNTZ in rice are involved in glycosylation, hydrolysis, acetylation, and conjugation processes catalyzed by the enzymes. Our data provided evidence that helps understand the BNTZ metabolic and detoxic mechanisms.

Array-Based Machine Learning for Functional Group Detection in Electron Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectrometry is a ubiquitous technique capable of complex chemical analysis. The fragmentation patterns that appear in mass spectrometry are an excellent target for artificial intelligence methods to automate and expedite the analysis of data to identify targets such as functional groups. To develop this approach, we trained models on electron ionization (a reproducible hard fragmentation technique) mass spectra so that not only the final model accuracies but also the reasoning behind model assignments could be evaluated. The convolutional neural network (CNN) models were trained on 2D images of the spectra using transfer learning of Inception V3, and the logistic regression models were trained using array-based data and Scikit Learn implementation in Python. Our training dataset consisted of 21,166 mass spectra from the United States' National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Webbook. The data was used to train models to identify functional groups, both specific (e.g., amines, esters) and generalized classifications (aromatics, oxygen-containing functional groups, and nitrogen-containing functional groups). We found that the highest final accuracies on identifying new data were observed using logistic regression rather than transfer learning on CNN models. It was also determined that the mass range most beneficial for functional group analysis is 0-100 m/z. We also found success in correctly identifying functional groups of example molecules selected from both the NIST database and experimental data. Beyond functional group analysis, we also have developed a methodology to identify impactful fragments for the accurate detection of the models' targets. The results demonstrate a potential pathway for analyzing and screening substantial amounts of mass spectral data.

Electrochemistry coupled with mass spectrometry for the prediction of the environmental fate and elucidation of the degradation mechanisms of pesticides: current status and future prospects

One of the crucial steps in the development of a new pesticide (active molecule) is predicting its environmental and in vivo fate, so as to determine potential consequences to a living organism's health and ecology as a whole. In this regard, pesticides undergo transformation processes in response to biotic and abiotic stress. Therefore, there is a need to investigate pesticide transformation products (TPs) and the formation processes they could undergo during the manufacturing process and when discharged into the ecosystem. Although methods based on biological in vitro and in vivo experimental models are tools of choice for the elucidation of metabolic pathways of pesticides (xenobiotics in general), electrochemistry-based techniques offer numerous advantages such as rapid and low-cost analysis, easy implementation, low sample volume requirement, no matrix effects, and miniaturization to improve the performance of the developed methods. However, for greater efficiency, electrochemistry (EC) should be coupled with analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry (MS) and sometimes liquid chromatography (LC), leading to the so-called EC-MS and EC-LC-MS hybrid techniques. In this review, past studies, current applications and utilization of EC-MS and EC-LC-MS techniques for the simulation of environmental fate/degradation of pesticides were reviewed by selected studies with chemical transformation, structures of metabolites, and some experimental conditions. The current challenges and future trends for the mimicry and prediction of the environmental fate/degradation of pesticides based on electrochemical methods combined with mass spectrometry were highlighted.

Major benznidazole metabolites in patients treated for Chagas disease: Mass spectrometry-based identification, structural analysis and detoxification pathways

Benznidazole is the drug of choice for the treatment of Chagas disease, but its metabolism in humans is unclear. Here, we identified and characterized the major benznidazole metabolites and their biosynthetic mechanisms in humans by analyzing the ionic profiles of urine samples from patients and untreated donors through reversed-phase UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and UHPLC-ESI-QqLIT-MS. A strategy for simultaneous detection and fragmentation of characteristic positive and negative ions was employed using information-dependent acquisitions (IDA). Selected precursor ions, neutral losses, and MS³ experiments complemented the study. A total of six phase-I and ten phase-II metabolites were identified and structurally characterized in urine of benznidazole-treated patients. Based on creatinine-corrected ion intensities, nitroreduction to amino-benznidazole (M1) and its subsequent N-glucuronidation to M5 were the main metabolic pathways, followed by imidazole-ring cleavage, oxidations, and cysteine conjugations. This extensive exploration of benznidazole metabolites revealed potentially toxic structures in the form of glucuronides and glutathione derivatives, which may be associated with recurrent treatment adverse events; this possibility warrants further exploration in future clinical trials. Incorporation of this knowledge of the benznidazole metabolic profile into clinical pharmacology trials could lead to improved treatments, facilitate the study of possible drug-drug interactions, and even mitigation of adverse drug reactions.

Understanding the metabolism of the novel plant antiviral agent dufulin by different positional 14C labeling in cherry radishes

Dufulin is a new type of plant antiviral agent. However, its metabolism in plants, which is very important for environmental risk assessment, is still unclear. In this study, we used ¹⁴C markers at different positions and high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (HPLC-QTOF-MS) to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze dufulin metabolites in cherry radish. By combining ion pairs with unique abundance ratios, we clarified the metabolite structures, inferred the metabolic pathway of dufulin, and clarified the criteria for residues. The extractable residue of dufulin from cherry radish stem and leaf tissues was above 98 % and that in the succulent root was above 87 %. In the stem and leaf tissues and succulent root, dufulin underwent both phase I and phase II metabolism, and four metabolites were produced, including a conjugate of glucose malonate and hydroxylated dufulin, which was confirmed by comparison with a standard. However, the proportions and concentrations of the four metabolites did not meet the residue criteria, so only the dufulin precursor compound was included as a residue. This study provides reliable data for evaluating the impacts of dufulin on the environment and human health and for objectively examining the safety of dufulin.

