Models of sustained attention

Brain plasticity and adolescent HIV: A randomised controlled trial protocol investigating behavioural and hemodynamic responses in attention cognitive rehabilitation therapy

Despite advances in antiretroviral pharmacology, neuroHIV in the central nervous system (CNS), causes neuronal dysregulation, which is associated with compromised neurocognition. Non-pharmaceutical interventions such as HIV cognitive rehabilitation training (HIV-CRT), have shown potential to partially reverse cognitive deficits, sequent HIV neuroinvasion. Nonetheless, no studies exist pairing cognitive outcomes with objective neuroimaging biomarkers in adolescent HIV-CRT. This longitudinal pre-post-quasi-experimental protocol examined cognitive outcomes, paired with optimal neuroimaging outcomes following customised attention training in adolescent HIV. Twenty-six adolescents living with HIV were randomly assigned to either the treatment group, which received attention CRT using ACTIVATE™, (n = 13), or to the treatment as usual group (n = 13). Cognitive outcomes were examined using the NEPSY-II, and BRIEF; whilst neuroimaging outcomes were determined by changes in oxygenated haemoglobin (HbO), as determined by functional near-infrared spectrometry (fNIRS). Functional connectivity fNIRS measures were evaluated using seed-based correlation analysis, located in the central executive network (CEN). This study serves to guide the development and identification of objective biomarkers for adolescent neuroHIV, sequent CRT amongst children living with HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa.

How context influences the processing of relevant information and judgment accuracy-the role of information restriction in judgment processes in diagnosing misconceptions

To adapt teaching to the prerequisites of students, teachers have various options at their disposal to gather and process information as the basis to form a judgment, such as carrying out tests, talking to and observing the behavior of students, or administering tasks. The complexity of such a judgment arises from the multitude of observations and their different possible explanations. This complexity might be reduced when teachers focus on one hypothesis instead of considering multiple hypotheses, interpret information in a confirmatory way, and not collect diagnostically relevant information. However, in this way, they run the risk of undesirable biased judgments. It therefore seems important to improve diagnostic judgments by selecting and processing information in a more reflective way. Research indicates that if information on a student is not easily available but restricted (e.g., by time pressure, difficult access to the student or high effort), a teacher who wants to make a careful decision is forced to rely on more reflective processes in the selection of tasks and in the interpretation of solutions. The present experimental study therefore investigates how the restricted availability of information in a specific diagnostic situation-when diagnostically inexperienced prospective mathematics teachers determine misconceptions in decimal fractions-influences the underlying cognitive processes. We assume that restricting the availability of information on student behavior augments the attentional focus and therefore reduces cognitive biases. Such more reflective processing can be observed by an increased time spent per piece of information, which should lead to the processing of relevant information and further increase judgment accuracy. To investigate these hypotheses, prospective teachers without prior knowledge in diagnosing misconceptions (N = 81) were asked to diagnose misconceptions on decimal fractions of virtual students by collecting information on students' solutions. Data concerning the effects of restricting the availability of information on teachers' cognitive processes were analyzed. The results show that with restricted information, participants indeed select a greater proportion of diagnostically relevant tasks, which positively influences judgment accuracy. These results are discussed with respect to their significance for framing teacher training and for further research.

Selective attention and sensitivity to auditory disturbances in a virtually-real Classroom: Comparison of adults with and without AD(H)D

Many people, and particularly individuals with Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder (AD(H)D), find it difficult to maintain attention during classroom learning. However, traditional paradigms used to evaluate attention do not capture the complexity and dynamic nature of real-life classrooms. Using a novel Virtual Reality platform, coupled with measurement of neural activity, eye-gaze and skin conductance, here we studied the neurophysiological manifestations of attention and distractibility, under realistic learning conditions. Individuals with AD(H)D exhibited higher neural responses to irrelevant sounds and reduced speech tracking of the teacher, relative to controls. Additional neurophysiological measures, such the power of alpha-oscillations and frequency of gaze-shifts away from the teacher, contributed to explaining variance in self-reported AD(H)D symptoms across the sample. These ecologically-valid findings provide critical insight into the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying individual differences in the capacity for sustained attention and the proneness to distraction and mind-wandering, experienced in real-life situations.

A robust brain network for sustained attention from adolescence to adulthood that predicts later substance use

Substance use, including cigarettes and cannabis, is associated with poorer sustained attention in late adolescence and early adulthood. Previous studies were predominantly cross-sectional or under-powered and could not indicate if impairment in sustained attention was a predictor of substance use or a marker of the inclination to engage in such behavior. This study explored the relationship between sustained attention and substance use across a longitudinal span from ages 14 to 23 in over 1000 participants. Behaviors and brain connectivity associated with diminished sustained attention at age 14 predicted subsequent increases in cannabis and cigarette smoking, establishing sustained attention as a robust biomarker for vulnerability to substance use. Individual differences in network strength relevant to sustained attention were preserved across developmental stages and sustained attention networks generalized to participants in an external dataset. In summary, brain networks of sustained attention are robust, consistent, and able to predict aspects of later substance use.

Can transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation mitigate vigilance loss? Examining the effects of stimulation at individualized versus constant current intensity

According to the arousal model of vigilance, the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system modulates sustained attention over long periods by regulating physiological arousal. Recent research has proposed that transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) modulates indirect physiological markers of LC-NE activity, although its effects on vigilance have not yet been examined. Aiming to develop a safe and noninvasive procedure to prevent vigilance failures in prolonged tasks, the present study examined whether taVNS can mitigate vigilance loss while modulating indirect markers of LC-NE activity. Following a preregistered protocol (https://osf.io/tu2xy/), 50 participants completed three repeated sessions in a randomized order, in which either active taVNS at individualized intensity set by participant, active taVNS set at 0.5 mA for all participants, or sham taVNS, was delivered while performing an attentional and vigilance task (i.e., ANTI-Vea). Changes in salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol concentrations were measured as markers of LC-NE activity. Self-reports of feelings associated with stimulation and guessing rate of active/sham conditions supported the efficacy of the single-blind procedure. Contrary to our predictions, the observed vigilance decrement was not modulated by active taVNS. Pairwise comparisons showed a mitigation by active taVNS on cortisol reduction across time. Interestingly, Spearman's correlational analyses showed some interindividual effects of taVNS on indirect markers of LC-NE, evidenced by positive associations between changes in salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol in active but not sham taVNS. We highlight the relevance of replicating and extending the present outcomes, investigating further parameters of stimulation and its effects on other indirect markers of LC-NE activity.

A Virtual Reality Simulation to Examine the Relationship Between Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms and Decision-Making in First Responders

First responders (FRs) are continuously exposed to critical incidents, considered traumatic events (TEs). This cumulative exposure increases the risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, there is no evidence about the relationship between PTSD symptoms and emergency decision-making (EDM). The objective of this study was to examine the EDM of FRs during a virtual reality through the simulation of two emergency scenarios to collect data on the reaction time and the number of incorrect decisions. We also assessed PTSD symptoms, TE, and sociodemographics. The sample included 368 Portuguese FRs, were 295 (80.20%) males and 73 (19.80%) females, with a mean age of 33.96 (SD  = 9.38). Considering the probable PTSD diagnosis according to the DSM-5, 85 (23.10%) of the FRs met the criteria. These individuals who meet the criteria exhibited higher EDM scores (M  = 19.60, SD  = 5.99) compared to those without probable PTSD (M  = 17.87, SD = .5.66) (F(1, 360) = 5.32, p = .02, partial η2 = .015). We found that TEs had a direct effect on EDM, β = -.16, Z = -3.74, p < .001), and the pathway of trauma-PTSD symptoms-decision-making an indirect effect, β = .02, Z  = 3.10, p = .002). Individuals exposed to more TEs demonstrated faster and more accurate decision-making in the context of EDM. However, when these individuals developed PTSD symptoms, their decision-making became slower and less accurate. The inclusion of a trauma-informed approach for FRs to prevent individual and job-related consequences is discussed.

