Determination of β-blockers and β2-agonists in sewage by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

The behavior of pharmaceutically active compounds and contrast agents during wastewater treatment - Combining sampling strategies and analytical techniques: A critical review

Increasing consumption of pharmaceuticals and the respective consequences for the aquatic environment have been the focus of many studies over the last thirty years. Various aspects in this field were investigated, considering diverse pharmaceutical groups and employing a wide range of research methodologies. Various questions from the perspectives of different research areas were devised and answered, resulting in a large mix of individual findings and conclusions. Collectively, the results of the studies offer a comprehensive overview. The large variety of methods and strategies, however, demands close attention when comparing and combining information from heterogeneous projects. This review critically examines the application of diverse sampling techniques as well as analytical methods in investigations concerning the behavior of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and contrast agents (CAs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The combination of sampling and analysis is discussed with regard to its suitability for specific scientific problems. Different research focuses need different methods and answer different questions. An overview of studies dealing with the fate and degradation of PhACs and CAs in WWTPs is presented, discussing their strategic approaches and findings. This review includes surveys of anticancer drugs, antibiotics, analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs, antidiabetics, beta blockers, hormonal contraceptives, lipid lowering agents, antidepressants as well as contrast agents for X-ray and magnetic resonance imaging.

Fate of contaminants of emerging concern in two wastewater treatment plants after retrofitting tertiary treatment for reduction of nitrogen discharge

More and more previously designed wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are upgraded to tertiary treatment to meet the higher effluent discharge standards of conventional pollutants. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) can cause adverse effects on organisms and usually flow into WWTPs along with urban sewage. How the retrofitted WWTPs targeting conventional pollutants will influence the treatment efficiency of CECs is seldom discussed. This study investigates the removal of CECs in two full-scale newly retrofitted WWTPs (CD and JM WWTPs), containing high-efficiency sedimentation tank and denitrification deep bed filter for enhancing total nitrogen removal. The overall CEC removal efficiencies in the CD and JM WWTPs were 73.79 % and 93.63 %, respectively. Mass balance results indicated that CD WWTP and JM WWTP release a total of 36.89 and 88.58 g/d of CECs into the environment through effluent and excess sludge, respectively. Analysis of the concentration of CECs along the treatment process revealed most CECs were removed in the biological treatment units. The incorporation of newly constructed tertiary treatment proved beneficial for CEC removal and removed 2.93 % and 2.36 % CECs, corresponding to CEC removal of 2.92 and 27.49 g/d in the CD and JM WWTPs, respectively. The data of this study were further used to evaluate the suitability of the SimpleTreat model for simulating the fate of CECs in WWTPs. The predicted fraction of CECs discharged through the biological treatment effluent were generally within ten-fold difference from the measured results, highlighting its potential for estimating CEC removal in WWTPs.

Development of a hollow fiber-liquid phase microextraction method using tissue culture oil for the extraction of free metoprolol from plasma samples

In this research, a method known as a hollow fiber-liquid-phase microextraction was employed to extract and concentrate free metoprolol from plasma samples. The extracted analyte was subsequently determined using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with a diode-array detector. Several parameters, including hollow fiber length, sonication time, extraction temperature, and salt addition, were investigated and optimized to enhance extraction efficiency. After extracting the analyte under optimum conditions from plasma samples, the enrichment factor and extraction recovery were 50 and 86 %, respectively. Moreover, the method exhibited detection and quantification limits of 0.41 and 1.30 ng mL-1, respectively. The analysis of real samples demonstrated satisfactory relative recoveries in the range of 91-99 %.

Further exploration of the collision-induced dissociation of select beta blockers: Acebutolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, carteolol, and labetalol

Beta blockers are a class of drugs commonly used to treat heart-related diseases; they are also regulated under the World Anti-Doping Agency. Tandem mass spectrometry is often used in the pharmaceutical industry, clinical analysis laboratory, and antidoping laboratory for detection and characterization of drugs and their metabolites. A deeper chemical understanding of dissociation pathways may eventually lead to an improved ability to predict tandem mass spectra of compounds based strictly on their chemical structure (or vice versa), which is especially important for characterization of unknowns such as emerging designer drugs or novel metabolites. In addition to providing insights into dissociation pathways, the use of energy-resolved breakdown curves can produce improved selectivity and lend insights into optimal fragmentation conditions for liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry LC-MS/MS workflows. Here, we perform energy-resolved collision cell and multistage ion trap collision-induced dissociation-mass spectrometry (CID-MS) experiments, along with complementary density functional theory calculations, on five beta blockers (acebutolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, carteolol, and labetalol), to better understand the details of the pathways giving rise to the observed MS/MS patterns. Results from this work are contextualized within previously reported literature on these compounds. New insights into the formation of the characteristic product ion m/z 116 and the pathway leading to characteristic loss of 77 u are highlighted. We also present comparisons of breakdown curves obtained via qToF, quadrupole ion trap, and in-source CID, allowing for differences between the data to be noted and providing a step toward allowing for improved selectivity of breakdown curves to be realized on simple instruments such as single quadrupoles or ion traps.