Untargeted MSn-Based Monitoring of Glucuronides in Fish: Screening Complex Mixtures for Contaminants with Biological Relevance

The complexity of contaminant mixtures in surface waters has presented long-standing challenges to the assessment of risks to human health and the environment. As a result, novel strategies for both identifying contaminants that have not been routinely monitored through targeted methods and prioritizing detected compounds with respect to their biological relevance are needed. Tracking biotransformation products in biofluids and tissues in an untargeted fashion facilitates the identification of chemicals taken up by the resident species (e.g., fish), so by default ensuring that detected compounds are biologically relevant in terms of exposure. In this study, we investigated xenobiotic glucuronidation, which is arguably the most important phase II metabolism pathway for many pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and other environmental contaminants. The application of an untargeted high-resolution mass spectrometry-based approach tentatively revealed the presence of over 70 biologically relevant xenobiotics in bile collected from male and female fathead minnows exposed to wastewater treatment plant effluents. The majority of these were not targets of conventional contaminant monitoring. These results highlight the utility of biologically based untargeted screening methods when evaluating chemical contaminants in complex environmental mixtures.

A novel combined analytical UV and MS approach for the quantification of oleuropein metabolites in human biological samples when authentic standards are not available

The beneficial health effects of phytochemicals depend on their bioavailability and the form under which they reach systemic circulation, usually as phase II metabolites. The lack of authentic standards for these metabolites makes their quantification in biological samples challenging. A new analytical approach to get a more accurate quantification of oleuropein metabolites in biological samples after ingestion of olive leaf extract was proposed. This approach was based on the calculation of a response factor in QTOF MS for each metabolite, comparing their quantification in UV and MS using urine samples concentrated in the metabolites of interest. Glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of hydroxytyrosol and homovanillyl alcohol were more accurately quantified in plasma and urine and for the first time, oleuropein aglycone conjugates and their hydroxylated and hydrogenated derivatives were quantified after consumption of olive products. This approach could be extensible to the analysis of other phenolic metabolites when authentic standards are not available, opening a valuable method for bioavailability studies.

In Vitro Identification of Potential Metabolites of Plinabulin (NPI 2358) in Hepatic Preparations Using Liquid Chromatography-Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry

Plinabulin (1, NPI2358), a vascular disrupting agent (VDA) molecule, is a synthetic analogue of the natural product phenylahistin (2, NPI 2350), which is isolated from Aspergillus ustus. Evaluation of the in vitro metabolic profile of VDA plinabulin using human liver microsomes (HLMs) and HepaRG Cells Cryopreserved is described. HLMs and HepaRG Cells Cryopreserved were prepared in-house and incubated with plinabulin according to published methodologies. The incubated mixtures were analyzed by liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry to identify possible metabolic products. The incubated plinabulin (1) revealed the presence of several peaks representing 19 tentative metabolites in HLMs and HepaRG Cells Cryopreserved in the presence of NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) and in the absence of NADPH-generating system, respectively. However, in NADPH absence, no metabolites and microsomes were generated for 1 in incubated HLMs, indicating a likely involvement of CYP450 enzymes in the metabolism. The metabolite structures, obtained from HLMs and HepaRG Cells Cryopreserved incubations, were elucidated by LC-MS/MS fragmentation study. Seventeen phase-I metabolites were proposed to be the results of isomerization, hydroxylation, hydration, and oxygenation of 1 in HLMs and two isomeric phase-II sulfate conjugate metabolites of 1 in HepaRG Cells Cryopreserved incubation.

A Review on Differential Abundance Analysis Methods for Mass Spectrometry-Based Metabolomic Data

This review presents an overview of the statistical methods on differential abundance (DA) analysis for mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomic data. MS has been widely used for metabolomic abundance profiling in biological samples. The high-throughput data produced by MS often contain a large fraction of zero values caused by the absence of certain metabolites and the technical detection limits of MS. Various statistical methods have been developed to characterize the zero-inflated metabolomic data and perform DA analysis, ranging from simple tests to more complex models including parametric, semi-parametric, and non-parametric approaches. In this article, we discuss and compare DA analysis methods regarding their assumptions and statistical modeling techniques.

An inverse association between plasma benzoxazinoid metabolites and PSA after rye intake in men with prostate cancer revealed with a new method

Prostate cancer (PC) is a common cancer among men, and preventive strategies are warranted. Benzoxazinoids (BXs) in rye have shown potential against PC in vitro but human studies are lacking. The aim was to establish a quantitative method for analysis of BXs and investigate their plasma levels after a whole grain/bran rye vs refined wheat intervention, as well as exploring their association with PSA, in men with PC. A quantitative method for analysis of 22 BXs, including novel metabolites identified by mass spectrometry and NMR, was established, and applied to plasma samples from a randomized crossover study where patients with indolent PC (n = 17) consumed 485 g whole grain rye/rye bran or fiber supplemented refined wheat daily for 6 wk. Most BXs were significantly higher in plasma after rye (0.3–19.4 nmol/L in plasma) vs. refined wheat (0.05–2.9 nmol/L) intake. HBOA-glc, 2-HHPAA, HBOA-glcA, 2-HPAA-glcA were inversely correlated to PSA in plasma (p < 0.04). To conclude, BXs in plasma, including metabolites not previously analyzed, were quantified. BX metabolites were significantly higher after rye vs refined wheat consumption. Four BX-related metabolites were inversely associated with PSA, which merits further investigation.

A Pharmacokinetic and Metabolism Study of the TRPC6 Inhibitor SH045 in Mice by LC-MS/MS

TRPC6, the sixth member of the family of canonical transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, contributes to a variety of physiological processes and human pathologies. This study extends the knowledge on the newly developed TRPC6 blocker SH045 with respect to its main target organs beyond the description of plasma kinetics. According to the plasma concentration-time course in mice, SH045 is measurable up to 24 h after administration of 20 mg/kg BW (i.v.) and up to 6 h orally. The short plasma half-life and rather low oral bioavailability are contrasted by its reported high potency. Dosage limits were not worked out, but absence of safety concerns for 20 mg/kg BW supports further dose exploration. The disposition of SH045 is described. In particular, a high extravascular distribution, most prominent in lung, and a considerable renal elimination of SH045 were observed. SH045 is a substrate of CYP3A4 and CYP2A6. Hydroxylated and glucuronidated metabolites were identified under optimized LC-MS/MS conditions. The results guide a reasonable selection of dose and application route of SH045 for target-directed preclinical studies in vivo with one of the rare high potent and subtype-selective TRPC6 inhibitors available.