Does the d2 Test of Attention only assess sustained attention? Evidence of working memory processes involved

The d2 Test of Attention (d2) is widely used for assessing sustained attention and we aimed at verifying whether working memory may be a secondary construct measured by d2. 70 university students were assessed using d2 conventional paper-and-pencil and computational version. The experimental group and control group performed the task with or without target key, respectively. Continuous Performance Test (CPT) and N-back (1 and 2-back) tasks were used to measure sustained attention and working memory, respectively. Computational d2 performance was predicted by CPT (p < .05; R2 = .15) in the experimental group, and it was predicted by 2-back (p < .05; R2 = .28) in the control group. Conventional d2 performance was predicted by 2-back for both control group (p = .01; R2 = .20) and experimental group (p = .02, R2 = .17). Results suggest the involvement of working memory in d2, possibly a secondary construct assessed by this instrument.

Prenatal tobacco and tobacco-cannabis co-exposure: Relationship with attention and memory in middle childhood

We examined associations between prenatal tobacco exposure (with and without cannabis exposure) and children's performance on laboratory measures of sustained attention, attentional set shifting, and working memory in middle childhood (9-12 years of child age). Participants were recruited in the first trimester of pregnancy and oversampled for prenatal tobacco exposure; with a smaller sample (n = 133; n = 34 non-substance exposed, n = 37 exposed to tobacco only, n = 62 co-exposed) invited (oversampled for co-exposure) to participate in the middle-childhood assessment (M age = 10.6, SD = 0.77; 68% Black, 20% Hispanic). Results for sustained attention indicated lower attention (percent hits) at the first epoch for tobacco only exposed compared to non-exposed and co-exposed; a trend (p = .07) towards increases in impulsive responding across time (a total of 8 epochs) for tobacco exposed (with and without cannabis) compared to non-exposed children; and a significant association between higher number of cigarettes in the first trimester and greater increases in impulsive responding across epochs. However, children prenatally exposed to tobacco (with and without cannabis) demonstrated greater short-term memory compared to children not prenatally exposed, and this difference was driven by higher scores for children prenatally co-exposed to tobacco and cannabis compared to those who were non-exposed. Overall, results suggest that prenatal tobacco exposure, especially in the first trimester, may increase risk for impulsive responding on tasks requiring sustained attention, and that co-use of cannabis did not exacerbate these associations. The higher short-term memory scores among children who were co-exposed compared to non-exposed are perplexing and need replication, particularly in studies with larger sample sizes and samples exposed only to cannabis to examine this more closely.

Claustrum neurons projecting to the anterior cingulate restrict engagement during sleep and behavior

The claustrum has been linked to attention and sleep. We hypothesized that this reflects a shared function, determining responsiveness to stimuli, which spans the axis of engagement. To test this hypothesis, we recorded claustrum population dynamics from male mice during both sleep and an attentional task ('ENGAGE'). Heightened activity in claustrum neurons projecting to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACCp) corresponded to reduced sensory responsiveness during sleep. Similarly, in the ENGAGE task, heightened ACCp activity correlated with disengagement and behavioral lapses, while low ACCp activity correlated with hyper-engagement and impulsive errors. Chemogenetic elevation of ACCp activity reduced both awakenings during sleep and impulsive errors in the ENGAGE task. Furthermore, mice employing an exploration strategy in the task showed a stronger correlation between ACCp activity and performance compared to mice employing an exploitation strategy which reduced task complexity. Our results implicate ACCp claustrum neurons in restricting engagement during sleep and goal-directed behavior.

The nature and magnitude of cognitive impairment in narcolepsy type 1, narcolepsy type 2, and idiopathic hypersomnia: a meta-analysis

People with narcolepsy type 1 (NT1), narcolepsy type 2 (NT2), and idiopathic hypersomnia (IH) often report cognitive impairment which can be quite burdensome but is rarely evaluated in routine clinical practice. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we assessed the nature and magnitude of cognitive impairment in NT1, NT2, and IH in studies conducted from January 2000 to October 2022. We classified cognitive tests assessing memory, executive function, and attention by cognitive domain. Between-group differences were analyzed as standardized mean differences (Cohen's d), and Cohen's d for individual tests were integrated according to cognitive domain and clinical disease group. Eighty-seven studies were screened for inclusion; 39 satisfied inclusion criteria, yielding 73 comparisons (k): NT1, k = 60; NT2, k = 8; IH, k = 5. Attention showed large impairment in people with NT1 (d = -0.90) and IH (d = -0.97), and moderate impairment in NT2 (d = -0.60). Executive function was moderately impaired in NT1 (d = -0.30) and NT2 (d = -0.38), and memory showed small impairments in NT1 (d = -0.33). A secondary meta-analysis identified sustained attention as the most impaired domain in NT1, NT2, and IH (d ≈ -0.5 to -1). These meta-analyses confirm that cognitive impairments are present in NT1, NT2, and IH, and provide quantitative confirmation of reports of cognitive difficulties made by patients and clinicians. These findings provide a basis for the future design of studies to determine whether cognitive impairments can improve with pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic treatments for narcolepsy and IH.

Attention switching through text dissimilarity: a cognition research on fragmented reading behavior

People tend to obtain information through fragmented reading. However, this behavior itself might lead to distraction and affect cognitive ability. To address it, it is necessary to understand how fragmented reading behavior influences readers' attention switching. In this study, the researchers first collected online news that had 6 theme words and 60 sentences to compose the experimental material, then defined the degree of text dissimilarity, used to measure the degree of attention switching based on the differences in text content, and conducted an EEG experiment based on P200. The results showed that even after reading the fragmented text content with the same overall content, people in subsequent cognitive tasks had more working memory capacity, lower working memory load, and less negative impact on cognitive ability with the text content with lower text dissimilarity. Additionally, attention switching caused by differences in concept or working memory representation of text content might be the key factor affecting cognitive ability in fragmented reading behavior. The findings disclosed the relation between cognitive ability and fragmented reading and attention switching, opening a new perspective on the method of text dissimilarity. This study provides some references on how to reduce the negative impact of fragmented reading on cognitive ability on new media platforms.

A robust brain network for sustained attention from adolescence to adulthood that predicts later substance use

Substance use, including cigarettes and cannabis, is associated with poorer sustained attention in late adolescence and early adulthood. Previous studies were predominantly cross-sectional or under-powered and could not indicate if impairment in sustained attention was a predictor of substance-use or a marker of the inclination to engage in such behaviour. This study explored the relationship between sustained attention and substance use across a longitudinal span from ages 14 to 23 in over 1,000 participants. Behaviours and brain connectivity associated with diminished sustained attention at age 14 predicted subsequent increases in cannabis and cigarette smoking, establishing sustained attention as a robust biomarker for vulnerability to substance use. Individual differences in network strength relevant to sustained attention were preserved across developmental stages and sustained attention networks generalized to participants in an external dataset. In summary, brain networks of sustained attention are robust, consistent, and able to predict aspects of later substance use.