Occurrence, consumption level, fate and ecotoxicology risk of beta-agonist pharmaceuticals in a wastewater treatment plant in Eastern China

Beta-agonist pharmaceuticals are widely used in humans and livestock for disease treatment, legal or illegal growth promotion in food animals, bodybuilding, weight loss, and sports doping. The occurrence of beta-agonists in wastewater treatment plants and their subsequent environmental impacts require greater attention. This study determined the levels of 12 beta-agonists in a wastewater treatment plant and evaluated their ecotoxicological risks as well as consumption levels and risks to human health. Among the 12 selected beta-agonists, all were detected in wastewater and 11 in sludge. In most cases, the concentrations of beta-agonists were higher in spring than in summer. Their total average daily mass loads per capita in the influent and effluent were 1.35 μg/d/p and 2.11 μg/d/p, respectively. The overall removal efficiencies of individual beta-agonists ranged from -295.3 to 71.2%. Ecotoxicological risk assessment revealed a low risk to daphnid and green algae from the levels of fenoterol and the mixture of 12 selected beta-agonists in the effluent. The daily consumption levels of individual beta-agonists per capita were 0.028-1.200 μg/d/p. Regular monitoring of beta-agonists in municipal sewage systems and their risk assessment based on toxicological data are urgently required in the future.

Ti-based robust MOFs in the combined photocatalytic degradation of emerging organic contaminants

Photocatalysis process is a promising technology for environmental remediation. In the continuous search of new heterogeneous photocatalysts, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently emerged as a new type of photoactive materials for water remediation. Particularly, titanium-based MOFs (Ti-MOFs) are considered one of the most appealing subclass of MOFs due to their promising optoelectronic and photocatalytic properties, high chemical stability, and unique structural features. However, considering the limited information of the reported studies, it is a hard task to determine if real-world water treatment is attainable using Ti-MOF photocatalysts. In this paper, via a screening with several Ti-MOFs, we originally selected and described the potential of a Ti-MOF in the photodegradation of a mixture of relevant Emerging Organic Contaminants (EOCs) in real water. Initially, two challenging drugs (i.e., the β-blocker atenolol (At) and the veterinary antibiotic sulfamethazine (SMT)) and four water stable and photoactive Ti-MOF structures have been rationally selected. From this initial screening, the mesoporous Ti-trimesate MIL-100(Ti) was chosen as the most promising photocatalyst, with higher At or SMT individual photodegradation (100% of At and SMT photodegradation in 2 and 4 h, respectively). Importantly, the safety of the formed by-products from the At and SMT photodegradation was confirmed. Finally, the At and SMT photodegradation capacity of MIL-100(Ti) was confirmed under realistic conditions, by using a mixture of contaminants in tap drinking water (100% of At and SMT photodegradation in 4 h), proven in addition its potential recyclability, which reinforces the potential of MIL-100(Ti) in water remediation.

Analysis of β-agonists in different biological matrices by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

Introduction

Wide use is made of β-agonists in therapy due to their smooth muscle–relaxant properties. They also have a side effect of increasing muscle mass. Besides improving oxygen utilisation as bronchodilators, β-agonists increase protein synthesis and promote fat burning. The growth- and performance-enhancing effects are often exploited in illegal use. The guiding objective of this study was to develop a procedure for the determination of β-agonists by a single method in different types of matrices.

Material and Methods

Five grams of homogenised samples were subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis with β-glucuronidase in ammonium acetate, pH 5.2. Purification was performed by solid phase extraction. Analytes were eluted with 10% acetic acid in methanol. The eluted β-agonists were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry.

Results

Validation results met the requirement of the confirmation criteria according to European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC in terms of apparent recoveries (93.2–112.0%), repeatability (3.1–7.1%) and intra-laboratory reproducibility (4.1–8.2%).

Conclusion

The method can be successfully applied in the detection and determination of clenbuterol, salbutamol, mabuterol, mapenterol, terbutaline, brombuterol, zilpaterol, isoxsuprine and ractopamine in feed, drinking water, urine, muscle, lung and liver matrices.

Chiral separation of beta-blockers by high-performance liquid chromatography and determination of bisoprolol enantiomers in surface waters

Beta-blockers are chiral compounds with enantiomers that have different bioactivity, which means that while one is active, the other can be inactive or even harmful. Due to their high consumption and incomplete degradation in waste water, they may reach surface waters and affect aquatic organisms. To address this issue we developed a chromatographic method suitable for determining beta-blocker enantiomers in surface waters. It was tested on five beta-blockers (acebutolol, atenolol, bisoprolol, labetalol and metoprolol) and validated on bisoprolol enantiomers. Good enantioseparation of all analysed beta-blockers was achieved on the Chirobiotic V column with the mobile phase composed of methanol/acetic acid/triethylamine (100/0.20/0.15 v/v/v) at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min and column temperature of 45 °C. Method proved to be linear in the concentration range from 0.075 µg/mL to 5 µg/mL, and showed good recovery. The limits of bisoprolol enantiomer detection were 0.025 µg/mL and 0.026 µg/mL and of quantification 0.075 µg/mL and 0.075 µg/mL. Despite its limitations, it seems to be a promising method for bisoprolol enantiomer analysis in surface water samples. Further research could focus on waste water analysis, where enantiomer concentrations may be high. Furthermore, transferring the method to a more sensitive one such as liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and using ammonium acetate as the mobile phase additive instead of acetic acid and triethylamine would perhaps yield much lower limits of detection and quantification.