In silico deconjugation of glucuronide conjugates enhances tandem mass spectra library annotation of human samples

Mass spectral library annotation of liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) data is a reliable approach for fast identification of organic contaminants and toxicants in complex environmental and biological matrices. While determining the exposure of humans or mammals, it is indispensable to include phase I and phase II metabolites (conjugates) along with the parent compounds, but often, tandem mass spectra for these are unavailable. In this study, we present and evaluate a strategy for annotating glucuronide conjugates in LC-HRMS/MS scans by applying a neutral loss search for detection, then truncating the spectra which we refer to as in silico deconjugation, and finally searching these against mass spectral libraries of the aglycones. The workflow was tested on a dataset of in vitro-generated glucuronides of reference standard mixtures and a dataset of 51 authentic urine samples collected from patients with known medication status, acquired on different instrumentations. A total number of 75 different glucuronidated molecular structures were identified by in silico deconjugation and spectral library annotation. We also identified specific molecular structures (sulfonamides, ether bonds, di-glucuronides), which resulted in slightly different fragmentation patterns between the glucuronide and the unconjugated compound. This led to a decreased spectral matching score and in some cases to a false-negative identification. Still, by applying this method, we revealed a reliable annotation of most common glucuronides, leading to a new strategy reducing the need for deconjugation steps or for recording many reference glucuronide spectra for screening approaches.

Profiling of in vivo, in vitro and reactive zorifertinib metabolites using liquid chromatography ion trap mass spectrometry

Zorifertinib (AZD-3759; ZFB) is a potent, novel, oral, small molecule used for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). ZFB is Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) inhibitor that is characterized by good permeability of the blood–brain barrier for (NSCLC) patients with EGFR mutations. The present research reports the profiling of in vitro, in vivo and reactive metabolites of ZFB. Prediction of vulnerable metabolic sites and reactivity pathways (cyanide and GSH) of ZFB were performed by WhichP450™ module (StarDrop software package) and XenoSite reactivity model (XenoSite Web Predictor-Home), respectively. ZFB in vitro metabolites were done by incubation with isolated perfused rat liver hepatocytes and rat liver microsomes (RLMs). Extraction of ZFB and its related metabolites from the incubation matrix was done by protein precipitation. In vivo metabolism was performed by giving ZFB (10 mg kg⁻¹) through oral gavage to Sprague Dawley rats that were housed in metabolic cages. Urine was collected at specific time intervals (0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h) from ZFB dosing. The collected urine samples were filtered then stored at −70 °C. N-Methyl piperazine ring of ZFB undergoes phase I metabolism forming iminium intermediates that were stabilized using potassium cyanide as a trapping agent. Incubation of ZFB with RLMs were performed in the presence of 1.0 mM KCN and 1.0 mM glutathione to check reactive intermediates as it is may be responsible for toxicities associated with ZFB usage. For in vitro metabolites there were six in vitro phase I metabolites, three in vitro phase II metabolites, seven reactive intermediates (four GSH conjugates and three cyano adducts) of ZFB were detected by LC-IT-MS. For in vivo metabolites there were six in vivo phase I and three in vivo phase II metabolites of ZFB were detected by LC-IT-MS. In vitro and in vivo phase I metabolic pathways were N-demethylation, O-demethylation, hydroxylation, reduction, defluorination and dechlorination. In vivo phase II metabolic reaction was direct sulphate and glucuronic acid conjugation with ZFB.

Six in vitro phase I metabolites, three in vitro phase II metabolites, seven reactive intermediates (four GSH conjugates and three cyano adducts), six in vivo phase I and three in vivo phase II metabolites of ZFB were detected by LC-IT-MS.

Metabolism and disposition of opicapone in the rat and metabolic enzymes phenotyping

Opicapone (2,5‐dichloro‐3‐(5‐(3,4‐dihydroxy‐5‐nitrophenyl)‐1,2,4‐oxadiazol‐3‐yl)‐4,6‐dimethylpyridine 1‐oxide) is a selective catechol‐O‐methyltransferase inhibitor that has been granted marketing authorization in Europe, Japan, and United States. The present work describes the metabolism and disposition of opicapone in the rat obtained in support to its development and regulatory filling. Plasma levels and elimination of total radioactivity were determined after oral and intravenous administration of [¹⁴C]‐opicapone. The maximum plasma concentrations of opicapone‐related radioactivity were reached at early time points followed by a gradual return to baseline with a biphasic elimination. Fecal excretion was the primary route of elimination of total radioactivity. Quantitative distribution of drug‐related radioactivity demonstrated that opicapone and related metabolites did not distribute to the central nervous system. Opicapone was extensively metabolized in rats resulting in more than 20 phase I and phase II metabolites. Although O‐glucuronidation, ‐sulfation, and ‐methylation of the nitrocatechol moiety were the principal metabolic pathways, small amount of the N‐acetyl derivative was detected, as a result of reduction of the nitro group and subsequent conjugation. Other metabolic transformations included N‐oxide reduction to the pyridine derivative and reductive cleavage of 1,2,4‐oxadiazole ring followed by further conjugative reactions. Reaction phenotyping studies suggested that SULT 1A1*1 and *2 and UGT1A7, UGT1A8, UGT1A9, and UGT1A10 may be involved in opicapone sulfation and glucuronidation, respectively. However, the reductive metabolic pathways mediated by gut microflora cannot be excluded. Opicapone, in the rat, was found to be rapidly absorbed, widely distributed to peripheric tissues, metabolized mainly via conjugative pathways at the nitro catechol ring, and primarily excreted via feces.