Sustaining attention in visuomotor timing is associated with location-based binding

Maintaining focus of attention over prolonged periods can be challenging, especially when the target stimulus is absent from the temporal sequence. Prior research has shown that a temporal attentional cue filling in the temporal blank can improve sustained attention: in a sustained visual attention task requiring synchronizing finger tapping with a temporally regular sequence composed of brief flash disks interleaved with blank periods, task performance was improved when a continuous fixation point that served as a temporal attentional cue was presented superimposed on the disk stimulus. To test the hypothesis that binding the temporal attentional cue with the target temporal sequence by spatial overlapping is crucial for enhancing sustained attention, the present study conducted a series of three experiments that deconstructed the bound connection between the cue and the sequence stimulus. In Experiment 1, the cue was placed above or below a flash disk. In Experiment 2, the cue was between two vertically arranged flash disks. In Experiment 3, the cue was in a flash ring. No significant effect of sustained attention improvement was found in any of the three experiments. Experiment 4 further replicated these null results and the previously observed effect of sustained attention improvement when the temporal cue was superimposed on the sequence stimulus. Our finding demonstrates that binding by spatial overlapping during the temporal blank when the sequence stimulus is absent is critical for enhancing sustained attention, which should be beneficial for improving performance across a broader range of tasks that require prolonged maintenance of attention.

Parsing state mindfulness effects on neurobehavioral markers of cognitive control: A within-subject comparison of focused attention and open monitoring

Over the past two decades, scientific interest in understanding the relationship between mindfulness and cognition has accelerated. However, despite considerable investigative efforts, pervasive methodological inconsistencies within the literature preclude a thorough understanding of whether or how mindfulness influences core cognitive functions. The purpose of the current study is to provide an initial "proof-of-concept" demonstration of a new research strategy and methodological approach designed to address previous limitations. Specifically, we implemented a novel fully within-subject state induction protocol to elucidate the neurobehavioral influence of discrete mindfulness states-focused attention (FA) and open monitoring (OM), compared against an active control-on well-established behavioral and ERP indices of executive attention and error monitoring assessed during the Eriksen flanker task. Bayesian mixed modeling was used to test preregistered hypotheses pertaining to FA and OM effects on flanker interference, the stimulus-locked P3, and the response-locked ERN and Pe. Results yielded strong but unexpected evidence that OM selectively produced a more cautious and intentional response style, characterized by higher accuracy, slower RTs, and reduced P3 amplitude. Follow-up exploratory analyses revealed that trait mindfulness moderated the influence of OM, such that individuals with greater trait mindfulness responded more cautiously and exhibited higher trial accuracy and smaller P3s. Neither FA nor OM modulated the ERN or Pe. Taken together, our findings support the promise of our approach, demonstrating that theoretically distinct mindfulness states are functionally dissociable among mindfulness-naive participants and that interactive variability associated with different operational facets of mindfulness (i.e., state vs. trait) can be modeled directly.

Mindfulness enhances cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis of 111 randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Currently no comprehensive meta-analysis of MBI efficacy on global and unique cognitive subdomains exist.

METHOD

Examined the effects of MBIs on global cognition and 15 cognitive subdomains. Inclusion criteria: meditation naïve participants; randomized controlled trial; outcome included one objective or subjective cognitive functioning measure; primary focus was teaching mindfulness skills. Exclusion criteria: inadequate data; one-session ; control condition contained any MBI component. Robust variance estimation and moderator analyses controlling for presence of treatment fidelity were conducted.

RESULTS

One-hundred-and-eleven RCTs (n = 9,538) met eligibility criteria. MBIs had small-to-moderate significant effects on global cognition, executive attention, working memory accuracy, inhibition accuracy, shifting accuracy, sustained attention, and subjective cognitive functioning (vs. waitlist/no-treatment, g = 0.257-0.643; vs. active controls, g = 0.192-0.394). MBIs did not impact executive functioning (EF) latency indices, verbal fluency, processing speed, episodic memory, and cognitive error. Treatment effects were stronger for those with elevated psychiatric symptoms vs. healthy controls, and medical samples, studies with complete-case (vs. intention-to-treat) analysis, face-to-face (vs. self-guided) delivery, and non-standard (vs. standard MBI).

CONCLUSION

MBIs consistently yielded small-to-moderate yet practically meaningful effect sizes on global cognition and six cognitive subdomains that captured accuracy vs. latency-based indices of EF and sustained accuracy.

Closed-Loop Transcranial Electrical Neurostimulation for Sustained Attention Enhancement: A Pilot Study towards Personalized Intervention Strategies

Sustained attention is pivotal for tasks like studying and working for which focus and low distractions are necessary for peak productivity. This study explores the effectiveness of adaptive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in either the frontal or parietal region to enhance sustained attention. The research involved ten healthy university students performing the Continuous Performance Task-AX (AX-CPT) while receiving either frontal or parietal tDCS. The study comprised three phases. First, we acquired the electroencephalography (EEG) signal to identify the most suitable metrics related to attention states. Among different spectral and complexity metrics computed on 3 s epochs of EEG, the Fuzzy Entropy and Multiscale Sample Entropy Index of frontal channels were selected. Secondly, we assessed how tDCS at a fixed 1.0 mA current affects attentional performance. Finally, a real-time experiment involving continuous metric monitoring allowed personalized dynamic optimization of the current amplitude and stimulation site (frontal or parietal). The findings reveal statistically significant improvements in mean accuracy (94.04 vs. 90.82%) and reaction times (262.93 vs. 302.03 ms) with the adaptive tDCS compared to a non-stimulation condition. Average reaction times were statistically shorter during adaptive stimulation compared to a fixed current amplitude condition (262.93 vs. 283.56 ms), while mean accuracy stayed similar (94.04 vs. 93.36%, improvement not statistically significant). Despite the limited number of subjects, this work points out the promising potential of adaptive tDCS as a tailored treatment for enhancing sustained attention.

Assessing the impact of attention fluctuations on statistical learning

Attention fluctuates between optimal and suboptimal states. However, whether these fluctuations affect how we learn visual regularities remains untested. Using web-based real-time triggering, we investigated the impact of sustained attentional state on statistical learning using online and offline measures of learning. In three experiments (N = 450), participants performed a continuous performance task (CPT) with shape stimuli. Unbeknownst to participants, we measured response times (RTs) preceding each trial in real time and inserted distinct shape triplets in the trial stream when RTs indicated that a participant was attentive or inattentive. We measured online statistical learning using changes in RTs to regular triplets relative to random triplets encountered in the same attentional states. We measured offline statistical learning with a target detection task in which participants responded to target shapes selected from the regular triplets and with tasks in which participants explicitly re-created the regular triplets or selected regular shapes from foils. Online learning evidence was greater in high vs. low attentional states when combining data from all three experiments, although this was not evident in any experiment alone. On the other hand, we saw no evidence of impacts of attention fluctuations on measures of statistical learning collected offline, after initial exposure in the CPT. These results suggest that attention fluctuations may impact statistical learning while regularities are being extracted online, but that these effects do not persist to subsequent tests of learning about regularities.

Neurovascular coupling in the attention during visual working memory processes

Focusing attention in visual working memory (vWM) depends on the ability to filter distractors and expand the scope of targets. Although many properties of attention processes in vWM have been well documented, it remains unclear how the mechanisms of neurovascular coupling (NVC) function during attention processes in vWM. Here, we show simultaneous multimodal data that reveal the similar temporal and spatial features of attention processes during vWM. These similarities lead to common NVC outcomes across individuals. When filtering out distractors, the electroencephalography (EEG)-informed NVC displayed broader engagement across the frontoparietal network. A negative correlation may exist between behavioral metrics and EEG-informed NVC strength related to attention control. On a dynamic basis, NVC features exhibited higher discriminatory power in predicting behavior than other features alone. These results underscore how multimodal approaches can advance our understanding of the role of attention in vWM, and how NVC fluctuations are associated with actual behavior.

