1
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De Luca LA, Laurin M, Menani JV. Control of fluid intake in dehydrated rats and evolution of sodium appetite. Physiol Behav 2024; 284:114642. [PMID: 39032667 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
The objective of the present work is to examine from a new perspective the existence of causal factors not predicted by the classical theory that thirst and sodium appetite are two distinct motivations. For example, we ask why water deprivation induces sodium appetite, thirst is not "water appetite", and intracellular dehydration potentially causes sodium appetite. Contrary to the classical theory, we suggest that thirst first, and sodium appetite second, designate a temporal sequence underlying the same motivation. The single motivation becomes an "intervenient variable" a concept borrowed from the literature, fully explained in the text, between causes of dehydration (extracellular, intracellular, or both together), and respective behavioral responses subserved by hindbrain-dependent inhibition (e.g., lateral parabrachial nucleus) and forebrain facilitation (e.g., angiotensin II). A corollary is homology between rat sodium appetite and marine teleost thirst-like motivation that we name "protodipsia". The homology argument rests on similarities between behavior (salty water intake) and respective neuroanatomical as well as functional mechanisms. Tetrapod origin in a marine environment provides additional support for the homology. The single motivation hypothesis is also consistent with ingestive behaviors in nature given similarities (e.g., thirst producing brackish water intake) between the behavior of the laboratory rat and wild animals, rodents included. The hypotheses of single motivation and homology might explain why hyperosmotic rats, or eventually any other hyperosmotic tetrapod, shows paradoxical signs of sodium appetite. They might also explain how ingestive behaviors determined by dehydration and subserved by hindbrain inhibitory mechanisms contributed to tetrapod transition from sea to land.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurival A De Luca
- Department of Physiology & Pathology, School of Dentistry, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 14801-903 Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Michel Laurin
- CR2P, UMR 7207, CNRS/MNHN/SU, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment de Géologie, CP 48, F-75231 Paris cedex 05, France
| | - José Vanderlei Menani
- Department of Physiology & Pathology, School of Dentistry, São Paulo State University (UNESP), 14801-903 Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
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2
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Kuralay A, McDonough MC, Resch JM. Control of sodium appetite by hindbrain aldosterone-sensitive neurons. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2024; 592:112323. [PMID: 38936597 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2024.112323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Mineralocorticoids play a key role in hydromineral balance by regulating sodium retention and potassium wasting. Through favoring sodium, mineralocorticoids can cause hypertension from fluid overload under conditions of hyperaldosteronism, such as aldosterone-secreting tumors. An often-overlooked mechanism by which aldosterone functions to increase sodium is through stimulation of salt appetite. To drive sodium intake, aldosterone targets neurons in the hindbrain which uniquely express 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2). This enzyme is a necessary precondition for aldosterone-sensing cells as it metabolizes glucocorticoids - preventing their activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor. In this review, we will consider the role of hindbrain HSD2 neurons in regulating sodium appetite by discussing HSD2 expression in the brain, regulation of hindbrain HSD2 neuron activity, and the circuitry mediating the effects of these aldosterone-sensitive neurons. Reducing the activity of hindbrain HSD2 neurons may be a viable strategy to reduce sodium intake and cardiovascular risk, particularly for conditions of hyperaldosteronism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Kuralay
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Miriam C McDonough
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Molecular Medicine Graduate Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Jon M Resch
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Molecular Medicine Graduate Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.
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3
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Cinotti F, Coutureau E, Khamassi M, Marchand AR, Girard B. Regulation of reinforcement learning parameters captures long-term changes in rat behaviour. Eur J Neurosci 2024. [PMID: 38923238 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
In uncertain environments in which resources fluctuate continuously, animals must permanently decide whether to stabilise learning and exploit what they currently believe to be their best option, or instead explore potential alternatives and learn fast from new observations. While such a trade-off has been extensively studied in pretrained animals facing non-stationary decision-making tasks, it is yet unknown how they progressively tune it while learning the task structure during pretraining. Here, we compared the ability of different computational models to account for long-term changes in the behaviour of 24 rats while they learned to choose a rewarded lever in a three-armed bandit task across 24 days of pretraining. We found that the day-by-day evolution of rat performance and win-shift tendency revealed a progressive stabilisation of the way they regulated reinforcement learning parameters. We successfully captured these behavioural adaptations using a meta-learning model in which either the learning rate or the inverse temperature was controlled by the average reward rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Cinotti
- Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotique, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Paris, France
- University of Reading, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, Whiteknights, Reading, UK
| | | | - Mehdi Khamassi
- Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotique, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Paris, France
| | | | - Benoît Girard
- Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotique, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Paris, France
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4
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van der Schaaf ME, Geerligs L, Toni I, Knoop H, Oosterman JM. Disentangling pain and fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome: a resting state connectivity study before and after cognitive behavioral therapy. Psychol Med 2024; 54:1735-1748. [PMID: 38193344 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291723003690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fatigue is a central feature of myalgic encephalomyelitis or chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), but many ME/CFS patients also report comorbid pain symptoms. It remains unclear whether these symptoms are related to similar or dissociable brain networks. This study used resting-state fMRI to disentangle networks associated with fatigue and pain symptoms in ME/CFS patients, and to link changes in those networks to clinical improvements following cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). METHODS Relationships between pain and fatigue symptoms and cortico-cortical connectivity were assessed within ME/CFS patients at baseline (N = 72) and after CBT (N = 33) and waiting list (WL, N = 18) and compared to healthy controls (HC, N = 29). The analyses focused on four networks previously associated with pain and/or fatigue, i.e. the fronto-parietal network (FPN), premotor network (PMN), somatomotor network (SMN), and default mode network (DMN). RESULTS At baseline, variation in pain and fatigue symptoms related to partially dissociable brain networks. Fatigue was associated with higher SMN-PMN connectivity and lower SMN-DMN connectivity. Pain was associated with lower PMN-DMN connectivity. CBT improved SMN-DMN connectivity, compared to WL. Larger clinical improvements were associated with larger increases in frontal SMN-DMN connectivity. No CBT effects were observed for PMN-DMN or SMN-PMN connectivity. CONCLUSIONS These results provide insight into the dissociable neural mechanisms underlying fatigue and pain symptoms in ME/CFS and how they are affected by CBT in successfully treated patients. Further investigation of how and in whom behavioral and biomedical treatments affect these networks is warranted to improve and individualize existing or new treatments for ME/CFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marieke E van der Schaaf
- Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Department of cognitive neuropsychology Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Linda Geerligs
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Ivan Toni
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Hans Knoop
- Department of Medical Psychology and Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joukje M Oosterman
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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5
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Aquino TG, Courellis H, Mamelak AN, Rutishauser U, O Doherty JP. Encoding of Predictive Associations in Human Prefrontal and Medial Temporal Neurons During Pavlovian Appetitive Conditioning. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1628232024. [PMID: 38423764 PMCID: PMC11044193 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1628-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian conditioning is thought to involve the formation of learned associations between stimuli and values, and between stimuli and specific features of outcomes. Here, we leveraged human single neuron recordings in ventromedial prefrontal, dorsomedial frontal, hippocampus, and amygdala while patients of both sexes performed an appetitive Pavlovian conditioning task probing both stimulus-value and stimulus-stimulus associations. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex encoded predictive value along with the amygdala, and also encoded predictions about the identity of stimuli that would subsequently be presented, suggesting a role for neurons in this region in encoding predictive information beyond value. Unsigned error signals were found in dorsomedial frontal areas and hippocampus, potentially supporting learning of non-value related outcome features. Our findings implicate distinct human prefrontal and medial temporal neuronal populations in mediating predictive associations which could partially support model-based mechanisms during Pavlovian conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomas G Aquino
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- Computation and Neural Systems, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Hristos Courellis
- Biological Engineering, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Adam N Mamelak
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
| | - Ueli Rutishauser
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048
- Computation and Neural Systems, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - John P O Doherty
- Computation and Neural Systems, Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
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6
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Le JT, Watson P, Le Pelley ME. Effects of outcome revaluation on attentional prioritisation of reward-related stimuli. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024:17470218241236711. [PMID: 38383282 DOI: 10.1177/17470218241236711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Stimuli associated with rewards can acquire the ability to capture our attention independently of our goals and intentions. Here, we examined whether attentional prioritisation of reward-related cues is sensitive to changes in the value of the reward itself. To this end, we incorporated an instructed outcome devaluation (Experiment 1a), "super-valuation" (Experiment 1b), or value switch (Experiment 2) into a visual search task, using eye-tracking to examine attentional prioritisation of stimuli signalling high- and low-value rewards. In Experiments 1a and 1b, we found that prioritisation of high- and low-value stimuli was insensitive to devaluation of a previously high-value outcome, and super-valuation of a previously low-value outcome, even when participants were provided with further experience of receiving that outcome. In Experiment 2, following a value-switch manipulation, we found that prioritisation of a high-value stimulus could not be overcome with knowledge of the new values of outcomes alone. Only when provided with further experience of receiving the outcomes did patterns of attentional prioritisation of high- and low-value stimuli switch, in line with the updated values of the outcomes they signalled. To reconcile these findings, we suggest that participants were motivated to engage in effortful updating of attentional control settings when there was a relative difference between reward values at test (Experiment 2) but that previous settings were allowed to persist when both outcomes had the same value at test (Experiments 1a and 1b). These findings provide a novel framework to further understand the role of cognitive control in driving reward-modulated attention and behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny T Le
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Poppy Watson
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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7
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Melnikoff DE, Strohminger N. Bayesianism and wishful thinking are compatible. Nat Hum Behav 2024:10.1038/s41562-024-01819-6. [PMID: 38396212 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-024-01819-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Bayesian principles show up across many domains of human cognition, but wishful thinking-where beliefs are updated in the direction of desired outcomes rather than what the evidence implies-seems to threaten the universality of Bayesian approaches to the mind. In this Article, we show that Bayesian optimality and wishful thinking are, despite first appearances, compatible. The setting of opposing goals can cause two groups of people with identical prior beliefs to reach opposite conclusions about the same evidence through fully Bayesian calculations. We show that this is possible because, when people set goals, they receive privileged information in the form of affective experiences, and this information systematically supports goal-consistent conclusions. We ground this idea in a formal, Bayesian model in which affective prediction errors drive wishful thinking. We obtain empirical support for our model across five studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Melnikoff
- Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Nina Strohminger
- Department of Legal Studies and Business Ethics, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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8
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Pool ER, Pauli WM, Cross L, O'Doherty JP. Neural substrates of parallel devaluation-sensitive and devaluation-insensitive Pavlovian learning in humans. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8057. [PMID: 38052792 PMCID: PMC10697955 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43747-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We aim to differentiate the brain regions involved in the learning and encoding of Pavlovian associations sensitive to changes in outcome value from those that are not sensitive to such changes by combining a learning task with outcome devaluation, eye-tracking, and functional magnetic resonance imaging in humans. Contrary to theoretical expectation, voxels correlating with reward prediction errors in the ventral striatum and subgenual cingulate appear to be sensitive to devaluation. Moreover, regions encoding state prediction errors appear to be devaluation insensitive. We can also distinguish regions encoding predictions about outcome taste identity from predictions about expected spatial location. Regions encoding predictions about taste identity seem devaluation sensitive while those encoding predictions about an outcome's spatial location seem devaluation insensitive. These findings suggest the existence of multiple and distinct associative mechanisms in the brain and help identify putative neural correlates for the parallel expression of both devaluation sensitive and insensitive conditioned behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva R Pool
- Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Wolfgang M Pauli
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Logan Cross
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - John P O'Doherty
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Computation and Neural Systems Program, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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9