Investigation of the individual human sulfatome in plasma and urine samples reveals an age-dependency

Metabolic microbiome interaction with the human host has been linked to human physiology and disease development. The elucidation of this interspecies metabolite exchange will lead to identification of beneficial metabolites and disease modulators. Their discovery and quantitative analysis requires the development of specific tools and analysis of specific compound classes. Sulfated metabolites are considered a readout for the co-metabolism of the microbiome and their host. This compound class is part of the human phase II clearance process of xenobiotics and is the main focus in drug or doping metabolism and also includes dietary components and microbiome-derived compounds. Here, we report the targeted analysis of sulfated metabolites in plasma and urine samples in the same individuals to identify the core sulfatome and similarities between these two sample types. This analysis of 27 individuals led to the identification of the core sulfatome of 41 metabolites in plasma and urine samples as well as an age effect for 15 metabolites in both sample types.

Metabolism and detoxification of pesticides in plants

Pesticides make indispensable contributions to agricultural productivity. However, the residues after their excessive use may be harmful to crop production, food safety and human health. Although the ability of plants (especially crops) to accumulate and metabolize pesticides has been intensively investigated, data describing the chemical and metabolic processes in plants are limited. Understanding how pesticides are metabolized is a key step toward developing cleaner crops with minimal pesticides in crops, creating new green pesticides (or safeners), and building up the engineered plants for environmental remediation. In this review, we describe the recently discovered mechanistic insights into pesticide metabolic pathways, and development of improved plant genotypes that break down pesticides more effectively. We highlight the identification of biological features and functions of major pesticide-metabolized enzymes such as laccases, glycosyltransferases, methyltransferases and ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters, and discuss their chemical reactions involved in diverse pathways including the formation of pesticide S-conjugates. The recent findings for some signal molecules (phytohomormes) like salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and brassinosteroids involved in metabolism and detoxification of pesticides are summarized. In particular, the emerging research on the epigenetic mechanisms such DNA methylation and histone modification for pesticide metabolism is emphasized. The review would broaden our understanding of the regulatory networks of the pesticide metabolic pathways in higher plants.

Investigation into Small Molecule Isomeric Glucuronide Metabolite Differentiation Using In Silico and Experimental Collision Cross-Section Values

Identifying isomeric metabolites remains a challenging and time-consuming process with both sensitivity and unambiguous structural assignment typically only achieved through the combined use of LC-MS and NMR. Ion mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS) has the potential to produce timely and accurate data using a single technique to identify drug metabolites, including isomers, without the requirement for in-depth interpretation (cf. MS/MS data) using an automated computational pipeline by comparison of experimental collision cross-section (CCS) values with predicted CCS values. An ion mobility enabled Q-Tof mass spectrometer was used to determine the CCS values of 28 (14 isomeric pairs of) small molecule glucuronide metabolites, which were then compared to two different in silico models; a quantum mechanics (QM) and a machine learning (ML) approach to test these approaches. The difference between CCS values within isomer pairs was also assessed to evaluate if the difference was large enough for unambiguous structural identification through in silico prediction. A good correlation was found between both the QM- and ML-based models and experimentally determined CCS values. The predicted CCS values were found to be similar between ML and QM in silico methods, with the QM model more accurately describing the difference in CCS values between isomer pairs. Of the 14 isomeric pairs, only one (naringenin glucuronides) gave a sufficient difference in CCS values for the QM model to distinguish between the isomers with some level of confidence, with the ML model unable to confidently distinguish the studied isomer pairs. An evaluation of analyte structures was also undertaken to explore any trends or anomalies within the data set.

Systematic, Modifying Group-Assisted Strategy Expanding Coverage of Metabolite Annotation in Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Based Nontargeted Metabolomics Studies

From microbes to human beings, nontargeted metabolic profiling by liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS) has been commonly used to investigate metabolic alterations. Still, a major challenge is the annotation of metabolites from thousands of detected features. The aim of our research was to go beyond coverage of metabolite annotation in common nontargeted metabolomics studies by an integrated multistep strategy applying data-dependent acquisition (DDA)-based ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) analysis followed by comprehensive neutral loss matches for characteristic metabolite modifications and database searches in a successive manner. Using pooled human urine as a model sample for method establishment, we found 22% of the detected compounds having modifying structures. Major types of metabolite modifications in urine were glucuronidation (33%), sulfation (20%), and acetylation (6%). Among the 383 annotated metabolites, 100 were confirmed by standard compounds and 50 modified metabolites not present in common databases such as human metabolite database (HMDB) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were structurally elucidated. Practicability was tested by the investigation of urines from pregnant women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus vs healthy controls. Overall, 83 differential metabolites were annotated and 67% of them were modified metabolites including five previously unreported compounds. To conclude, the systematic modifying group-assisted strategy can be taken as a useful tool to extend the number of annotated metabolites in biological and biomedical nontargeted studies.

Association of NQO2 With UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases Reduces Menadione Toxicity in Neuroblastoma Cells

The balance between detoxification and toxicity is linked to enzymes of the drug metabolism Phase I (cytochrome P450 or oxidoreductases) and phase II conjugating enzymes (such as the UGTs). After the reduction of quinones, the product of the reaction, the quinols-if not conjugated-re-oxidizes spontaneously to form the substrate quinone with the concomitant production of the toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Herein, we documented the modulation of the toxicity of the quinone menadione on a genetically modified neuroblastoma model cell line that expresses both the quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2, E.C. 1.10.5.1) alone or together with the conjugation enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A6, E.C. 2.4.1.17), one of the two UGT isoenzymes capable to conjugate menadione. As previously shown, NQO2 enzymatic activity is concomitant to massive ROS production, as previously shown. The quantification of ROS produced by the menadione metabolism was probed by electron-paramagnetic resonance (EPR) on cell homogenates, while the production of superoxide was measured by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) on intact cells. In addition, the dysregulation of the redox homeostasis upon the cell exposure to menadione was studied by fluorescence measurements. Both EPR and LCMS studies confirmed a significant increase in the ROS production in the NQO2 overexpressing cells due to the fast reduction of quinone into quinol that can re-oxidize to form superoxide radicals. However, the effect of NQO2 inhibition was drastically different between cells overexpressing only NQO2 vs. both NQO2 and UGT. Whereas NQO2 inhibition decreases the amount of superoxide in the first case by decreasing the amount of quinol formed, it increased the toxicity of menadione in the cells co-expressing both enzymes. Moreover, for the cells co-expressing QR2 and UGT the homeostasis dysregulation was lower in presence of menadione than for the its counterpart expressing only QR2. Those results confirmed that the cooperation of the two enzymes plays a fundamental role during the cells' detoxification process. The fluorescence measurements of the variation of redox homeostasis of each cell line and the detection of a glucuronide form of menadiol in the cells co-expressing NQO2 and UGT1A6 enzymes further confirmed our findings.