HD-tDCS mitigates the executive vigilance decrement only under high cognitive demands

Maintaining vigilance is essential for many everyday tasks, but over time, our ability to sustain it inevitably decreases, potentially entailing severe consequences. High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) has proven to be useful for studying and improving vigilance. This study explores if/how cognitive load affects the mitigatory effects of HD-tDCS on the vigilance decrement. Participants (N = 120) completed a modified ANTI-Vea task (single or dual load) while receiving either sham or anodal HD-tDCS over the right posterior parietal cortex (rPPC). This data was compared with data from prior studies (N = 120), where participants completed the standard ANTI-Vea task (triple load task), combined with the same HD-tDCS protocol. Against our hypotheses, both the single and dual load conditions showed a significant executive vigilance (EV) decrement, which was not affected by the application of rPPC HD-tDCS. On the contrary, the most cognitively demanding task (triple task) showed the greatest EV decrement; importantly, it was also with the triple task that a significant mitigatory effect of the HD-tDCS intervention was observed. The present study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the specific effects of HD-tDCS on the vigilance decrement considering cognitive demands. This can ultimately contribute to reconciling heterogeneous effects observed in past research and fine-tuning its future clinical application.

Brain-heart interaction disruption in major depressive disorder: disturbed rhythm modulation of the cardiac cycle on brain transient theta bursts

Brain neurons support arousal and cognitive activity in the form of spectral transient bursts and cooperate with the peripheral nervous system to adapt to the surrounding environment. However, the temporal dynamics of brain-heart interactions have not been confirmed, and the mechanism of brain-heart interactions in major depressive disorder (MDD) remains unclear. This study aimed to provide direct evidence for brain-heart synchronization in temporal dynamics and clarify the mechanism of brain-heart interaction disruption in MDD. Eight-minute resting-state (closed eyes) electroencephalograph and electrocardiogram signals were acquired simultaneously. The Jaccard index (JI) was used to measure the temporal synchronization between cortical theta transient bursts and cardiac cycle activity (diastole and systole) in 90 MDD patients and 44 healthy controls (HCs) at rest. The deviation JI was used to reflect the equilibrium of brain activity between diastole and systole. The results showed that the diastole JI was higher than the systole JI in both the HC and MDD groups; compared to HCs, the deviation JI attenuated at F4, F6, FC2, and FC4 in the MDD patients. The eccentric deviation JI was negatively correlated with the despair factor scores of the HAMD, and after 4 weeks of antidepressant treatment, the eccentric deviation JI was positively correlated with the despair factor scores of the HAMD. It was concluded that brain-heart synchronization existed in the theta band in healthy individuals and that disturbed rhythm modulation of the cardiac cycle on brain transient theta bursts at right frontoparietal sites led to brain-heart interaction disruption in MDD.

Multiscale entropy in a 10-minute vigilance task

Research has shown multiscale entropy, brain signal behavior across time scales, to reliably increase at lower time scales with time-on-task fatigue. However, multiscale entropy has not been examined in short vigilance tasks (i.e., ≤ 10 min). Addressing this gap, we examine multiscale entropy during a 10-minute Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT). Thirty-four participants provided neural data while completing the PVT. We compared the first 2 min of the task to the 7th and 8th minutes to avoid end-spurt effects. Results suggested increased multiscale entropy at lower time scales later compared to earlier in the task, suggesting multiscale entropy is a strong marker of time-on-task fatigue onset during short vigils. Separate analyses for Fast and Slow performers reveal differential entropy patterns, particularly over visual cortices. Here, observed brain-behavior linkage between entropy and reaction time for slow performers suggests that entropy assays over sensory cortices might have predictive value for fatigue onset or shifts from on- to off-task states.

Unpacking the overlap between Autism and ADHD in adults: A multi-method approach

The overlap between Autism and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is widely observed in clinical settings, with growing interest in their co-occurrence in neurodiversity research. Until relatively recently, however, concurrent diagnoses of Autism and ADHD were not possible. This has limited the scope for large-scale research on their cross-condition associations, further stymied by a dearth of open science practices in the neurodiversity field. Additionally, almost all previous research linking Autism and ADHD has focused on children and adolescents, despite them being lifelong conditions. Tackling these limitations in previous research, 5504 adults - including a nationally representative sample of the UK (Study 1; n = 504) and a large pre-registered study (Study 2; n = 5000) - completed well-established self-report measures of Autism and ADHD traits. A series of network analyses unpacked the associations between Autism and ADHD at the individual trait level. Low inter-item connectivity was consistently found between conditions, supporting the distinction between Autism and ADHD as separable constructs. Subjective social enjoyment and hyperactivity-impulsivity traits were most condition-specific to Autism and ADHD, respectively. Traits related to attention control showed the greatest Bridge Expected Influence across conditions, revealing a potential transdiagnostic process underlying the overlap between Autism and ADHD. To investigate this further at the cognitive level, participants completed a large, well-powered, and pre-registered study measuring the relative contributions of Autism and ADHD traits to attention control (Study 3; n = 500). We detected age- and sex-related effects, however, attention control did not account for the covariance between Autism and ADHD traits. We situate our findings and discuss future directions in the cognitive science of Autism, ADHD, and neurodiversity, noting how our open datasets may be used in future research.

Striatal and Behavioral Responses to Reward Vary by Socioeconomic Status in Adolescents

Disparities in socioeconomic status (SES) lead to unequal access to financial and social support. These disparities are believed to influence reward sensitivity, which in turn are hypothesized to shape how individuals respond to and pursue rewarding experiences. However, surprisingly little is known about how SES shapes reward sensitivity in adolescence. Here, we investigated how SES influenced adolescent responses to reward, both in behavior and the striatum-a brain region that is highly sensitive to reward. We examined responses to both immediate reward (tracked by phasic dopamine) and average reward rate fluctuations (tracked by tonic dopamine) as these distinct signals independently shape learning and motivation. Adolescents (n = 114; 12-14 years; 58 female) performed a gambling task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. We manipulated trial-by-trial reward and loss outcomes, leading to fluctuations between periods of reward scarcity and abundance. We found that a higher reward rate hastened behavioral responses, and increased guess switching, consistent with the idea that reward abundance increases response vigor and exploration. Moreover, immediate reward reinforced previously rewarding decisions (win-stay, lose-switch) and slowed responses (postreward pausing), particularly when rewards were scarce. Notably, lower-SES adolescents slowed down less after rare rewards than higher-SES adolescents. In the brain, striatal activations covaried with the average reward rate across time and showed greater activations during rewarding blocks. However, these striatal effects were diminished in lower-SES adolescents. These findings show that the striatum tracks reward rate fluctuations, which shape decisions and motivation. Moreover, lower SES appears to attenuate reward-driven behavioral and brain responses.

The relationship between sustained attention and parasympathetic functioning

Sustained attention (SA) is an important cognitive ability that plays a crucial role in successful cognitive control. Resting vagally-mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) has emerged as an informative index of parasympathetic nervous system activity and a sensitive correlate of individual differences in cognitive control. However, it is unclear how resting vmHRV is associated with individual differences in sustained attention. The primary aim of the current study was to assess if resting vmHRV was associated with individual differences in performance on a neuropsychological assessment of sustained attention. We further aimed to characterize the relationship between resting vmHRV and dispositional factors related to sustained attention, specifically attentional errors in daily life, self-regulation, mindfulness and media-multitasking. Based on previous work, we hypothesized higher resting vmHRV would be associated with better sustained attention across task-based and self-report measures. We did not find resting vmHRV to be significantly associated with performance measures on a task-based assessment of sustained attention. Further, resting vmHRV was not significantly associated with attention errors, self-regulation, mindfulness, or media-multitasking. This work stands to expand the current understanding between parasympathetic functioning, cognition, and behavior, investigating the unexplored domain of sustained attention and related dispositional factors.