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Molinaro G, Collins AGE. A goal-centric outlook on learning. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:1150-1164. [PMID: 37696690 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Goals play a central role in human cognition. However, computational theories of learning and decision-making often take goals as given. Here, we review key empirical findings showing that goals shape the representations of inputs, responses, and outcomes, such that setting a goal crucially influences the central aspects of any learning process: states, actions, and rewards. We thus argue that studying goal selection is essential to advance our understanding of learning. By following existing literature in framing goal selection within a hierarchy of decision-making problems, we synthesize important findings on the principles underlying goal value attribution and exploration strategies. Ultimately, we propose that a goal-centric perspective will help develop more complete accounts of learning in both biological and artificial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaia Molinaro
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
| | - Anne G E Collins
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA; Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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10
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Latagliata EC, Orsini C, Cabib S, Biagioni F, Fornai F, Puglisi-Allegra S. Prefrontal Dopamine in Flexible Adaptation to Environmental Changes: A Game for Two Players. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3189. [PMID: 38137410 PMCID: PMC10740496 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Deficits in cognitive flexibility have been characterized in affective, anxiety, and neurodegenerative disorders. This paper reviews data, mainly from studies on animal models, that support the existence of a cortical-striatal brain circuit modulated by dopamine (DA), playing a major role in cognitive/behavioral flexibility. Moreover, we reviewed clinical findings supporting misfunctioning of this circuit in Parkinson's disease that could be responsible for some important non-motoric symptoms. The reviewed findings point to a role of catecholaminergic transmission in the medial prefrontal cortex (mpFC) in modulating DA's availability in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), as well as a role of NAc DA in modulating the motivational value of natural and conditioned stimuli. The review section is accompanied by a preliminary experiment aimed at testing weather the extinction of a simple Pavlovian association fosters increased DA transmission in the mpFC and inhibition of DA transmission in the NAc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cristina Orsini
- I.R.C.C.S. Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00143 Rome, Italy; (C.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Cabib
- I.R.C.C.S. Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00143 Rome, Italy; (C.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Biagioni
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; (F.B.); (F.F.)
| | - Francesco Fornai
- I.R.C.C.S. Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; (F.B.); (F.F.)
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies on Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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11
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Liu L, Liu D, Guo T, Schwieter JW, Liu H. The right superior temporal gyrus plays a role in semantic-rule learning: Evidence supporting a reinforcement learning model. Neuroimage 2023; 282:120393. [PMID: 37820861 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In real-life communication, individuals use language that carries evident rewarding and punishing elements, such as praise and criticism. A common trend is to seek more praise while avoiding criticism. Furthermore, semantics is crucial for conveying information, but such semantic access to native and foreign languages is subtly distinct. To investigate how rule learning occurs in different languages and to highlight the importance of semantics in this process, we investigated both verbal and non-verbal rule learning in first (L1) and second (L2) languages using a reinforcement learning framework, including a semantic rule and a color rule. Our computational modeling on behavioral and brain imaging data revealed that individuals may be more motivated to learn and adhere to rules in an L1 compared to L2, with greater striatum activation during the outcome phase in the L1. Additionally, results on the learning rates and inverse temperature in the two rule learning tasks showed that individuals tend to be conservative and are reluctant to change their judgments regarding rule learning of semantic information. Moreover, the greater the prediction errors, the greater activation of the right superior temporal gyrus in the semantic-rule learning condition, demonstrating that such learning has differential neural correlates than symbolic rule learning. Overall, the findings provide insight into the neural mechanisms underlying rule learning in different languages, and indicate that rule learning involving verbal semantics is not a general symbolic learning that resembles a conditioned stimulus-response, but rather has its own specific characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Liu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, China; Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Dongxue Liu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, China; Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Tingting Guo
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, China; Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Province, China
| | - John W Schwieter
- Language Acquisition, Multilingualism, and Cognition Laboratory / Bilingualism Matters @ Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada; Department of Linguistics and Languages, McMaster University, Canada
| | - Huanhuan Liu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, China; Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, Liaoning Province, China.
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12
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Fraser KM, Collins VL, Wolff AR, Ottenheimer DJ, Bornhoft KN, Pat F, Chen BJ, Janak PH, Saunders BT. Contexts facilitate dynamic value encoding in the mesolimbic dopamine system. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.05.565687. [PMID: 37961363 PMCID: PMC10635154 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.05.565687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive behavior in a dynamic environment often requires rapid revaluation of stimuli that deviates from well-learned associations. The divergence between stable value-encoding and appropriate behavioral output remains a critical test to theories of dopamine's function in learning, motivation, and motor control. Yet how dopamine neurons are involved in the revaluation of cues when the world changes to alter our behavior remains unclear. Here we make use of pharmacology, in vivo electrophysiology, fiber photometry, and optogenetics to resolve the contributions of the mesolimbic dopamine system to the dynamic reorganization of reward-seeking. Male and female rats were trained to discriminate when a conditioned stimulus would be followed by sucrose reward by exploiting the prior, non-overlapping presentation of a separate discrete cue - an occasion setter. Only when the occasion setter's presentation preceded the conditioned stimulus did the conditioned stimulus predict sucrose delivery. As a result, in this task we were able to dissociate the average value of the conditioned stimulus from its immediate expected value on a trial-to-trial basis. Both the activity of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons and dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens were essential for rats to successfully update behavioral responding in response to the occasion setter. Moreover, dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens following the conditioned stimulus only occurred when the occasion setter indicated it would predict reward. Downstream of dopamine release, we found that single neurons in the nucleus accumbens dynamically tracked the value of the conditioned stimulus. Together these results reveal a novel mechanism within the mesolimbic dopamine system for the rapid revaluation of motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt M Fraser
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | | | - Amy R Wolff
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota
| | | | | | - Fiona Pat
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Bridget J Chen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Patricia H Janak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Benjamin T Saunders
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota
- Medical Discovery Team on Addiction, University of Minnesota
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13
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Bien E, Smith K. The role of sex on sign-tracking acquisition and outcome devaluation sensitivity in Long Evans rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 455:114656. [PMID: 37683812 PMCID: PMC10591930 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Cues that predict rewards can trigger reward-seeking behaviors but also can, in some cases, become targets of motivation themselves. One behavioral phenomenon that captures this idea is sign-tracking in which animals, including humans, interact with reward-predictive cues even though it is not necessary to do so. Sign-tracking in rats has been studied in the domain of motivation and in how motivated behaviors can or cannot become excessive and habit-like over time. Many prior studies look at sign-tracking examine this behavior in male subjects, but there are few papers that look at this behavior in female subjects. Moreover, it is unknown where there might be sex-related variation in how flexible sign-tracking is when faced with changing reward values. Therefore, we asked if there were sex differences in the acquisition of sign-tracking behavior and if there were any sex differences in how sensitive animals were in their sign-tracking following reward devaluation. In contrast to previous reports, we found that males and females show no differences in how they acquire sign-tracking and in ultimate sign-tracking levels following training. Additionally, we found no difference in how quickly males and females learned to devalue the food reward, and we found no differences in sign-tracking levels by sex following outcome devaluation. We believe that this is primarily due to our experiment being performed in the Long Evans strain but also believe that there are many other factors contributing to differences between our study and previous work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Bien
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, 6207 Moore Hall, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
| | - Kyle Smith
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, 6207 Moore Hall, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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14
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Berridge KC. Separating desire from prediction of outcome value. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:932-946. [PMID: 37543439 PMCID: PMC10527990 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Individuals typically want what they expect to like, often based on memories of previous positive experiences. However, in some situations desire can decouple completely from memories and from learned predictions of outcome value. The potential for desire to separate from prediction arises from independent operating rules that control motivational incentive salience. Incentive salience, or 'wanting', is a type of mesolimbic desire that evolved for adaptive goals, but can also generate maladaptive addictions. Two proof-of-principle examples are presented here to show how motivational 'wanting' can soar above memory-based predictions of outcome value: (i) 'wanting what is remembered to be disgusting', and (ii) 'wanting what is predicted to hurt'. Consequently, even outcomes remembered and predicted to be negatively aversive can become positively 'wanted'. Similarly, in human addictions, people may experience powerful cue-triggered cravings for outcomes that are not predicted to be enjoyable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent C Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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15
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María-Ríos CE, Fitzpatrick CJ, Czesak FN, Morrow JD. Effects of predictive and incentive value manipulation on sign- and goal-tracking behavior. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 203:107796. [PMID: 37385521 PMCID: PMC10599606 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
When a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an appetitive reward, two different types of conditioned approach responses may develop: a sign-tracking response directed toward the neutral cue, or a goal-tracking response directed toward the location of impending reward delivery. Sign-tracking responses have been postulated to result from attribution of incentive value to conditioned cues, while goal-tracking reflects the assignment of only predictive value to the cue. We therefore hypothesized that sign-tracking rats would be more sensitive to manipulations of incentive value, while goal-tracking rats would be more responsive to changes in the predictive value of the cue. We tested sign- and goal-tracking before and after devaluation of a food reward using lithium chloride, and tested whether either response could be learned under negative contingency conditions that precluded any serendipitous reinforcement of the behavior that might support instrumental learning. We also tested the effects of blocking the predictive value of a cue using simultaneous presentation of a pre-conditioned cue. We found that sign-tracking was sensitive to outcome devaluation, while goal-tracking was not. We also confirmed that both responses are Pavlovian because they can be learned under negative contingency conditions. Goal-tracking was almost completely blocked by a pre-conditioned cue, while sign-tracking was much less sensitive to such interference. These results indicate that sign- and goal-tracking may follow different rules of reinforcement learning and suggest a need to revise current models of associative learning to account for these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina E María-Ríos
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, 204 Washtenaw Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | | | - Francesca N Czesak
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, 204 Washtenaw Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jonathan D Morrow
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, 204 Washtenaw Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, 1500 E. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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16
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Townsend ES, Amaya KA, Smedley EB, Smith KS. Nucleus accumbens core acetylcholine receptors modulate the balance of flexible and inflexible cue-directed motivation. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13375. [PMID: 37591961 PMCID: PMC10435540 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40439-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sign-tracking is a conditioned response where animals interact with reward-predictive cues due to the cues having motivational value, or incentive salience. The nucleus accumbens core (NAc) has been implicated in mediating the sign-tracking response. Additionally, acetylcholine (ACh) transmission throughout the striatum has been attributed to both incentive motivation and behavioral flexibility. Here, we demonstrate a role for NAc ACh receptors in the flexibility of sign-tracking. Sign-tracking animals were exposed to an omission contingency, in which vigorous sign-tracking was punished by reward omission. Animals rapidly adjusted their behavior, but they maintained sign-tracking in a less vigorous manner that did not cancel reward. Within this context of sign-tracking being persistent yet flexible in structure, blockade of NAc nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) led to a persistence in the initial sign-tracking response during omission followed by a period of change in the makeup of sign-tracking, whereas blockade of muscarinic receptors (mAChRs) oppositely enhanced the omission-related development of the new sign-tracking behaviors. Later, once omission learning had occurred, nAChR blockade uniquely led to reduced sign-tracking and elevated reward-directed behaviors instead. These results indicate that NAc ACh receptors have opposing roles in maintaining learned patterns of sign-tracking, with nAChRs having a special involvement in regulating the structure of the sign-tracking response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica S Townsend
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, 3 Maynard Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA.