The adsorption performance and micro-mechanism of MoS2/montmorillonite composite to atenolol and acebutolol: Adsorption experiments and a novel visual study of interaction

MoS₂/montmorillonite (MoS₂/Mt) composite was successfully synthesized through a simple hydrothermal method, and its adsorption performance for two emerging contaminants-atenolol (ATE) and acebutolol (ACE) was researched. The batch experiments revealed that the adsorption process can be described by the Pseudo-second order model and Langmuir model, and the adsorption capacity of MoS₂/Mt, MoS₂ and Mt for ATE were 132.08 mg/g, 60.68 mg/g and 74.23 mg/g, for ACE were 113.82 mg/g, 33.01 mg/g and 36.05 mg/g, respectively. Besides, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), BET specific surface area measurement and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were also employed to analyze the adsorption mechanism. Moreover, quantitative molecular surface analysis and weak intermolecular interaction analysis with independent gradient model were combined to probe the microscopic interaction between the adsorbent and adsorbate. The results indicated the interactions included hydrogen bonding and vdW interaction. Mt and MoS₂ interacted more strongly with ATE than ACE, which revealed the reason MoS₂/Mt, Mt and MoS₂ possessed higher adsorption capacity for ATE.

Vortex assisted liquid-liquid microextraction based on in situ formation of a natural deep eutectic solvent by microwave irradiation for the determination of beta-blockers in water samples

In this study, a simple, green, and reliable method combining vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction based on in situ formation of a novel hydrophobic natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES-VA-LLME) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed for the determination of metoprolol and propranolol in water samples. The novel NADES was synthesized in situ within only 20 s by subjecting the water sample containing azelaic acid and thymol to microwave irradiation at 50 ˚C. Initial studies indicated that a 17:1 ratio of thymol to azelaic acid yielded the highest response for analytes. The influence of 7 parameters, including NADES volume, salt amount, sample pH, vortex time, centrifugation time, microwave time, and temperature, were screened using a 2^7-3 fractional factorial design. The obtained significant parameters were optimized by response surface methodology employing a Box-Behnken design. The method displayed satisfactory linearity (r=0.9996) for metoprolol and propranolol with limits of detection of 0.2 and 0.1 µg/L, respectively. The relative standard deviation at 2.5, 40, and 80 µg/L levels was lower than 6%, with accuracy in the range of 90.8-100.2%. Enrichment factors were 147.0 and 144.4 for metoprolol and propranolol, respectively. This study demonstrates that the developed in situ NADES-VA-LLME-HPLC technique can be considered as a fast and environmentally friendly alternative for isolation/preconcentration of β-blockers from water samples.

Metal–organic frameworks for the removal of the emerging contaminant atenolol under real conditions

A defective Metal-Organic Frameworks as an improved material for the construction of a fixed-bed system working under continuous flow conditions for the removal of the emerging contaminant atenolol.

Assessment of the ecotoxicity of the pharmaceuticals bisoprolol, sotalol, and ranitidine using standard and behavioral endpoints

The pharmaceuticals bisoprolol (BIS), sotalol (SOT), and ranitidine (RAN) are among the most consumed pharmaceuticals worldwide and are frequently detected in different aquatic ecosystems. However, very few ecotoxicity data are available in the literature for them. To help fill these data gaps, toxicity tests with the algae Raphidocelis subcapitata, the macrophyte Lemna minor, the cnidarian Hydra attenuata, the crustacean Daphnia similis, and the fish Danio rerio were performed for assessing the ecotoxicity of these pharmaceuticals. Standard, as well as non-standard endpoint, was evaluated, including the locomotor behavior of D. rerio larvae. Results obtained for SOT and RAN showed that acute adverse effects are not expected to occur on aquatic organisms at the concentrations at which these pharmaceuticals are usually found in fresh surface waters. On the other hand, BIS was classified as hazardous to the environment in the acute III category. Locomotor behavior of D. rerio larvae was not affected by BIS and RAN. A disturbance on the total swimming distance at the dark cycle was observed only for larvae exposed to the highest test concentration of 500 mg L^-1 of SOT. D. similis reproduction was affected by BIS with an EC₁₀ of 3.6 (0.1-34.0) mg L^-1. A risk quotient (RQ) of 0.04 was calculated for BIS in fresh surface water, considering a worst-case scenario. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first chronic toxicity data with BIS on non-target organisms.