Time-varying functional connectivity predicts fluctuations in sustained attention in a serial tapping task

The mechanisms for how large-scale brain networks contribute to sustained attention are unknown. Attention fluctuates from moment to moment, and this continuous change is consistent with dynamic changes in functional connectivity between brain networks involved in the internal and external allocation of attention. In this study, we investigated how brain network activity varied across different levels of attentional focus (i.e., "zones"). Participants performed a finger-tapping task, and guided by previous research, in-the-zone performance or state was identified by low reaction time variability and out-of-the-zone as the inverse. In-the-zone sessions tended to occur earlier in the session than out-of-the-zone blocks. This is unsurprising given the way attention fluctuates over time. Employing a novel method of time-varying functional connectivity, called the quasi-periodic pattern analysis (i.e., reliable, network-level low-frequency fluctuations), we found that the activity between the default mode network (DMN) and task positive network (TPN) is significantly more anti-correlated during in-the-zone states versus out-of-the-zone states. Furthermore, it is the frontoparietal control network (FPCN) switch that differentiates the two zone states. Activity in the dorsal attention network (DAN) and DMN were desynchronized across both zone states. During out-of-the-zone periods, FPCN synchronized with DMN, while during in-the-zone periods, FPCN switched to synchronized with DAN. In contrast, the ventral attention network (VAN) synchronized more closely with DMN during in-the-zone periods compared with out-of-the-zone periods. These findings demonstrate that time-varying functional connectivity of low frequency fluctuations across different brain networks varies with fluctuations in sustained attention or other processes that change over time.

A Nomothetic Span Approach to the Construct Validation of Sustained Attention Consistency: Re-Analyzing Two Latent-Variable Studies of Performance Variability and Mind-Wandering Self-Reports

The ability to sustain attention consistency is frequently assessed using either objective behavioral measures, such as reaction time (RT) variability, or subjective self-report measures, such as rates of task-unrelated thought (TUT). The current studies examined whether the individual-difference covariation in these measures provides a more construct valid assessment of attention consistency than does either alone. We argue that performance and self-report measures mutually validate each other; each measurement approach has its own sources of error, so their shared variance should best reflect the attention consistency construct. We reanalyzed two latent-variable studies where RT variability and TUTs were measured in multiple tasks (Kane et al. in J Exp Psychol Gen 145:1017-1048, 2016; Unsworth et al. in J Exp Psychol Gen 150:1303-1331, 2021), along with several nomological network constructs to test the convergent and discriminant validity of a general attention consistency factor. Confirmatory factor analyses assessing bifactor (preregistered) and hierarchical (non-preregistered) models suggested that attention consistency can be modeled as the shared variance among objective and subjective measures. This attention consistency factor was related to working memory capacity, attention (interference) control, processing speed, state motivation and alertness, and self-reported cognitive failures and positive schizotypy. Although bifactor models of general attention consistency provide the most compelling construct validity evidence for a specific ability to sustain attention, multiverse analyses of outlier decisions suggested they are less robust than hierarchical models. The results provide evidence for the general ability to sustain attention consistency and suggestions for improving its measurement.

Low-frequency variability in theta activity modulates the attention-fluctuation across task and resting states

Sustained attention is not constant but fluctuates influencing our task performance. Albeit intensive investigations, it remains unclear whether the attention-fluctuation during tasks is derived from its spontaneous fluctuation in the resting state. Here, we addressed this issue by investigating the attention-fluctuation in both task and resting states, through the EEG measurement of theta-variability. We found significant rest-task modulation of theta-variability, i.e., reduced theta-variability in the task state compared to the resting state. This task and rest modulation was manifested in the low-frequency of theta-variability (<0.1 Hz). Furthermore, the low-frequency theta-variability exhibited a significant rest-task correlation, however, only the low-frequency theta-variability in the task state but not in the resting state was correlated with the behavioral performance. These findings shed light on the low-frequency feature of attention-fluctuation, and advanced our understanding of sustained attention by suggesting that the theta-variability in low-frequencies was relevant to attention level in task state.

Dynamic noise estimation: A generalized method for modeling noise fluctuations in decision-making

Computational cognitive modeling is an important tool for understanding the processes supporting human and animal decision-making. Choice data in decision-making tasks are inherently noisy, and separating noise from signal can improve the quality of computational modeling. Common approaches to model decision noise often assume constant levels of noise or exploration throughout learning (e.g., the ϵ -softmax policy). However, this assumption is not guaranteed to hold - for example, a subject might disengage and lapse into an inattentive phase for a series of trials in the middle of otherwise low-noise performance. Here, we introduce a new, computationally inexpensive method to dynamically infer the levels of noise in choice behavior, under a model assumption that agents can transition between two discrete latent states (e.g., fully engaged and random). Using simulations, we show that modeling noise levels dynamically instead of statically can substantially improve model fit and parameter estimation, especially in the presence of long periods of noisy behavior, such as prolonged attentional lapses. We further demonstrate the empirical benefits of dynamic noise estimation at the individual and group levels by validating it on four published datasets featuring diverse populations, tasks, and models. Based on the theoretical and empirical evaluation of the method reported in the current work, we expect that dynamic noise estimation will improve modeling in many decision-making paradigms over the static noise estimation method currently used in the modeling literature, while keeping additional model complexity and assumptions minimal.

Childhood adversity and mind wandering: the mediating role of cognitive flexibility and habitual tendencies

ABSTRACTBackground: Initial evidence proposes that exposure to childhood adversity may induce avoidance or withdrawal behaviour. However, it remains unclear whether childhood adversity results in avoidance from externally directed thinking to both deliberate and spontaneous mind wandering, i.e. intentionally or unintentionally diverting attention from ongoing task to task-independent thoughts.Objective: To assess the associations between childhood adversity, and mind wandering, and to evaluate the mediating roles of cognitive flexibility, and habit tendencies.Methods: A total of 601 Chinese subjects (378 females, Mage = 19.37) participated in the current study. The participants completed a series of questionnaires including demographics, childhood maltreatment, cognitive flexibility, habitual tendencies, and mind wandering.Results: Hierarchical regression analyses showed childhood adversity, the control facet of cognitive flexibility, and the automaticity facet of habitual tendencies had significant contributions to deliberate mind wandering (β = 0.10, β = -0.40, and β = 0.06) and spontaneous mind wandering (β = 0.09, β = -0.28, and β = 0.07). Serial mediation analyses revealed that the control and automaticity partially mediated associations between childhood adversity and mind wandering (deliberate mind wandering: 95% CIs = [0.037 0.078], and spontaneous mind wandering: 95% CIs = [0.023, 0.062]).Conclusions: The findings underscore the pivotal role of mediators in delineating the relationship between childhood adversity and mind wandering in everyday life. Interventions geared toward augmenting the control component of cognitive flexibility and regulating the automatic component of habitual tendencies show the potential to ameliorate the propensity of individuals affected by childhood adversity to disengage cognitively from the present moment.

A combined experimental-correlational approach to the construct validity of performance-based and self-report-based measures of sustained attention

The ability to sustain attention is often measured with either objective performance indicators, like within-person RT variability, or subjective self-reports, like mind wandering propensity. A more construct valid approach, however, may be to assess the covariation in these performance and self-report measures, given that each of these is influenced by different sources of measurement error. If the correlation between performance-variability and self-report measures reflects the sustained attention construct, then task manipulations aimed at reducing the sustained attention demands of tasks should reduce the correlation between them (in addition to reducing mean levels of variability and mind wandering). The current study investigated this claim with a combined experimental-correlation approach. In two experiments (Ns ~ 1,500 each), participants completed tasks that either maximized or minimized the demand for sustained attention. Our demand manipulations successfully reduced the mean levels of sustained attention failures in both the objective and subjective measures, in both experiments. In neither experiment, however, did the covariation between these measures change as a function of the sustained attention demands of the tasks. We can therefore claim only minimal support for the construct validity of our measurement approach to sustained attention.