Phase II stanozolol metabolism study using the zebrafish water tank (ZWT) model

Stanozolol (STAN) is an androgen anabolic steroid often misused in sports competitions and prohibited at all times by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). It can be long term detected by the analysis of human urine for traces of intact glucuronide metabolites. The Zebrafish Water Tank (ZWT) experimental setup can produce phase I STAN metabolites. In the present study, we investigated the in vivo phase II metabolism of STAN through the ZWT model to determine whether the ZWT produces metabolites relevant for doping control. We added STAN to a 200 mL recipient containing eight fish at 32 ± 1 °C. We analyzed the noninvasive samples (recipient water) both with and without pretreatment using Liquid Chromatography coupled with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) in positive ionization mode. Our data show that four hydroxylated-sulfate and four hydroxylated-glycoconjugate metabolites were formed, two of the last ones being 3'OH-STAN-Glucuronide and 16β-OH-STAN-Glucuronide. Additionally, two STAN-Glucuronide derivatives were produced: one was confirmed to be 17epi-STAN-N-Glucuronide, and the other was presumed to be STAN-O-Glucuronide. After eight hours of the experiment, STAN-O-Glucuronide was the most intense phase II metabolite produced. The accumulation curves suggest that high concentrations of fish and substrate in water are required to form phase II metabolites.

Nanozymes and Glucuronides: Glucuronidase, Esterase, and/or Transferase Activity

Nanozymes are fundamentally interesting catalysts that are investigated as alternatives to fragile protein-enzymes for applications in biotechnology, for prodrug activation, and use in biomedicine, as well as the catalysts that contributed to the Origin of Life. However, until now, nanozymes mostly have been documented to exhibit activity as red/ox catalysts, whereas examples of activity outside this broad class of reactions are very few. Herein, activity of nanozymes on glucuronide prodrugs is investigated, specifically focusing on the mechanism of prodrug conversion reactions. The main finding of this work is that nanozymes exhibit glucuronide-like activity, but also catalyze prodrug conversion via esterase-like mechanism and facilitate group transfer reactions.

Identification of characteristic heroin metabolites in urine based on data-mining technology and multivariate statistics analysis combined with a targeted verification approach for distinguishing heroin abusers

A common phenomenon shows that ingestion of opium poppy shell-containing drugs can result in a "false-positive" urinalysis test result for mandatory or workplace heroin abuse screening. Owing to the short detection window (8 h in urine) of the characteristic heroin metabolite 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) confirmation or exclusion of heroin abusers still presents major challenges for toxicologists. In this work, we developed an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry method (UPLC-TOF-MS) with online data acquisition and multiple post-data-mining technologies combined with a multivariate statistical and batch validation analysis workflow to assess the characteristic urine metabolites of heroin abusers. Based on the proposed methods, 28 characteristic metabolites were structurally identified, and their fragmentation patterns and metabolite pathways were also summarized. Correlation analysis was used to investigate the internal relationship and similarities among the identified metabolites, and seven representative metabolites were selected as "Target-metabolites". Multi-batch urine of samples of heroin abusers were certified based on the UPLC-MS/MS method for further validation of the practicability of using this method for routine analysis. Overall, the target-metabolites can be utilized as assistant "biomarkers" in workplace or mandatory drug screenings. This approach encourages further studies on the development of the "false-positive" identification system.

In vitro and in vivo studies of triacetone triperoxide (TATP) metabolism in humans

Purpose

Triacetone triperoxide (TATP) is a volatile but powerful explosive that appeals to terrorists due to its ease of synthesis from household items. For this reason, bomb squad, canine (K9) units, and scientists must work with this material to mitigate this threat. However, no information on the metabolism of TATP is available.

Methods

In vitro experiments using human liver microsomes and recombinant enzymes were performed on TATP and TATP-OH for metabolite identification and enzyme phenotyping. Enzyme kinetics for TATP hydroxylation were also investigated. Urine from laboratory personnel collected before and after working with TATP was analyzed for TATP and its metabolites.

Results

While experiments with flavin monooxygenases were inconclusive, those with recombinant cytochrome P450s (CYPs) strongly suggested that CYP2B6 was the principle enzyme responsible for TATP hydroxylation. TATP-O-glucuronide was also identified and incubations with recombinant uridine diphosphoglucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) indicated that UGT2B7 catalyzes this reaction. Michaelis–Menten kinetics were determined for TATP hydroxylation, with Km = 1.4 µM and Vmax = 8.7 nmol/min/nmol CYP2B6. TATP-O-glucuronide was present in the urine of all three volunteers after being exposed to TATP vapors showing good in vivo correlation to in vitro data. TATP and TATP-OH were not observed.

Conclusions

Since scientists working to characterize and detect TATP to prevent terrorist attacks are constantly exposed to this volatile compound, attention should be paid to its metabolism. This paper is the first to elucidate some exposure, metabolism and excretion of TATP in humans and to identify a marker of TATP exposure, TATP-O-glucuronide in urine.