| | - Kenneth A Amaya
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, 3 Maynard Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth B Smedley
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, 3 Maynard Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kyle S Smith
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, 3 Maynard Street, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
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17
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Woo JM, Lee GE, Lee JH. Attentional bias for high-calorie food cues by the level of hunger and satiety in individuals with binge eating behaviors. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1149864. [PMID: 37521694 PMCID: PMC10372423 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1149864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The abnormal hyperreactivity to food cues in individuals with binge eating behaviors could be regulated by hedonic or reward-based system, overriding the homeostatic system. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether attentional bias for food cues is affected by the level of hunger, maintaining the normal homeostatic system in individuals with binge eating behaviors. Methods A total of 116 female participants were recruited and divided into four groups: hungry-binge eating group (BE) (n = 29), satiated BE (n = 29), hungry-control (n = 29), satiated control (n = 29). While participants completed a free-viewing task on high or low-calorie food cues, visual attentional processes were recorded using an eye tracker. Results The results revealed that BE group showed longer initial fixation duration toward high-calorie food cues in both hunger and satiety condition in the early stage, whereas the control group showed longer initial fixation duration toward high-calorie food cues only in hunger conditions. Moreover, in the late stage, the BE group stared more at the high-calorie food cue, compared to control group regardless of hunger and satiety. Discussion The findings suggest that automatic attentional bias for food cues in individuals with binge eating behaviors occurred without purpose or awareness is not affected by the homeostatic system, while strategic attention is focused on high-calorie food. Therefore, the attentional processing of food cues in binge eating group is regulated by hedonic system rather than homeostatic system, leading to vulnerability to binge eating.
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18
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Pool ER, Pauli WM, Cross L, O'Doherty JP. Neural substrates of parallel devaluation-sensitive and devaluation-insensitive Pavlovian learning in humans. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.26.525637. [PMID: 36747799 PMCID: PMC9901183 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.26.525637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Pavlovian learning depends on multiple and parallel associations leading to distinct classes of conditioned responses that vary in their flexibility following changes in the value of an associated outcome. Here, we aimed to differentiate brain areas involved in learning and encoding associations that are sensitive to changes in the value of an outcome from those that are not sensitive to such changes. To address this question, we combined a Pavlovian learning task with outcome devaluation, eye-tracking and functional magnetic resonance imaging. We used computational modeling to identify brain regions involved in learning stimulus-reward associations and stimulus-stimulus associations, by testing for brain areas correlating with reward-prediction errors and state-prediction errors, respectively. We found that, contrary to theoretical predictions about reward prediction errors being exclusively model-free, voxels correlating with reward prediction errors in the ventral striatum and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex were sensitive to devaluation. On the other hand, brain areas correlating with state prediction errors were found to be devaluation insensitive. In a supplementary analysis, we distinguished brain regions encoding predictions about outcome taste identity from those involved in encoding predictions about its expected spatial location. A subset of regions involved in taste identity predictions were devaluation sensitive while those involved in encoding predictions about spatial location were devaluation insensitive. These findings provide insights into the role of multiple associative mechanisms in the brain in mediating Pavlovian conditioned behavior - illustrating how distinct neural pathways can in parallel produce both devaluation sensitive and devaluation insensitive behaviors.
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19
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Baumer-Harrison C, Breza JM, Sumners C, Krause EG, de Kloet AD. Sodium Intake and Disease: Another Relationship to Consider. Nutrients 2023; 15:535. [PMID: 36771242 PMCID: PMC9921152 DOI: 10.3390/nu15030535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Sodium (Na+) is crucial for numerous homeostatic processes in the body and, consequentially, its levels are tightly regulated by multiple organ systems. Sodium is acquired from the diet, commonly in the form of NaCl (table salt), and substances that contain sodium taste salty and are innately palatable at concentrations that are advantageous to physiological homeostasis. The importance of sodium homeostasis is reflected by sodium appetite, an "all-hands-on-deck" response involving the brain, multiple peripheral organ systems, and endocrine factors, to increase sodium intake and replenish sodium levels in times of depletion. Visceral sensory information and endocrine signals are integrated by the brain to regulate sodium intake. Dysregulation of the systems involved can lead to sodium overconsumption, which numerous studies have considered causal for the development of diseases, such as hypertension. The purpose here is to consider the inverse-how disease impacts sodium intake, with a focus on stress-related and cardiometabolic diseases. Our proposition is that such diseases contribute to an increase in sodium intake, potentially eliciting a vicious cycle toward disease exacerbation. First, we describe the mechanism(s) that regulate each of these processes independently. Then, we highlight the points of overlap and integration of these processes. We propose that the analogous neural circuitry involved in regulating sodium intake and blood pressure, at least in part, underlies the reciprocal relationship between neural control of these functions. Finally, we conclude with a discussion on how stress-related and cardiometabolic diseases influence these circuitries to alter the consumption of sodium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Baumer-Harrison
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
- Center for Integrative Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Center for Smell and Taste, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Evelyn F. and William L. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Joseph M. Breza
- Department of Psychology, College of Arts and Sciences, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Colin Sumners
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
- Center for Integrative Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Evelyn F. and William L. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Eric G. Krause
- Center for Integrative Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Evelyn F. and William L. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Annette D. de Kloet
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA
- Center for Integrative Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Center for Smell and Taste, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
- Evelyn F. and William L. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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20