When the mind's eye prevails: The Internal Dominance over External Attention (IDEA) hypothesis

Throughout the 20th century, the psychological literature has considered attention as being primarily directed at the outside world. More recent theories conceive attention as also operating on internal information, and mounting evidence suggests a single, shared attentional focus between external and internal information. Such sharing implies a cognitive architecture where attention needs to be continuously shifted between prioritizing either external or internal information, but the fundamental principles underlying this attentional balancing act are currently unknown. Here, we propose and evaluate one such principle in the shape of the Internal Dominance over External Attention (IDEA) hypothesis: Contrary to the traditional view of attention as being primarily externally oriented, IDEA asserts that attention is inherently biased toward internal information. We provide a theoretical account for why such an internal attention bias may have evolved and examine findings from a wide range of literatures speaking to the balancing of external versus internal attention, including research on working memory, attention switching, visual search, mind wandering, sustained attention, and meditation. We argue that major findings in these disparate research lines can be coherently understood under IDEA. Finally, we consider tentative neurocognitive mechanisms contributing to IDEA and examine the practical implications of more deliberate control over this bias in the context of psychopathology. It is hoped that this novel hypothesis motivates cross-talk between the reviewed research lines and future empirical studies directly examining the mechanisms that steer attention either inward or outward on a moment-by-moment basis.

Prefrontal GABA and glutamate-glutamine levels affect sustained attention

Attention levels fluctuate during the course of daily activities. However, factors underlying sustained attention are still unknown. We investigated mechanisms of sustained attention using psychological, neuroimaging, and neurochemical approaches. Participants were scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing gradual-onset, continuous performance tasks (gradCPTs). In gradCPTs, narrations or visual scenes gradually changed from one to the next. Participants pressed a button for frequent Go trials as quickly as possible and withheld responses to infrequent No-go trials. Performance was better for the visual gradCPT than for the auditory gradCPT, but the 2 were correlated. The dorsal attention network was activated during intermittent responses, regardless of sensory modality. Reaction-time variability of gradCPTs was correlated with signal changes (SCs) in the left fronto-parietal regions. We also used magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to measure levels of glutamate-glutamine (Glx) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the left prefrontal cortex (PFC). Glx levels were associated with performance under undemanding situations, whereas GABA levels were related to performance under demanding situations. Combined fMRI-MRS results demonstrated that SCs of the left PFC were positively correlated with neurometabolite levels. These findings suggest that a neural balance between excitation and inhibition is involved in attentional fluctuations and brain dynamics.

Transcranial stimulation of alpha oscillations modulates brain state dynamics in sustained attention

The brain operates an advanced complex system to support mental activities. Cognition is thought to emerge from dynamic states of the complex brain system, which are organized spatially through large-scale neural networks and temporally via neural synchrony. However, specific mechanisms underlying these processes remain obscure. Applying high-definition alpha-frequency transcranial alternating-current stimulation (HD α-tACS) in a continuous performance task (CPT) during functional resonance imaging (fMRI), we causally elucidate these major organizational architectures in a key cognitive operation-sustained attention. We demonstrated that α-tACS enhanced both electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha power and sustained attention, in a correlated fashion. Akin to temporal fluctuations inherent in sustained attention, our hidden Markov modeling (HMM) of fMRI timeseries uncovered several recurrent, dynamic brain states, which were organized through a few major neural networks and regulated by the alpha oscillation. Specifically, during sustain attention, α-tACS regulated the temporal dynamics of the brain states by suppressing a Task-Negative state (characterized by activation of the default mode network/DMN) and Distraction state (with activation of the ventral attention and visual networks). These findings thus linked dynamic states of major neural networks and alpha oscillations, providing important insights into systems-level mechanisms of attention. They also highlight the efficacy of non-invasive oscillatory neuromodulation in probing the functioning of the complex brain system and encourage future clinical applications to improve neural systems health and cognitive performance.

Naturalistic auditory stimuli with fNIRS prefrontal cortex imaging: A potential paradigm for disorder of consciousness diagnostics (a study with healthy participants)

Disorder of consciousness (DOC) is a devastating condition due to brain damage. A patient in this condition is non-responsive, but nevertheless might be conscious at least at some level. Determining the conscious level of DOC patients is important for both medical and ethical reasons, but reliably achieving this has been a major challenge. Naturalistic stimuli in combination with neuroimaging have been proposed as a promising approach for DOC patient diagnosis. Capitalizing on and extending this proposal, the goal of the present study conducted with healthy participants was to develop a new paradigm with naturalistic auditory stimuli and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) - an approach that can be used at the bedside. Twenty-four healthy participants passively listened to 9 min of auditory story, scrambled auditory story, classical music, and scrambled classical music segments while their prefrontal cortex activity was recorded using fNIRS. We found much higher intersubject correlation (ISC) during story compared to scrambled story conditions both at the group level and in the majority of individual subjects, suggesting that fNIRS imaging of the prefrontal cortex might be a sensitive method to capture neural changes associated with narrative comprehension. In contrast, the ISC during the classical music segment did not differ reliably from scrambled classical music and was also much lower than the story condition. Our main result is that naturalistic auditory stories with fNIRS might be used in a clinical setup to identify high-level processing and potential consciousness in DOC patients.

Event-related potentials associated with attentional networks evidence changes in executive and arousal vigilance

Attention is regulated by three independent but interacting networks, that is, alerting, comprising phasic alertness and vigilance, orienting, and executive control. Previous studies analyzing event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with attentional networks have focused on phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control, without an independent measure of vigilance. ERPs associated with vigilance have been instead measured in separate studies and via different tasks. The present study aimed to differentiate ERPs associated with attentional networks by simultaneously measuring vigilance along with phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control. Forty participants (34 women, age: M = 25.96; SD = 4.96) completed two sessions wherein the electroencephalogram was recorded while they completed the Attentional Networks Test for Interactions and Vigilance-executive and arousal components, a task that measures phasic alertness, orienting, and executive control along with executive (i.e., detection of infrequent critical signals) and arousal (i.e., sustaining a fast reaction to environmental stimuli) vigilance. ERPs previously associated with attentional networks were replicated here: (a) N1, P2, and contingent negative variation for phasic alertness; (b) P1, N1, and P3 for orienting; and (c) N2 and slow positivity for executive control. Importantly, different ERPs were associated with vigilance: while the executive vigilance decrement was associated with an increase in P3 and slow positivity across time-on-task, arousal vigilance loss was associated with reduced N1 and P2 amplitude. The present study shows that attentional networks can be described by different ERPs simultaneously observed in a single session, including independent measures of executive and arousal vigilance on its assessment.

Quantifying attention span across the lifespan

Introduction

Studies examining sustained attention abilities typically utilize metrics that quantify performance on vigilance tasks, such as response time and response time variability. However, approaches that assess the duration that an individual can maintain their attention over time are lacking.

Methods

Here we developed an objective attention span metric that quantified the maximum amount of time that a participant continuously maintained an optimal "in the zone" sustained attention state while performing a continuous performance task.

Results

In a population of 262 individuals aged 7-85, we showed that attention span was longer in young adults than in children and older adults. Furthermore, declines in attention span over time during task engagement were related to clinical symptoms of inattention in children.

Discussion

These results suggest that quantifying attention span is a unique and meaningful method of assessing sustained attention across the lifespan and in populations with inattention symptoms.

A review of visual sustained attention: neural mechanisms and computational models

Sustained attention is one of the basic abilities of humans to maintain concentration on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information over extended periods. The purpose of the review is to provide insight into how to integrate neural mechanisms of sustained attention with computational models to facilitate research and application. Although many studies have assessed attention, the evaluation of humans' sustained attention is not sufficiently comprehensive. Hence, this study provides a current review on both neural mechanisms and computational models of visual sustained attention. We first review models, measurements, and neural mechanisms of sustained attention and propose plausible neural pathways for visual sustained attention. Next, we analyze and compare the different computational models of sustained attention that the previous reviews have not systematically summarized. We then provide computational models for automatically detecting vigilance states and evaluation of sustained attention. Finally, we outline possible future trends in the research field of sustained attention.