Identification of a novel N-caprylhistamine-β-glucoside from tomato fruits and LC-MS/MS-based food screening for imidazole alkaloids

The present study aimed at the identification of novel imidazole alkaloids derived from histamine or histidinol and generally investigating the occurrence of suchlike alkaloids in a variety of foodstuffs. Herein, N-caprylhistamine was synthesized and the glucosidic derivative N-caprylhistamine-β-glucoside was isolated from ripe tomato fruits and structurally characterized. The obtained reference standards were used for the extension of an established LC-MS/MS-based method for the quantitation of several imidazole alkaloids in tomato products. After validation for the two additional analytes and demonstrating the applicability of the method to nine other food matrices, 104 food items were screened for the occurrence of the described imidazole alkaloids. Remarkably, all of the investigated alkaloids were only quantifiable in tomato-based products and the occurrence of N-caprylhistamine and N-caprylhistamine-β-glucoside was reported for the first time. These imidazole alkaloids could thus be applicable as specific intake biomarkers for tomatoes and their biological activities as well as metabolic fate should be investigated in future research.

Mass Spectral Library of Acylcarnitines Derived from Human Urine

We describe the creation of a mass spectral library of acylcarnitines and conjugated acylcarnitines from the LC-MS/MS analysis of six NIST urine reference materials. To recognize acylcarnitines, we conducted in-depth analyses of fragmentation patterns of acylcarnitines and developed a set of rules, derived from spectra in the NIST17 Tandem MS Library and those identified in urine, using the newly developed hybrid search method. Acylcarnitine tandem spectra were annotated with fragments from carnitine and acyl moieties as well as neutral loss peaks from precursors. Consensus spectra were derived from spectra having similar retention time, fragmentation pattern, and the same precursor m/z and collision energy. The library contains 157 different precursor masses, 586 unique acylcarnitines, and 4 332 acylcarnitine consensus spectra. Furthermore, from spectra that partially satisfied the fragmentation rules of acylcarnitines, we identified 125 conjugated acylcarnitines represented by 987 consensus spectra, which appear to originate from Phase II biotransformation reactions. To our knowledge, this is the first report of conjugated acylcarnitines. The mass spectra provided by this work may be useful for clinical screening of acylcarnitines as well as for studying relationships among fragmentation patterns, collision energies, structures, and retention times of acylcarnitines. Further, these methods are extensible to other classes of metabolites.

In vitro evaluation of reactive nature of E- and Z-guggulsterones and their metabolites in human liver microsomes using UHPLC-Orbitrap mass spectrometer

Guggulipid is known to be useful for hypercholesterolemia, arthritis, acne, and obesity. These activities are attributed to its two principal isomeric active constituents, viz., E- and Z-guggulsterones. There are several side effects reported for guggulipid, which include widespread erythematous papules in a morbilliform pattern and macules localized to the arms; swelling and erythema of the face with burning sensation; pruritis; and bullous lesions on the lower legs with associated headaches, myalgia and itching. We hypothesized that one probable reason for these toxic reactions could be the formation of electrophilic reactive metabolites (RMs) of guggulsterones and their subsequent reaction with cellular proteins. Unfortunately, no report exists in the literature highlighting detection of RMs of guggulsterone isomers. Accordingly, the present study was undertaken to investigate the potential of E- and Z-guggulsterones to form RMs in human liver microsomes (HLM) using glutathione (GSH) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) as trapping agents. The generated samples were analysed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. The analysis of incubations with trapping agents highlighted that hydroxylated metabolites of guggulsterone isomers showed adduction with GSH and NAC. Even direct adducts of guggulsterone isomers were observed with both the trapping agents. The in silico toxicity potential of E- and Z-guggulsterones and their RMs was predicted using ADMET Predictor™ software and comparison was made against reported toxicities of guggulipid.

Puccinellia maritima, Spartina maritime, and Spartina patens Halophytic Grasses: Characterization of Polyphenolic and Chlorophyll Profiles and Evaluation of Their Biological Activities

Halophytic grasses have been recently targeted as possible sources of nutraceutical and medicinal compounds. Nonetheless, few studies have been conducted on the phytochemistry and biological activities of metabolites produced by these plants. Among these, Spartina maritima (Curtis) Fernald, Spartina patens (Aiton.) Muhl., and Puccinellia maritima (Hudson) Parl. are three halophytic grasses whose chemical composition and bioactivities are unknown. The present work broadens the knowledge on the polyphenolic and chlorophyll composition of these species identifying for the first time hydroxycinnamic acids and their derivatives, flavones, flavonols, lignans, as well as chlorophylls and xantophylls. The extracts were particularly rich in caffeic and ferulic acids as well as in trihydroxymethoxyflavone, apigenin and tricin derivatives. Interestingly, several of the identified compounds are relevant from a medicinal and nutraceutical point of view putting in evidence the potential of these species. Thus, the antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase, antibacterial, and antifungal activities of the polyphenolic extracts were assessed as well as the photophysical properties of the chlorophyll-rich extracts. The results, herein presented for the first time, reinforce the nutritional and the medicinal potential of these halophytic grasses.

Botanical metabolite ions extraction from full electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using high-dimensional penalized regression

INTRODUCTION

Mass spectrometric data analysis of complex biological mixtures can be a challenge due to its vast datasets. There is lack of data treatment pipelines to analyze chemical signals versus noise. These tasks, so far, have been up to the discretion of the analysts.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this work is to demonstrate an analytical workflow that would enhance the confidence in metabolomics before answering biological questions by serial dilution of botanical complex mixture and high-dimensional data analysis. Furthermore, we would like to provide an alternative approach to a univariate p-value cutoff from t-test for blank subtraction procedure between negative control and biological samples.

METHODS

A serial dilution of complex mixture analysis under electrospray ionization was proposed to study firsthand chemical complexity of metabolomics. Advanced statistical models using high-dimensional penalized regression were employed to study both the concentration and ion intensity relationship and the ion-ion relationship per second of retention time sub dataset. The multivariate analysis was carried out with a tool built in-house, so called metabolite ions extraction and visualization, which was implemented in R environment.