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Moin Afshar N, Cinotti F, Martin D, Khamassi M, Calu DJ, Taylor JR, Groman SM. Reward-Mediated, Model-Free Reinforcement-Learning Mechanisms in Pavlovian and Instrumental Tasks Are Related. J Neurosci 2023; 43:458-471. [PMID: 36216504 PMCID: PMC9864557 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1113-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Model-free and model-based computations are argued to distinctly update action values that guide decision-making processes. It is not known, however, if these model-free and model-based reinforcement learning mechanisms recruited in operationally based instrumental tasks parallel those engaged by pavlovian-based behavioral procedures. Recently, computational work has suggested that individual differences in the attribution of incentive salience to reward predictive cues, that is, sign- and goal-tracking behaviors, are also governed by variations in model-free and model-based value representations that guide behavior. Moreover, it is not appreciated if these systems that are characterized computationally using model-free and model-based algorithms are conserved across tasks for individual animals. In the current study, we used a within-subject design to assess sign-tracking and goal-tracking behaviors using a pavlovian conditioned approach task and then characterized behavior using an instrumental multistage decision-making (MSDM) task in male rats. We hypothesized that both pavlovian and instrumental learning processes may be driven by common reinforcement-learning mechanisms. Our data confirm that sign-tracking behavior was associated with greater reward-mediated, model-free reinforcement learning and that it was also linked to model-free reinforcement learning in the MSDM task. Computational analyses revealed that pavlovian model-free updating was correlated with model-free reinforcement learning in the MSDM task. These data provide key insights into the computational mechanisms mediating associative learning that could have important implications for normal and abnormal states.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Model-free and model-based computations that guide instrumental decision-making processes may also be recruited in pavlovian-based behavioral procedures. Here, we used a within-subject design to test the hypothesis that both pavlovian and instrumental learning processes were driven by common reinforcement-learning mechanisms. Sign-tracking and goal-tracking behaviors were assessed in rats using a pavlovian conditioned approach task, and then instrumental behavior was characterized using an MSDM task. We report that sign-tracking behavior was associated with greater model-free, but not model-based, learning in the MSDM task. These data suggest that pavlovian and instrumental behaviors may be driven by conserved reinforcement-learning mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neema Moin Afshar
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06511
| | - François Cinotti
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, United Kingdom
| | - David Martin
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Mehdi Khamassi
- Institute of Intelligent Systems and Robotics, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Sorbonne University, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Donna J Calu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Jane R Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06511
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Stephanie M Groman
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06511
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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21
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Stults-Kolehmainen MA. Humans have a basic physical and psychological need to move the body: Physical activity as a primary drive. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1134049. [PMID: 37113126 PMCID: PMC10128862 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical activity, while less necessary for survival in modern times, is still essential for thriving in life, and low levels of movement are related to numerous physical and mental health problems. However, we poorly understand why people move on a day-to-day basis and how to promote greater energy expenditure. Recently, there has been a turn to understand automatic processes with close examination of older theories of behavior. This has co-occurred with new developments in the study of non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). In this narrative review, it is hypothesized that psycho-physiological drive is important to understand movement in general and NEAT, specifically. Drive, in short, is a motivation state, characterized by arousal and felt tension, energizing the organism to acquire a basic need. Movement is a biological necessity, like food, water, and sleep, but varies across the lifespan and having the greatest impact before adolescence. Movement meets various criteria for a primary drive: (a) deprivation of it produces feelings of tension, such as an urge or craving, known as affectively-charged motivation states, and particularly the feelings of being antsy, restless, hyper or cooped up, (b) provision of the need quickly reduces tension - one can be satiated, and may even over-consume, (c) it can be provoked by qualities of the environment, (d) it is under homeostatic control, (e) there is an appetite (i.e., appetence) for movement but also aversion, and (f) it has a developmental time course. Evidence for drive has mainly come from children and populations with hyperkinetic disorders, such as those with anorexia nervosa, restless legs syndrome, and akathisia. It is also stimulated in conditions of deprivation, such as bed rest, quarantine, long flights, and physical restraint. It seems to be lacking in the hypokinetic disorders, such as depression and Parkinson's. Thus, drive is associated with displeasure and negative reinforcement, subsuming it within the theory of hedonic drive, but it may fit better within new paradigms, such as the WANT model (Wants and Aversions for Neuromuscular Tasks). Recently developed measurement tools, such as the CRAVE scale, may permit the earnest investigation of movement drive, satiation, and motivation states in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A. Stults-Kolehmainen
- Division of Digestive Health, Yale New Haven Hospital, New Haven, CT, United States
- Department of Biobehavioral Sciences, Teachers College – Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- *Correspondence: Matthew A. Stults-Kolehmainen,
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22
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The positive valence system, adaptive behaviour and the origins of reward. Emerg Top Life Sci 2022; 6:501-513. [PMID: 36373858 DOI: 10.1042/etls20220007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although the hey-day of motivation as an area of study is long past, the issues with which motivational theorists grappled have not grown less important: i.e. the development of deterministic explanations for the particular tuning of the nervous system to specific changes in the internal and external environment and the organisation of adaptive behavioural responses to those changes. Here, we briefly elaborate these issues in describing the structure and function of the 'positive valence system'. We describe the origins of adaptive behaviour in an ascending arousal system, sensitive to peripheral regulatory changes, that modulates and activates various central motivational states. Associations between these motivational states and sensory inputs underlie evaluative conditioning and generate the representation of the 'unconditioned' stimuli fundamental to Pavlovian conditioning. As a consequence, associations with these stimuli can generate Pavlovian conditioned responses through the motivational control of stimulus event associations with sensory and affective components of the valence system to elicit conditioned orienting, consummatory and preparatory responses, particularly the affective responses reflecting Pavlovian excitation and inhibition, arousal and reinforcement, the latter used to control the formation of habits. These affective processes also provoke emotional responses, allowing the externalisation of positive valence in hedonic experience to generate the goal or reward values that mediate goal-directed action. Together these processes form the positive valence system, ensure the maintenance of adaptive behaviour and, through the association of sensory events and emotional responses through consummatory experience, provide the origins of reward.