Analysis of 27 β-Blockers and Metabolites in Milk Powder by High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Quadrupole Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

This paper presents an application of high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) for the analysis of 27 β-blockers and metabolites in milk powder. Homogenized milk power samples were extracted by acetonitrile and purified by using Oasis PRiME HLB solid-phase extraction cartridges. The Ascentis^® C8 chromatographic column was used to separate the analytes. The quantification was achieved by using matrix-matched standard calibration curves with carazolol-d₇ and propranolol-d₇ as the internal standards. The results show an exceptional linear relationship with the concentrations of analytes over wide concentration ranges (0.5–500 μg kg⁻¹) as all the fitting coefficients of determination r² are > 0.995. All the limits of detection (LODs) and quantitation (LOQs) values were within the respective range of 0.2–1.5 μg kg⁻¹ and 0.5–5.0 μg kg⁻¹. Overall average recoveries were able to reach 66.1–100.4% with the intra- and inter-day variability under 10%. This method has been successfully applied to the screening of β-blockers and metabolites in commercial milk powders. At the same time, the corresponding characteristic fragmentation behavior of the 27 compounds was explored. The characteristic product ions were determined and applied to the actual samples screening.

Prospective environmental risk assessment of mixtures in wastewater treatment plant effluents - Theoretical considerations and experimental verification

The aquatic environment is continually exposed to a complex mixture of chemicals, whereby effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are one key source. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether environmental risk assessments (ERAs) addressing individual substances are sufficiently protective for such coincidental mixtures. Based on a literature review of chemicals reported to occur in municipal WWTP effluents and mode-of-action considerations, four different types of mixtures were composed containing human pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and chemicals regulated under REACH. The experimentally determined chronic aquatic toxicity of these mixtures towards primary producers and the invertebrate Daphnia magna could be adequately predicted by the concept of concentration addition, with up to 5-fold overestimation and less than 3-fold underestimation of mixture toxicity. Effluents of a municipal WWTP had no impact on the predictability of mixture toxicity and showed no adverse effects on the test organisms. Predictive ERAs for the individual mixture components based on here derived predicted no effect concentrations (PNECs) and median measured concentrations in WWTP effluents (MC_eff) indicated no unacceptable risk for any of the individual chemicals, while MC_eff/PNEC summation indicated a possible risk for multi-component mixtures. However, a refined mixture assessment based on the sum of toxic units at species level indicated no unacceptable risks, and allowed for a safety margin of more than factor 10, not taking into account any dilution of WWTP effluents by surface waters. Individual substances, namely climbazole, fenofibric acid and fluoxetine, were dominating the risks of the investigated mixtures, while added risk due to the mixture was found to be low with the risk quotient being increased by less than factor 2. Yet, uncertainty remains regarding chronic mixture toxicity in fish, which was not included in the present study. The number and identity of substances composing environmental mixtures such as WWTP effluents is typically unknown. Therefore, a mixture assessment factor is discussed as an option for a prospective ERA of mixtures of unknown composition.

Air-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction using floating organic droplet solidification for simultaneous extraction and spectrophotometric determination of some drugs in biological samples through chemometrics methods

An air assisted liquid-liquid microextraction by applying the solidification of a floating organic droplet method (AALLME-SFOD) coupled with a multivariate calibration method, namely partial least squares (PLS), was introduced for the fast and easy determination of Atenolol (ATE), Propanolol (PRO) and Carvedilol (CAR) in biological samples via a spectrophotometric approach. The analytes would be extracted from neutral aqueous solution into 1-dodecanol as an organic solvent, using AALLME. In this approach a low-density solvent with a melting point close to room temperature was applied as the extraction solvent. The emulsion was immediately formed by repeatedly pulling in and pushing out the aqueous sample solution and extraction solvent mixture via a 10-mL glass syringe for ten times. After centrifugation, the extractant droplet could be simply collected from the aqueous samples by solidifying the emulsion at a lower than the melting point temperature. In the next step, analytes were back extracted simultaneously into the acidic aqueous solution. Derringer and Suich multi-response optimization were utilized for simultaneous optimizing the parameters of three analytes. This method incorporates the benefits of AALLME and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction considering the solidification of floating organic droplets (DLLME-SFOD). Calibration graphs under optimized conditions were linear in the range of 0.30-6.00, 0.32-2.00 and 0.30-1.40μg mL^-1 for ATE, CAR and PRO, respectively. Other analytical parameters were obtained as follows: enrichment factors (EFs) were found to be 11.24, 16.55 and 14.90, and limits of detection (LODs) were determined to be 0.09, 0.10 and 0.08μg mL^-1 for ATE, CAR and PRO, respectively. The proposed method will require neither a highly toxic chlorinated solvent for extraction nor an organic dispersive solvent in the application process; hence, it is more environmentally friendly.

Occurrences and removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in drinking water and water/sewage treatment plants: A review

In recent years, many of micropollutants have been widely detected because of continuous input of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) into the environment and newly developed state-of-the-art analytical methods. PPCP residues are frequently detected in drinking water sources, sewage treatment plants (STPs), and water treatment plants (WTPs) due to their universal consumption, low human metabolic capability, and improper disposal. When partially metabolized PPCPs are transferred into STPs, they elicit negative effects on biological treatment processes; therefore, conventional STPs are insufficient when it comes to PPCP removal. Furthermore, the excreted metabolites may become secondary pollutants and can be further modified in receiving water bodies. Several advanced treatment systems, including membrane filtration, granular activated carbon, and advanced oxidation processes, have been used for the effective removal of individual PPCPs. This review covers the occurrence patterns of PPCPs in water environments and the techniques adopted for their treatment in STP/WTP unit processes operating in various countries. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of the removal and fate of PPCPs in different treatment facilities as well as the optimum methods for their elimination in STP and WTP systems.