Performance-linked visual feedback slows response times during a sustained attention task

In the present study, we tested a visual feedback triggering system based on real-time tracking of response time (RT) in a sustained attention task. In our task, at certain points, brief visual feedback epochs were presented without interrupting the task itself. When these feedback epochs were performance-linked-meaning that they were triggered because participants were responding more quickly than usual-RTs were slowed after the presentation of feedback. However, visual feedback epochs displayed at predetermined times that were independent of participants' performance did not slow RTs. Results from a second experiment support the idea that this is not simply a return to baseline that would have occurred had the feedback not been presented, but instead suggest that the feedback itself was effective in altering participants' responses. In a third experiment, we replicated this result across with both written word feedback and visual symbolic feedback, as well as in cases where the participant was explicitly told that the feedback was linked to their performance. All together, these data provide insight into potential mechanisms for detecting and disrupting lapses in sustained attention without interrupting a continuous task.

Influence of game features on attention in adults

Introduction

The incorporation of game features into cognitive tasks can inform us about the influence of reward and motivation on attention. Continuous performance tasks (CPTs), designed to assess attention abilities, are examples of cognitive tasks that have been targeted for the addition of game features. However, previous results have been mixed regarding how game elements affect attention abilities and task performance.

Methods

Here, we studied if there were factors that predict which individuals exhibit changes in attention from game features added to a CPT. Participants (N = 94, aged 21-71) played a traditional CPT and a game CPT with identical mechanics, but featured engaging game elements (aesthetics, storyline, competition, feedback, and reward).

Results

We first found corroborating evidence that game features have mixed effects on attention performance: most attention metrics of interest exhibited no overall difference between the traditional and game CPT, while game elements reduced performance for a few metrics. Importantly, we also found that specific behavioral and demographic profiles predicted individual differences in performance on the game CPT compared to the traditional CPT. Those with more attention difficulties (ADHD symptoms), more reward responsiveness, and younger adults performed better on the game CPT while, conversely, those with fewer ADHD symptoms, less reward responsiveness, and older adults performed better on the traditional CPT.

Discussion

These findings provide insights into how game features can influence attention in different individuals and have important implications for the use of game elements in cognitive tasks and training interventions.

Audience immersion: validating attentional and physiological measures against self-report

When an audience member becomes immersed, their attention shifts towards the media and story, and they allocate cognitive resources to represent events and characters. Here, we investigate whether it is possible to measure immersion using continuous behavioural and physiological measures. Using television and film clips, we validated dual-task reaction times, heart rate, and skin conductance against self-reported narrative engagement. We find that reaction times to a secondary task were strongly positively correlated with self-reported immersion: slower reaction times were indicative of greater immersion, particularly emotional engagement. Synchrony in heart rate across participants was associated with self-reported attentional and emotional engagement with the story, although we found no such relationship with skin conductance. These results establish both dual-task reaction times and heart rate as candidate measures for the real-time, continuous, assessment of audience immersion.

Vigilance decrement and mind-wandering in sustained attention tasks: Two sides of the same coin?

Background

Decrements in performance and the propensity for increased mind-wandering (i.e., task-unrelated thoughts) across time-on-task are two pervasive phenomena observed when people perform vigilance tasks. In the present study, we asked whether processes that lead to vigilance decrement and processes that foster the propensity for mind-wandering (MW) can be dissociated or whether they share a common mechanism. In one experiment, we introduced two critical manipulations: increasing task demands and applying anodal high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Method

Seventy-eight participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups resulting from the factorial combination of task demand (low, high) and stimulation (anodal, sham). Participants completed the sustained attention to response task (SART), which included thought probes on intentional and unintentional MW. In addition, we investigated the crucial role of alpha oscillations in a novel approach. By assessing pre-post resting EEG, we explored whether participants’ variability in baseline alpha power predicted performance in MW and vigilance decrement related to tDCS or task demands, respectively, and whether such variability was a stable characteristic of participants.

Results

Our results showed a double dissociation, such that task demands exclusively affected vigilance decrement, while anodal tDCS exclusively affected the rate of MW. Furthermore, the slope of the vigilance decrement function and MW rate (overall, intentional and unintentional) did not correlate. Critically, resting state alpha-band activity predicted tDCS-related gains in unintentional MW alone, but not in vigilance decrement, and remained stable after participants completed the task.

Conclusion

These results show that when a sustained attention task involving executive vigilance, such as the SART, is designed to elicit both vigilance decrement effects and MW, the processes leading to vigilance decrement should be differentiated from those responsible for MW, a claim that is supported by the double dissociation observed here and the lack of correlation between the measures chosen to assess both phenomena. Furthermore, the results provide the first evidence of how individual differences in alpha power at baseline may be of crucial importance in predicting the effects of tDCS on MW propensity.

Daily arousal variation has little effect on sustained attention performance

Sustaining attention is an important cognitive process for everyday functioning and arousal is thought to underpin its performance. Primate studies depict an inverted-u relation between sustained attention and arousal, in which sustained attention performance is most affected at the extreme levels of arousal and peak performance aligns with moderate arousal. Human research findings are, however, inconsistent. This study aimed to investigate the effects of arousal on sustained attention performance in humans using two approaches-a small-N study with an inbuilt replication to test within-participant variation, and a larger sample assessing between-participant variation. The Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) was used to measure sustained attention performance and the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) was used to measure arousal. In the small-N study five participants completed the SART and KSS once an hour between 7 a.m. and 7 p.m., repeated two weeks later. Significant, curvilinear variation in KSS across time-of-day was found. A linear association between SART response time variability (sigma) and KSS was noted, however no other consistent associations between the SART and KSS were found. In the large-N study, 161 participants completed the SART and KSS once, at a time of day of their choosing. There were no significant relations between SART measures and the KSS, indicating that subjective sleepiness was not related to sustained attention performance. Overall, the hypothesized inverted-u relation between arousal and sustained attention performance was not found. The results suggested that diurnal arousal variation does not modify sustained attention performance in adults.

Acute Tai Chi Chuan exercise enhances sustained attention and elicits increased cuneus/precuneus activation in young adults

BACKGROUND

The potential for acute exercise to enhance attention has been discussed in the literature. However, the neural mechanisms by which acute exercise affects attention remain elusive.

METHOD

In this study, we first identified an optimized acute Tai Chi Chuan (ATCC) exercise protocol that enhances sustained attention performance and then aimed to determine the neural substrates of exercise-enhanced attention. Reaction time (RT) from the psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) was used to evaluate sustained attention. In Experiment 1, improvements in RTs were compared among six different exercise protocols. In Experiment 2, the participants completed the PVT in an MRI scanner on both rest and exercise days.

RESULTS

Experiment 1 showed that practicing TCC 3 times for a total of 20 minutes, followed by 10-minute rest periods, resulted in the largest improvements in RTs. Experiment 2 showed that ATCC enhanced sustained attention, as evidenced by shorter RTs, and resulted in greater cuneus/precuneus activation after exercise than in the rest condition. Exercise-induced changes in brain activities across a distributed network exhibited significant correlations with attention.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, this study indicates that ATCC effectively enhances sustained attention and underscores the key role of the cuneus/precuneus and frontoparietal-cerebellar regions in facilitating vigilance among young adults.