RESULTS

A test case of the medicinal plant goldenseal (Hydrastis canandensis L.), showed an increase in metabolome coverage of features deemed as "important" by a multivariate analysis compared to features deemed as "significant" by a univariate t-test. For an illustration, the data analysis workflow suggested an unexpected putative compound, 20-hydroxyecdysone. This suggestion was confirmed with MS/MS acquisition and literature search.

CONCLUSION

The multivariate analytical workflow selects "true" metabolite ions signals and provides an alternative approach to a univariate p-value cutoff from t-test, thus enhancing the data analysis process of metabolomics.

Identification of Sulfonated and Hydroxy-Sulfonated Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Metabolites in Soil: New Classes of Intermediate Products of PCB Degradation?

In this paper we describe the identification of two classes of contaminants: sulfonated-PCBs and hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs. This is the first published report of the detection of these chemicals in soil. They were found, along with hydroxy-PCBs, in soil samples coming from a site historically contaminated by the industrial production of PCBs and in background soils. Sulfonated-PCB levels were approximately 0.4-0.8% of the native PCB levels in soils and about twice the levels of hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs and hydroxy-PCBs. The identification of sulfonated-PCBs was confirmed by the chemical synthesis of reference standards, obtained through the sulfonation of an industrial mixture of PCBs. We then reviewed the literature to investigate for the potential agents responsible for the sulfonation. Furthermore, we predicted their physicochemical properties and indicate that, given the low pK_a of sulfonated- and hydroxy-sulfonated-PCBs, they possess negligible volatility, supporting the case for in situ formation from PCBs. This study shows the need of understanding their origin, their role in the degradation path of PCBs, and their fate, as well as their (still unknown) toxicological and ecotoxicological properties.

Characterization of stable and reactive metabolites of piperine formed on incubation with human liver microsomes

Black pepper, though commonly employed as a spice, has many medicinal properties. It consists of volatile oils, alkaloids, pungent resins, etc., of which piperine is a major constituent. Though safe at low doses, piperine causes alteration in the activity of drug metabolising enzymes and transporters at high dose and is known to precipitate liver toxicity. It has a potential to form reactive metabolite(s) (RM) owing to the presence of structural alerts, such as methylenedioxyphenyl (MDP), α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group (Michael acceptor), and piperidine. The present study was designed to detect and characterize stable and RM(s) of piperine formed on in vitro incubation with human liver microsomes. The investigation of RMs was done with the aid of trapping agents, viz, glutathione (GSH) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). The samples were analysed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) using Thermo Scientific Q Exactive Plus Orbitrap. Full scan MS followed by data-dependent MS² (Full MS-ddMS² ) mode was used to establish mass spectrometric fragmentation pathways of protonated piperine and its metabolites. In total, four stable metabolites and their isomers (M1a-c, M2a-b, M3a-c, and M4a-b) were detected. Their formation involved removal of carbon (3, M1a-c), hydroxylation (2, M2a-b), hydroxylation with hydrogenation (3, M3a-c), and dehydrogenation (2, M4a-b). Out of these metabolites, M1, M2, and M3 are reported earlier in the literature, but their isomers and two M4 variants are novel. In addition, six novel conjugates of RMs, including three GSH conjugates of m/z 579 and three NAC conjugates of m/z 435, were also observed.

Differentiation of Deprotonated Acyl-, N-, and O-Glucuronide Drug Metabolites by Using Tandem Mass Spectrometry Based on Gas-Phase Ion-Molecule Reactions Followed by Collision-Activated Dissociation

Glucuronidation, a common phase II biotransformation reaction, is one of the major in vitro and in vivo metabolism pathways of xenobiotics. In this process, glucuronic acid is conjugated to a drug or a drug metabolite via a carboxylic acid, a hydroxy, or an amino group to form acyl-, O-, and/or N-glucuronide metabolites, respectively. This process is traditionally thought to be a detoxification pathway. However, some acyl-glucuronides react with biomolecules in vivo, which may result in immune-mediated idiosyncratic drug toxicity (IDT). In order to avoid this, one may attempt in early drug discovery to modify the lead compounds in such a manner that they then have a lower probability of forming reactive acyl-glucuronide metabolites. Because most drugs or drug candidates bear multiple functionalities, e.g., hydroxy, amino, and carboxylic acid groups, glucuronidation can occur at any of those. However, differentiation of isomeric acyl-, N-, and O-glucuronide derivatives of drugs is challenging. In this study, gas-phase ion-molecule reactions between deprotonated glucuronide metabolites and BF₃ followed by collision-activated dissociation (CAD) in a linear quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer were demonstrated to enable the differentiation of acyl-, N-, and O-glucuronides. Only deprotonated N-glucuronides and deprotonated, migrated acyl-glucuronides form the two diagnostic product ions: a BF₃ adduct that has lost two HF molecules, [M - H + BF₃ - 2HF]^-, and an adduct formed with two BF₃ molecules that has lost three HF molecules, [M - H + 2BF₃ - 3HF]^-. These product ions were not observed for deprotonated O-glucuronides and unmigrated, deprotonated acyl-glucuronides. Upon CAD of the [M - H + 2BF₃ - 3HF]^- product ion, a diagnostic fragment ion is formed via the loss of 2-fluoro-1,3,2-dioxaborale (MW of 88 Da) only in the case of deprotonated, migrated acyl-glucuronides. Therefore, this method can be used to unambiguously differentiate acyl-, N-, and O-glucuronides. Further, coupling this methodology with HPLC enables the differentiation of unmigrated 1-β-acyl-glucuronides from the isomeric acyl-glucuronides formed upon acyl migration. Quantum chemical calculations at the M06-2X/6-311++G(d,p) level of theory were employed to probe the mechanisms of the reactions of interest.