Life-cycle exposure of fathead minnows to environmentally relevant concentrations of the β-blocker drug propranolol

Propranolol is a human pharmaceutical β-blocker that has been detected in municipal wastewater effluents at ng/L to low μg/L. To assess the potential of this compound to affect fish, fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) were exposed for a life cycle in a flow-through system to nominal propranolol concentrations of 0.87 ng/L, 8.7 ng/L, 87 ng/L, 870 ng/L, and 8700 ng/L. Measured propranolol concentrations were below detection for the 2 lowest exposure concentrations, and were 76 ng/L, 580 ng/L, and 7800 ng/L for the 3 highest exposure concentrations. During the 162-d to 165-d exposure, no significant changes in weights or lengths were seen in fathead minnows, although the highest concentration of propranolol did cause a 15% decrease in survival of larval and juvenile stage fish compared with controls. At maturity, there were no significant changes in condition factor, liver-somatic index, or secondary sex characteristics in propranolol-exposed male or female fish. Female gonadosomatic index was significantly decreased in fish exposed to the highest concentrations of propranolol, probably because of increased egg-laying. Fathead minnows from all propranolol exposures produced more eggs than control fish, with fish exposed to 7800 ng/L propranolol producing 70% more eggs per female (p = 0.060), and having significantly increased clutch size (p = 0.008). Egg quality, % fertilization, % hatching, and % deformities in F1 fry were unaffected by propranolol exposure of fish. Propranolol exposure caused no effects in fathead minnows, except at the highest exposure concentration (7800 ng/L), where there were slight decreases in survival of juvenile minnows, and indications of increased reproduction. The present study is important because it is the first to assess the potential for effects in fish exposed to propranolol for a life cycle. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1644-1651. © 2016 SETAC.

Identification and characterization of photodegradation products of metoprolol in the presence of natural fulvic acid by HPLC-UV-MSn

Metoprolol is a β-blocker highly prescribed for the treatment of heart diseases. It is not efficiently removed in wastewater treatment plants and it has been detected not only in the treated effluents, but also in natural waters. Thus, the knowledge of its fate in the environment is an important issue, and photodegradation is an important degradation pathway. While direct photodegradation of metoprolol by solar light is not relevant, there is evidence in the literature that it suffers indirect photodegradation and a few studies have been published showing the important role of dissolved humic matter as photo-sensitizer. However, the identification of the photoproducts formed in the presence of humic matter is very poor, since only 2 photoproducts had been identified. This study investigated the degradation of metoprolol under simulated solar radiation and in the presence of fulvic acids (FA) extracted from a river. During the photodegradation experiments we observed the formation of new compounds which were separated and tentatively identified by HPLC-UV-ESI-MSⁿ. At least 16 compounds were tentatively identified, including the 2 compounds previously identified in the literature and 4 new compounds which had not been detected by other authors as degradation products of metoprolol, even when submitted to artificial degradation processes.

Occurrence and fate of amisulpride, sulpiride, and lamotrigine in municipal wastewater treatment plants with biological treatment and ozonation

This study examines the transformation and removal of the atypical antipsychotics amisulpride and sulpiride and the anticonvulsant lamotrigine in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Amisulpride, sulpiride and lamotrigine were selected using a tailored non-target screening approach. In WWTPs, lamotrigine concentrations increased from 1.1 to 1.6μg/L while sulpiride and amisulpride exhibited similar concentrations, up to 1.1μg/L and 1.3μg/L, respectively. It was found that N2-glucuronide conjugates of lamotrigine were cleaved to form lamotrigine. Both lamotrigine and amisulpride were detected in groundwater with a concentration of 0.07μg/L. Sulpiride was identified but not quantified. This demonstrates that amisulpride, sulpiride and lamotrigine might be used as indicators for treated wastewater in raw waters used for drinking water production. Furthermore, it could be shown that all three pharmaceutical compounds are efficiently oxidized by ozonation, leading mainly to N-oxide oxidation products. No significant removal of the N-oxides of amisulpride, sulpiride and lamotrigine was observed in the bench-scale biodegradation experiments with activated sludge. This indicated their high biological persistence. Therefore, N-oxides might be appropriate as indicators for post-ozonation as a major technology for the advanced treatment of secondary effluent.