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23
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Ho SS, Nakamura Y, Gopang M, Swain JE. Intersubjectivity as an antidote to stress: Using dyadic active inference model of intersubjectivity to predict the efficacy of parenting interventions in reducing stress—through the lens of dependent origination in Buddhist Madhyamaka philosophy. Front Psychol 2022; 13:806755. [PMID: 35967689 PMCID: PMC9372294 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Intersubjectivity refers to one person’s awareness in relation to another person’s awareness. It is key to well-being and human development. From infancy to adulthood, human interactions ceaselessly contribute to the flourishing or impairment of intersubjectivity. In this work, we first describe intersubjectivity as a hallmark of quality dyadic processes. Then, using parent-child relationship as an example, we propose a dyadic active inference model to elucidate an inverse relation between stress and intersubjectivity. We postulate that impaired intersubjectivity is a manifestation of underlying problems of deficient relational benevolence, misattributing another person’s intentions (over-mentalizing), and neglecting the effects of one’s own actions on the other person (under-coupling). These problems can exacerbate stress due to excessive variational free energy in a person’s active inference engine when that person feels threatened and holds on to his/her invalid (mis)beliefs. In support of this dyadic model, we briefly describe relevant neuroimaging literature to elucidate brain networks underlying the effects of an intersubjectivity-oriented parenting intervention on parenting stress. Using the active inference dyadic model, we identified critical interventional strategies necessary to rectify these problems and hereby developed a coding system in reference to these strategies. In a theory-guided quantitative review, we used this coding system to code 35 clinical trials of parenting interventions published between 2016 and 2020, based on PubMed database, to predict their efficacy for reducing parenting stress. The results of this theory-guided analysis corroborated our hypothesis that parenting intervention can effectively reduce parenting stress if the intervention is designed to mitigate the problems of deficient relational benevolence, under-coupling, and over-mentalizing. We integrated our work with several dyadic concepts identified in the literature. Finally, inspired by Arya Nagarjuna’s Buddhist Madhyamaka Philosophy, we described abstract expressions of Dependent Origination as a relational worldview to reflect on the normality, impairment, and rehabilitation of intersubjectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Shaun Ho
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
- *Correspondence: S. Shaun Ho,
| | - Yoshio Nakamura
- Pain Research Center, Division of Pain Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Meroona Gopang
- Program of Population Health and Clinical Outcomes Research, School of Public Health, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
| | - James E. Swain
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
- Program of Population Health and Clinical Outcomes Research, School of Public Health, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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24
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Morales I. Brain regulation of hunger and motivation: The case for integrating homeostatic and hedonic concepts and its implications for obesity and addiction. Appetite 2022; 177:106146. [PMID: 35753443 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Obesity and other eating disorders are marked by dysregulations to brain metabolic, hedonic, motivational, and sensory systems that control food intake. Classic approaches in hunger research have distinguished between hedonic and homeostatic processes, and have mostly treated these systems as independent. Hindbrain structures and a complex network of interconnected hypothalamic nuclei control metabolic processes, energy expenditure, and food intake while mesocorticolimbic structures are though to control hedonic and motivational processes associated with food reward. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that hedonic and homeostatic brain systems do not function in isolation, but rather interact as part of a larger network that regulates food intake. Incentive theories of motivation provide a useful route to explore these interactions. Adapting incentive theories of motivation can enable researchers to better how motivational systems dysfunction during disease. Obesity and addiction are associated with profound alterations to both hedonic and homeostatic brain systems that result in maladaptive patterns of consumption. A subset of individuals with obesity may experience pathological cravings for food due to incentive sensitization of brain systems that generate excessive 'wanting' to eat. Further progress in understanding how the brain regulates hunger and appetite may depend on merging traditional hedonic and homeostatic concepts of food reward and motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Morales
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA.
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25
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Chiacchierini G, Naneix F, Apergis-Schoute J, McCutcheon JE. Restriction of dietary protein in rats increases progressive-ratio motivation for protein. Physiol Behav 2022; 254:113877. [PMID: 35700813 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Low-protein diets can impact food intake and appetite, but it is not known if motivation for food is changed. In the present study, we used an operant behavioral task - the progressive ratio test - to assess whether motivation for different foods was affected when rats were maintained on a protein-restricted diet (REST, 5% protein diet) compared to non-restricted control rats (CON, 18% protein). Rats were tested either with nutritionally-balanced pellets (18.7% protein, Experiment 1) or protein-rich pellets (35% protein, Experiment 2) as reinforcers. Protein restriction increased breakpoint for protein-rich pellets, relative to CON rats, whereas no difference in breakpoint for nutritionally-balanced pellets was observed between groups. When given free access to either nutritionally-balanced pellets or protein-rich pellets, REST and CON rats did not differ in their intake. We also tested whether a previous history of protein restriction might affect present motivation for different types of food by assessing breakpoint of previously REST animals that were subsequently put on standard maintenance chow (protein-repleted rats, REPL, Experiment 2). REPL rats did not show increased breakpoint, relative to their initial encounter with protein-rich pellets while they were protein-restricted. This study demonstrates that restriction of dietary protein induces a selective increased motivation for protein-rich food, a behavior that disappears once rats are not in need of protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Chiacchierini
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom; Present address: Genetics of Cognition laboratory, Neuroscience area, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy.