Mouse Pharmacokinetics and in Vitro Metabolism of (±)-Cremastranone

The objective of this study was to characterize pharmacokinetics and metabolism of (±)-cremastranone (CMT) in mouse. Plasma concentrations of CMT following a single oral dose (10 mg/kg) were all below quantitation limit throughout 24-h time course, indicating poor oral bioavailability. Its plasma levels declined rapidly, with a half-life (t_1/2) of 1.5 ± 0.3 min following a single intravenous dose (5 mg/kg). They were below the quantitation limit after 15 min post-dosing. CMT showed a high plasma clearance (CL_p) of 7.73 ± 3.09 L/h/kg. Consistently, CMT was metabolized rapidly, with a t_1/2 < 1 min when it was incubated with liver or intestine S9 fractions of mouse and human in the presence of cofactors for CYP450, uridine 5'-diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), and sulfotransferase (ST). Further studies showed that CMT was metabolized by CYP450, UGT, and ST in vitro in liver S9 fractions of mouse and human, with UGT being the major enzyme responsible for its rapid metabolism. CMT was metabolized by UGT and ST in intestine S9 fractions of mouse and human. Mono-demethylated (M1), mono-glucuronide (M2), and mono-sulfate (M3 and M4) metabolites were tentatively identified in vitro. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetics of CMT is suboptimal as a systemic agent, especially as an oral therapy, due to its extensive metabolism. This report provides possible structural modifications to design CMT derivatives with better pharmacokinetic properties.

Multiple Metabolic Pathways of 2,4,6-Tribromophenol in Rice Plants

Bromophenols occur naturally and are used globally as man-made additives in various industrial products. They are decomposition products of many emerging organic pollutants, such as tetrabromobisphenol A, polybrominated dibenzo- p-dioxin (PBDD), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), and others. To characterize their biotransformation pathways, bromophenol congener 2,4,6-tribromophenol, being used most frequently in the synthesis of brominated flame retardants and having the greatest environmental abundance, was selected to hydroponically expose rice plants. After exposure for 5 days, 99.2% of 2,4,6-tribromophenol was metabolized by rice. Because of the lack of relative reference standards, an effective screening strategy was used to screen for potential metabolites that were further qualitatively identified by gas and liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Forty transformation products were confirmed or tentatively identified at different confidence levels, including 9 phase I and 31 phase II metabolites. A large number of metabolites (39) were found in rice root, and 10 of them could be translocated and detected in rice stems or leaves. Many transformation pathways were proposed, including debromination, hydroxylation, methylation, coupling reactions, sulfation, and glycosylation. It was remarkable that a total of seven hydrophobic, persistent, and toxic OH-PBDEs and PBDD/Fs were found, indicating the biotic dimeric reactions of 2,4,6-tribromophenol that occurred in the rice plants. These results improve our understanding of the transformation and environmental fates of bromophenols, and they indicate new potential sources for OH-PBDEs and PBDD/Fs in the environment, especially in food chains.

In vitro and in vivo Human Metabolism of (S)-[18F]Fluspidine - A Radioligand for Imaging σ1 Receptors With Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

(S)-[¹⁸F]fluspidine ((S)-[¹⁸F]1) has recently been explored for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of sigma-1 receptors in humans. In the current report, we have used plasma samples of healthy volunteers to investigate the radiometabolites of (S)-[¹⁸F]1 and elucidate their structures with LC-MS/MS. For the latter purpose additional in vitro studies were conducted by incubation of (S)-[¹⁸F]1 and (S)-1 with human liver microsomes (HLM). In vitro metabolites were characterized by interpretation of MS/MS fragmentation patterns from collision-induced dissociation or by use of reference compounds. Thereby, structures of corresponding radio-HPLC-detected radiometabolites, both in vitro and in vivo (human), could be identified. By incubation with HLM, mainly debenzylation and hydroxylation occurred, beside further mono- and di-oxygenations. The product hydroxylated at the fluoroethyl side chain was glucuronidated. Plasma samples (10, 20, 30 min p.i., n = 5-6), obtained from human subjects receiving 250–300 MBq (S)-[¹⁸F]1 showed 97.2, 95.4, and 91.0% of unchanged radioligand, respectively. In urine samples (90 min p.i.) the fraction of unchanged radioligand was only 2.6% and three major radiometabolites were detected. The one with the highest percentage, also found in plasma, matched the glucuronide formed in vitro. Only a small amount of debenzylated metabolite was detected. In conclusion, our metabolic study, in particular the high fractions of unchanged radioligand in plasma, confirms the suitability of (S)-[¹⁸F]1 as PET radioligand for sigma-1 receptor imaging.

Antiproliferative Activity and Cell Metabolism of Hydroxycinnamic Acids in Human Colon Adenocarcinoma Cell Lines

In this study, we investigated the antiproliferative activity and the stability and metabolic fate of the main dietary hydroxycinnamates, using two colonic adenocarcinoma cell models (Caco-2 and SW480). Dihydrocaffeic and dihydroferulic acids were the most effective against cell proliferation in both cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 71.7 ± 1.1 and 83.1 ± 1.1 μmol/L, respectively ( P < 0.05) in Caco-2. At 200 μmol/L, caffeic and ferulic acids inhibited SW480 proliferation by 40.8 ± 1.6 and 59.9 ± 1.3%, respectively. Hydroxycinnamic acids with a catechol-type structure were degraded in Caco-2 cell medium, resulting in the production of H₂O₂. Intracellular Caco-2 UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and catechol- O-methyltransferases were able to form glucuronide and methyl conjugates. However, only the sulfate conjugates were detected after incubation with SW480. In addition, simple hydroxycinnamates were released from quinic and aspartic conjugates. The remarkable effect of dihydrocaffeic and dihydroferulic acids against cell proliferation is of paramount importance, since these compounds are the main metabolites detectable at the colonic level.