Determination of selected cardiovascular active compounds in environmental aquatic samples--Methods and results, a review of global publications from the last 10 years

In recent years cardiovascular diseases were the second most common cause of death worldwide. Therefore, the consumption of cardiovascular drugs is high, which might result in an increase of them in the environment. The major source of aquatic environmental contamination is still effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Unfortunately removal of cardiovascular active compounds and/or their metabolites in WWTP is still unsatisfactory. Among microbial and abiotic degradation of these compounds during wastewater processes, photolysis and photodegradation of cardiovascular drugs also play an important role. New formed compounds may be more toxic or retain the properties of parent compounds. Thus the main goal of this paper was to provide a detailed and comprehensive review of used analytical methods, coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, to determine the presence of cardiovascular compounds in surface waters as well as WTTPs effluents and influents. Exhaustive preparation for mass spectrometry detection and quantitation including samples pre-treatment, and the common problem of the matrix effect are thoroughly explored in this paper. Additionally, the article provides some hints in respect of recently noted problematic issue related to the availability of specific standards for the analysis of drug's metabolites. Furthermore, information concerning the metabolism of cardiovascular active compounds including differences in metabolism within enantiomers is described. This article also touches on the problems associated with environmental risk assessment due to the presence of cardiovasculars in the environment. The paper also tries to explain differences in concentrations among cardiovascular compounds between countries worldwide.

Reactivity of β-blockers/agonists with aqueous permanganate. Kinetics and transformation products of salbutamol

The possible oxidation of two β-blockers, atenolol and propranolol, and one β-agonist, salbutamol, with aqueous potassium permanganate (KMnO4) was investigated by liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). Under strong oxidation conditions (2 mg L(-1) KMnO4, 24 h), only salbutamol did significantly react. In this way, the oxidation kinetics of salbutamol was further investigated at different concentrations of KMnO4, chloride, phosphate and sample pH by means of a full factorial experimental design. Depending on these factors, half-lives were in the range 1-144 min for drug and it was observed that KMnO4 concentration was the most significant factor, resulting in increased reaction rate as it is increased. Moreover, the reaction of salbutamol is also enhanced at basic pH and to a minor extent by the presence of phosphates, being both factors more relevant at low KMnO4 concentrations. The use of an accurate-mass LC-QTOF-MS system permitted the identification of a total of seven transformation products (TPs). The transformation path of the drug begins by the attack of KMnO4 on two double bonds of the aromatic ring of salbutamol via 3 + 2 and 2 + 2 addition reactions, which resulted in the ring opening and that continues with oxidative reactions to finally produce smaller size TPs, ending with tert-butyl-formamide, as the smallest TP identified. Reaction in real samples showed a slower and partial oxidation of the pharmaceutical, due to other competing water organic constituents, but still exceeding 60%. Moreover, the software predicted toxicity of TPs indicates that they are expected not to be more toxic than salbutamol, in contrast to the results obtained for the predicted toxicity of chlorination TPs, excepting predicted developmental toxicity.

Detection of hormones in surface and drinking water in Brazil by LC-ESI-MS/MS and ecotoxicological assessment with Daphnia magna

The growing use of pharmaceutical drug is mainly due to several diseases in human and in animal husbandry. As these drugs are discharged into waterways via wastewater, they cause a major impact on the environment. Many of these drugs are hormones; in which even at low concentrations can alter metabolic and physiological functions in many organisms. Hormones were found in surface water, groundwater, soil, and sediment at concentrations from nanograms to milligrams per liter of volume--quantities known to cause changes in the endocrine system of aquatic organisms. This study aimed to develop a methodology for hormone detection (estriol, estrone, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethinylestradiol, progesterone, and testosterone) on surface and treated water samples. Sample toxicity was assessed by ecotoxicology tests using Daphnia magna. A liquid chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer with an electrospray ionization source (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was used for the analysis. The results showed that samples were contaminated by the hormones estriol, estrone, progesterone, 17β-estradiol, and 17α-ethinylestradiol during the sampling period, and the highest concentrations measured were 90, 28, 26, 137, and 194 ng · L(-1), respectively. This indicates the inflow of sewage containing these hormones at some points in the Piracicaba River in the State of Sao Paulo-Brazil. Results indicated little toxicity of the hormone estriol in D. magna, indicating that chronic studies with this microcrustacean are necessary.

Determination of the potential illegal addition of β-blockers to function foods by QuEChERS sample preparation and UPLC-MS/MS analysis

A novel method was established for the determination of 11 β-blockers in sedative functional foods using QuEchERS sample preparation coupled with UPLC-MS/MS. The analytes were extracted twice with acetic acid-acetonitrile-methanol (0.1:3:7, v/v/v), and the extracts were purified with mixed QuEchERS adsorbents. Separation was performed on a C18 column, and detection using electrospray ionisation in positive-ion mode. The linear range for the 11 analytes was from 1 to 500 μg l(-1), and the correlation coefficients were above 0.9990. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.02-0.16 and 0.07-0.54 μg kg(-1), respectively. The average recovery for 11 analytes at the three spiking levels varied from 71.8% to 121.9%, and the relative standard deviation was 2.4-12.6%. The method was applied to the analysis of β-blockers in 22 real samples, but none of the analytes was detected. The proposed method is sensitive, efficient, reliable and applicable to real samples.