Attentional fluctuations and the temporal organization of memory

Event boundaries and temporal context shape the organization of episodic memories. We hypothesized that attentional fluctuations during encoding serve as "events" that affect temporal context representations and recall organization. Individuals encoded trial-unique objects during a modified sustained attention task. Memory was tested with free recall. Response time variability during the encoding tasks was used to characterize "in the zone" and "out of the zone" attentional states. We predicted that: 1) "in the zone", vs. "out of the zone", attentional states should be more conducive to maintaining temporal context representations that can cue temporally organized recall; and 2) temporally distant "in the zone" states may enable more recall "leaps" across intervening items. We replicated several important findings in the sustained attention and memory fields, including more online errors during "out of the zone" vs. "in the zone" attentional states and recall that was temporally structured. Yet, across four studies, we found no evidence for either of our main hypotheses. Recall was robustly temporally organized, and there was no difference in recall organization for items encoded "in the zone" vs. "out of the zone". We conclude that temporal context serves as a strong scaffold for episodic memory, one that can support organized recall even for items encoded during relatively poor attentional states. We also highlight the numerous challenges in striking a balance between sustained attention tasks (long blocks of a repetitive task) and memory recall tasks (short lists of unique items) and describe strategies for researchers interested in uniting these two fields.

Relationships among age, socioeconomic status, and distractibility in preschoolers as assessed by the Competitive Attention Test

In children, the ability to attend to relevant auditory information and ignore distracting information is crucial for learning and educational achievement. Distractibility, the propensity to pay attention to irrelevant information, depends on multiple components of cognition (voluntary attention orienting, sustained attention, distraction resulting from the capture of attention by a distractor, phasic arousal, impulsivity, and motor control) that may mature at different ages. Here, we used the Competitive Attention Test (CAT) to measure these components in children aged 3 to 5 years. Our goal was to characterize changes in the efficiency of attention during the preschool period and to determine whether distractibility varies as a function of socioeconomic status (SES). All 3-year-olds (n = 14) and some 4- and 5-year-olds (n = 21) needed to be excluded from the sample due to noncompliance with instructions, suggesting that the CAT might not be suitable for children with poorly developed skills in sustained attention. Among 4- and 5-year-olds who completed the CAT (n = 71), sustained attention improved with age, whereas voluntary attention orienting remained immature. Independent of age, task-irrelevant sounds induced distraction, phasic arousal, and impulsivity. There was no relationship between SES and children's distraction. Finally, children from lower SES backgrounds showed reduced sustained attention abilities and increased impulsivity. Taken together, these findings suggest that distractibility is still developing during the preschool period and is likely to vary depending on the SES background of a child's family.

Reconceptualizing mind wandering from a switching perspective

Mind wandering is a universal phenomenon in which our attention shifts away from the task at hand toward task-unrelated thoughts. Despite it inherently involving a shift in mental set, little is known about the role of cognitive flexibility in mind wandering. In this article we consider the potential of cognitive flexibility as a mechanism for mediating and/or regulating the occurrence of mind wandering. Our review begins with a brief introduction to the prominent theories of mind wandering-the executive failure hypothesis, the decoupling hypothesis, the process-occurrence framework, and the resource-control account of sustained attention. Then, after discussing their respective merits and weaknesses, we put forward a new perspective of mind wandering focused on cognitive flexibility, which provides an account more in line with the data to date, including why older populations experience a reduction in mind wandering. After summarizing initial evidence prompting this new perspective, drawn from several mind-wandering and task-switching studies, we recommend avenues for future research aimed at further understanding the importance of cognitive flexibility in mind wandering.

Hydrogel Nanoarchitectonics of a Flexible and Self-Adhesive Electrode for Long-Term Wireless Electroencephalogram Recording and High-Accuracy Sustained Attention Evaluation

Hydrogels are ideal building blocks to fabricate the next generation of electrodes for acquiring high-quality physiological electrical signals, for example, electroencephalography (EEG). However, collection of EEG signals still suffers from electrode deformation, sweating, extensive body motion and vibration, and environmental interference. Herein, polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinylpyrrolidone are selected to prepare a hydrogel network with tissue-like modulus and excellent flexibility. Additionally, polydopamine nanoparticles, obtained by polydopamine peroxidation, are integrated into the hydrogel to endow them with higher transparency, higher self-adhesion, and lower impedance. Consequently, a multichannel and wirelessly operated hydrogel electrode can establish a conformal and stable interface with tissue and illustrate high channel uniformity, low interfacial contact impedance, low power noise, long-term stability, and a tolerance to sweat and motion. Furthermore, the hydrogel electrode shows the unprecedented ability to classify the recorded high-quality prefrontal EEG signals into seven-category sustained attention with high accuracy (91.5%), having great potential applications in the assessment of human consciousness and in multifunctional diagnoses.

Contribution of sustained attention abilities to real-world academic skills in children

Sustained attention is a critical cognitive ability that improves over the course of development and predicts important real-world outcomes, such as academic achievement. However, the majority of work demonstrating links between sustained attention and academic skills has been conducted in lab-based settings that lack the ecological validity of a more naturalistic environment, like school. Further, most studies focus on targeted academic measures of specific sub-skills and have not fully examined whether this relationship generalizes to broad measures of academic achievement that are used for important, real-world, academic advancement decisions, such as standardized test scores. To address this gap, we examined the role of sustained attention in predicting targeted and broad assessments of academic abilities, where all skills were assessed in group-based environments in schools. In a sample of over 700 students aged 9-14, we showed that attention was positively related to performance on targeted assessments (math fluency and reading comprehension), as well as broad academic measures (statewide standardized test scores). Moreover, we found that attention was more predictive of targeted math sub-skills compared to assessments of broad math abilities, but was equally predictive of reading for both types of measures. Our findings add to our understanding of how sustained attention is linked to academic skills assessed in more 'real-world', naturalistic school environments and have important implications for designing tools to support student's academic success.

Self-caught methodologies for measuring mind wandering with meta-awareness: A systematic review

Mind wandering, also known as task-unrelated thought, refers to the drift of attention from a focal task or train of thought. Because self-caught measures of mind wandering require participants to spontaneously indicate when they notice their attention drift, self-caught methodologies provide a way to measure mind wandering with meta-awareness. Given the proposed role of meta-awareness in mental health and psychological interventions, an overview of existing self-caught methodologies would help clinicians and researchers make informed decisions when choosing or adapting a mind wandering or meta-awareness measure. This systematic review included 39 studies after 790 studies were assessed for eligibility. All studies operationalised mind wandering as instances of attention drift from a primary task. Three types of primary task were identified: (1) tasks adapted from computerised continuous performance tests (CPT) of sustained attention, (2) tasks involving focusing on the breath or a stream of aural beats, akin to in-vivo mindfulness meditation, (3) tasks involving an everyday life activity such as reading. Although data on mind wandering without meta-awareness (e.g., measured with probe-caught measures) was also obtained in many studies, such data was not always used in conjunction with self-caught mind wandering data to determine level of mind wandering meta-awareness. Few studies reported both reliability and validity of the measures used. This review shows that considerable methodological heterogeneity exists in the literature. Methodological variants of self-caught mind wandering methodologies are documented and examined, and suggestions for future research and clinical work are suggested.

Distributed context-dependent choice information in mouse posterior cortex

Choice information appears in multi-area brain networks mixed with sensory, motor, and cognitive variables. In the posterior cortex-traditionally implicated in decision computations-the presence, strength, and area specificity of choice signals are highly variable, limiting a cohesive understanding of their computational significance. Examining the mesoscale activity in the mouse posterior cortex during a visual task, we found that choice signals defined a decision variable in a low-dimensional embedding space with a prominent contribution along the ventral visual stream. Their subspace was near-orthogonal to concurrently represented sensory and motor-related activations, with modulations by task difficulty and by the animals' attention state. A recurrent neural network trained with animals' choices revealed an equivalent decision variable whose context-dependent dynamics agreed with that of the neural data. Our results demonstrated an independent, multi-area decision variable in the posterior cortex, controlled by task features and cognitive demands, possibly linked to contextual inference computations in dynamic animal-environment interactions.