Degradation characteristics of metoprolol during UV/chlorination reaction and a factorial design optimization

Metoprolol (MTP), a hypertension depressor, has been increasingly detected even after conventional water treatment processes. In this study, the removal of MTP was compared using chlorination (Cl2), UV-C photolysis, and UV/chlorination (Cl2/UV) reactions. The results showed that the UV/chlorination reaction was most effective for MTP removal. MTP removal during UV/chlorination reaction was optimized under various conditions of UV intensity (1.1-4.4 mW/cm(2)), chlorine dose (1-5 mg/L as Cl2), pH (2-9), and dissolved organic matter (DOM, 1-4 mgC/L) using a two-level factorial design with 16 experimental combinations of the four factors. Among the factors examined, DOM scavenging by OH radicals was the most dominant in terms of MTP removal during UV/chlorination reaction. The established model fit well with the experimental results using to various water samples including surface waters, filtered and tap water samples. The optimized conditions (UV intensity=4.4 mW/cm(2), [Cl2]=5 mg/L, pH 7, and [DOM]=0.8-1.1 mgC/L) of the model removed more than 78.9% of MTP for filtered water samples during UV/chlorination reaction. Using LC-MS/MS, five byproducts of MTP (molecular weight: 171, 211, 309, 313, and 341, respectively) were identified during UV/chlorination reaction. Based on this information, the MTP transformation mechanism during UV/chlorination was suggested. Our results imply that applying UV/chlorination process after filtration stage in the water treatment plant (WTP) would be the most appropriate for effective removal of MTP.

The development of the LC-MS/MS method based on S-9 biotransformation for detection of metabolites of selected β-adrenolytics in surface water

Pharmaceuticals consumption in Poland is high. One of the most frequently prescribed is cardiovascular drugs. Due to their relatively high hydrophilic properties, they are not completely eliminated during wastewater treatment processes. In contrast to parent compounds, the presence of cardiovascular metabolites is rarely investigated in surface waters. The goal of this paper was to develop the methodology for detection of metabolites of selected beta-blockers: metoprolol, bisoprolol and propranolol. These metabolites were obtained by the incubation of parent compounds with S9 rat's liver fraction and used for the development and optimization of the low resolution LC-MS/MS method. Accurate mass spectrometry measurements were applied for validation of this method. The incubation of the parent compound with S9 fraction resulted only in propranolol's metabolites generation. However, on the basis of hydroxypropranolol, theoretically transitions for mono- and dihydroxy-metoprolol and bisoprolol derivatives were generated for MRM mode and applied for surface water analysis. The analysis revealed the presence of some of the target metabolites in the Vistula river. This work is the first one proposing the application of biotrasformation in the methodology of low resolution LC-MS-MS analysis of metabolites of cardiovascular drugs in surface water.

Comparison of the Usefulness of SPE Cartridges for the Determination ofβ-Blockers andβ-Agonists (Basic Drugs) in Environmental Aqueous Samples

Even though the methodology used for the determination ofβ-blockers andβ-agonists in environmental samples is based mainly on solid-phase extraction (SPE) and gas chromatography or liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection, the available literature data on the applied SPE procedures is rather sparse. In this paper such comparison is presented. Moreover, the usefulness of the eight SPE cartridges for the determination of fiveβ-blockers (acebutolol, atenolol, metoprolol, nadolol, and propranolol) and twoβ-agonists (salbutamol and terbutaline) in environmental aqueous samples using GC techniques is tested. Among them, three (the trifunction sorbent Strata Screen C, the copolymers LiChrolut EN, and the functionalized copolymer Isolute ENV+) were used for the first time for this purpose. It was confirmed that polystyrene-divinylbenzene-N-vinylpyrrolidone copolymers (PS-DVB-VP, Strata-X, and Oasis HLB cartridges) have a better potential than a cation-exchange sorbent for the extraction of the target drugs from environmental water samples. However, it should be stressed out that the direct application of the tested SPE conditions for the analysis of real environmental water samples is not possible, and such parameters, like volume of loading sample, appropriate solvents for washing and elution steps, and so forth, must be optimized again in order to achieve satisfactory recovery values for the target compounds.

Preparation of stir cake sorptive extraction based on poly(4-vinylbenzoic acid-divinylbenzene) monolith and its application in sensitive determination of β-agonists in milk and swine urine samples

In this study, a new stir cake sorptive extraction (SCSE) based on poly(4-vinylbenzoic acid-divinylbenzene) (VBADB) monolith was prepared. The effect of preparation conditions of monolith on extraction efficiencies was investigated in detail. Several characteristic techniques, such as elemental analysis, infrared spectroscopy, mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize the monolithic material. The combination of SCSE-VBADB with high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS/MS) detection was developed for sensitive determination of ultra-trace β-agonists in milk and swine urine samples. In order to obtain the optimal extraction conditions of SCSE-VBADB for β-agonists, several extractive parameters, including pH values and ionic strength in sample matrix, extraction and desorption time were optimized. Under the optimum conditions, the limits of detection (S/N=3) for the target analytes were 0.007-0.030 μg/L in milk and 0.002-0.011 μg/L in swine urine, respectively. Excellent method reproducibility was achieved in terms of intraday and interday precisions, indicated by the RSDs of both <10.0%, respectively. Finally, the proposed method was successfully used to detect β-agonists in different milk and swine urines samples. Acceptable recoveries ranged from 50.3% to 113% and 50.1% to 92.2% for milk and swine urine samples, respectively; and the RSDs for reproducibility were less than 8.0% for target analytes in all real samples.

Photochemical transformation of terbutaline (pharmaceutical) in simulated natural waters: degradation kinetics and mechanisms

In this study, varied nature organic matter isolates were employed to investigate the indirect photo transformation of terbutaline, which is a major feed additive medicine to increase the proportion of lean meat in the livestock. In the indirect photolysis of terbutaline under solar simulated irradiation, (1)O2 plays an important role among the •OH and (3)DOM*. The reaction rate constant of (1)O2 was determined as (7.1 ± 0.3) × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) at pH 7.0, while the reaction rate constant of •OH was (6.87 ± 0.43) × 10(9) M(-1) s(-1). The contribution of singlet oxygen to the indirect photolysis of terbutaline (19-44%) was higher than that of the hydroxyl radical (1-7%). The pseudo first order rate constants for the photodegradation of terbutaline increase with increasing pH, which indicates that pH mainly affects the reaction rate of the singlet oxygen with the phenolic part of the terbutaline. The Quinone was identified as the main photosensitized product through LC-MS/MS analysis. It is also proposed that the degradation pathway of terbutaline involves reaction between the phenolic part of terbutaline and singlet oxygen. This finding strongly suggests that singlet oxygen was important factor for the photodegradation of terbutaline in natural waters.

A critical review of microextraction by packed sorbent as a sample preparation approach in drug bioanalysis

Sample preparation is widely accepted as the most labor-intensive and error-prone part of the bioanalytical process. The recent advances in this field have been focused on the miniaturization and integration of sample preparation online with analytical instrumentation, in order to reduce laboratory workload and increase analytical performance. From this perspective, microextraction by packed sorbent (MEPS) has emerged in the last few years as a powerful sample preparation approach suitable to be easily automated with liquid and gas chromatographic systems applied in a variety of bioanalytical areas (pharmaceutical, clinical, toxicological, environmental and food research). This paper aims to provide an overview and a critical discussion of recent bioanalytical methods reported in literature based on MEPS, with special emphasis on those developed for the quantification of therapeutic drugs and/or metabolites in biological samples. The advantages and some limitations of MEPS, as well as its comparison with other extraction techniques, are also addressed herein.

Determination of salbutamol by direct chiral reversed-phase HPLC using teicoplanin as stationary phase and its application to natural water analysis

A direct chiral LC-UV method was optimized for the determination of salbutamol (SAL) β2 -agonist in environmental water. Two commercially available columns were evaluated: teicoplanin Chirobiotic-T™ (150 × 2.1 mm i.d., 5 µm) and vancomycin Chirobiotic-V™ (150 × 2.1 mm i.d., 5 µm). Finally, teicoplanin chiral stationary phase was selected for SAL enantiomer resolution. In order to preserve its integrity and maintain the column performance for longer time, the use of additives such as triethylamine (TEA) in the mobile phase was avoided. Experimental design was applied to simultaneously evaluate the influence of several parameters involved in enantiomer separation and to establish the conditions for acceptable resolution and performance in short analysis time. Optimum mobile phase was methanol-20 mM ammonium acetate buffer at pH 4.5 (98:2, v/v). A solid-phase extraction procedure for sample pre-concentration and clean-up allowed the determination of chiral SAL residues in natural water samples spiked at low concentrations in the range 1.0-20 ng mL(-1) . Reproducible recoveries, between 77 and 98%, were obtained and matrix effect was negligible. Injection of sample solutions at low elution strength permitted the SAL enantioresolution in the natural water complex matrix with satisfactory sensitivity and precision.

Enantioselective biodegradation of pharmaceuticals, alprenolol and propranolol, by an activated sludge inoculum

Biodegradation of chiral pharmaceuticals in the environment can be enantioselective. Thus quantification of enantiomeric fractions during the biodegradation process is crucial for assessing the fate of chiral pollutants. This work presents the biodegradation of alprenolol and propranolol using an activated sludge inoculum, monitored by a validated enantioselective HPLC method with fluorescence detection. The enantioseparation was optimized using a vancomycin-based chiral stationary phase under polar ionic mode. The method was validated using a minimal salts medium inoculated with activated sludge as matrix. The method was selective and linear in the range of 10-800 ng/ml, with a R²>0.99. The accuracy ranged from 85.0 percent to 103 percent, the recovery ranged from 79.9 percent to 103 percent, and the precision measured by the relative standard deviation (RSD) was <7.18 percent for intra-batch and <5.39 percent for inter-batch assays. The limits of quantification and detection for all enantiomers were 10 ng/ml and 2.5 ng/ml, respectively. The method was successfully applied to follow the biodegradation of the target pharmaceuticals using an activated sludge inoculum during a fifteen days assay. The results indicated slightly higher biodegradation rates for the S-enantiomeric forms of both beta-blockers. The presence of another carbon source maintained the enantioselective degradation pattern while enhancing biodegradation extent up to fourteen percent.