| | - Fabien Naneix
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - John Apergis-Schoute
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom; Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, United Kingdom
| | - James E McCutcheon
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom; Dept. of Psychology, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Huginbakken 32, 9037, Tromsø, Norway
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Shao MS, Yang X, Zhang CC, Jiang CY, Mao Y, Xu WD, Ma L, Wang FF. O-GlcNAcylation in Ventral Tegmental Area Dopaminergic Neurons Regulates Motor Learning and the Response to Natural Reward. Neurosci Bull 2021; 38:263-274. [PMID: 34741260 PMCID: PMC8975958 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-021-00776-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein O-GlcNAcylation is a post-translational modification that links environmental stimuli with changes in intracellular signal pathways, and its disturbance has been found in neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic disorders. However, its role in the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system, especially in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), needs to be elucidated. Here, we found that injection of Thiamet G, an O-GlcNAcase (OGA) inhibitor, in the VTA and nucleus accumbens (NAc) of mice, facilitated neuronal O-GlcNAcylation and decreased the operant response to sucrose as well as the latency to fall in rotarod test. Mice with DAergic neuron-specific knockout of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) displayed severe metabolic abnormalities and died within 4-8 weeks after birth. Furthermore, mice specifically overexpressing OGT in DAergic neurons in the VTA had learning defects in the operant response to sucrose, and impaired motor learning in the rotarod test. Instead, overexpression of OGT in GABAergic neurons in the VTA had no effect on these behaviors. These results suggest that protein O-GlcNAcylation of DAergic neurons in the VTA plays an important role in regulating the response to natural reward and motor learning in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Shuo Shao
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Xiao Yang
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Chen-Chun Zhang
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Chang-You Jiang
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Ying Mao
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Wen-Dong Xu
- grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Lan Ma
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Fei-Fei Wang
- Departments of Neurosurgery and Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and Ministry of Education Frontiers Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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Modeling incentive salience in Pavlovian learning more parsimoniously using a multiple attribute model. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 22:244-257. [PMID: 34676496 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-021-00953-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We present a multi-attribute incentive salience (MAIS) model as a computational account of incentive salience in model-based Pavlovian learning. A model of incentive salience as a joint function of reward value and physiological state has been previously proposed by Zhang et al. (2009). In that model, the function takes additive or multiplicative forms depending on whether a preference shifts from positive to negative or vice versa. We demonstrate that arbitrarily varying this function is unnecessary to explain observed data. A multiplicative function is sufficient if one takes into account empirical data suggesting the incentive salience function for an incentive is comprised of multiple physiological signals. We compare our model to the previously proposed model on two datasets. We find the MAIS model predicts the outcomes equally well, fits empirical data describing multiple sensory representations of a single stimulus, better approximates the dual-structure appetitive-aversive nature of the reward system, is compatible with existing knowledge about incentive salience in Pavlovian learning, and better describes revaluation in Pavlovian learning. This model addresses a call (Dayan & Berridge, 2014) for algorithmic and computational models of model-based Pavlovian learning that consistently and fully explain empirical observations. Because a multi-attribute model is relevant even for simple Pavlovian associations, it should be useful in a wide variety of decision-making contexts, including agent modeling and addiction research.
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Effort-motivated behavior resolves paradoxes in appetitive conditioning. Behav Processes 2021; 193:104525. [PMID: 34601051 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Motivated behavior has long been studied by psychologists, ethologists, and neuroscientists. To date, many scientists agree with the view that cue and reward attraction is the product of a dopamine-dependent unconscious process called incentive salience or "wanting". This process allows the influence of multiple factors such as hunger and odors on motivational attraction. In some cases, however, the resulting motivated behavior differs from what the incentive salience hypothesis would predict. I argue that seeking behavior under reward uncertainty illustrates this situation: Organisms do not just "want" (appetite-based attraction) cues that are inconsistent or associated with reward occasionally, they "hope" that those cues will consistently predict reward procurement in the ongoing trial. Said otherwise, they become motivated to invest time and energy to find consistent cue-reward associations despite no guarantee of success (effort-based attraction). A multi-test comparison of performance between individuals trained under uncertainty and certainty reveals behavioral paradoxes suggesting that the concept of incentive salience cannot fully account for responding to inconsistent cues. A mathematical model explains how appetite-based and effort-based attractions might combine their effects.
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29
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Hamid AA. Dopaminergic specializations for flexible behavioral control: linking levels of analysis and functional architectures. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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30
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Ostlund SB, Marshall AT. Probing the role of reward expectancy in Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Inguscio BMS, Cartocci G, Modica E, Rossi D, Martinez-Levy AC, Cherubino P, Tamborra L, Babiloni F. Smoke signals: A study of the neurophysiological reaction of smokers and non-smokers to smoking cues inserted into antismoking public service announcements. Int J Psychophysiol 2021; 167:22-29. [PMID: 34175349 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is one of the biggest health emergencies in the world, Antismoking Public Service Announcements (PSAs) represent the main public tool against smoking; however, smoking-related cues (SCs) often included in PSAs can trigger ambiguous cerebral reactions that could impact the persuasiveness and efficacy of the antismoking message. This study aimed to investigate the electroencephalographic (EEG) response in adult smokers and non-smokers during the exposure to SCs presented in antismoking PSAs video, in order to identify eventual neurophysiological features of SCs' 'boomerang effect' elicited in smokers. EEG frontal Alpha asymmetry and frontal Theta were analyzed in 92 adults (30 no smokers, 31 low smokers, 31 high smokers) from EEG recorded during the vision of 3 antismoking PSAs, statistical analysis was conducted using ANOVA. Main results showed a significant interaction between smoking cue condition (Pre and Post) and smoking habit (in particular for female heavy smokers) for the frontal Alpha asymmetry. Since the relative higher right frontal Alpha activity is associated with approach towards a stimulus, it is suggested that the relative left frontal Alpha increase in response to SCs might reflect an appetitive approach in response to it. In the light of the Incentive Sensitization Theory, this pattern can be interpreted as a neurophysiological signal in response to SCs that could undermine the message's effectiveness contributing to the maintenance of the addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca M S Inguscio
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell'Università, 31, 00161 Rome, Italy; BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giulia Cartocci
- BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 291, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Enrica Modica
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 291, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Dario Rossi
- BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy; Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic & Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Via A. Scarpa, 16, 00161 Rome, Italy; Department of Business and Management, LUISS Guido Carli, Viale Romania, 32, 00197 Rome, Italy
| | - Ana C Martinez-Levy
- BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy; Department of Communication and Social Research, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Salaria, 113, 00198 Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Cherubino
- BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 291, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Luca Tamborra
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 291, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Babiloni
- BrainSigns Srl, Lungotevere Michelangelo, 9, 00192 Rome, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale Regina Elena, 291, 00161 Rome, Italy; Department of Computer Science, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Xiasha Higher Education Zone, 310018 Hangzhou, China
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32
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Chiacchierini G, Naneix F, Peters KZ, Apergis-Schoute J, Snoeren EMS, McCutcheon JE. Protein Appetite Drives Macronutrient-Related Differences in Ventral Tegmental Area Neural Activity. J Neurosci 2021; 41:5080-5092. [PMID: 33926995 PMCID: PMC8197647 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3082-20.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Control of protein intake is essential for numerous biological processes as several amino acids cannot be synthesized de novo, however, its neurobiological substrates are still poorly understood. In the present study, we combined in vivo fiber photometry with nutrient-conditioned flavor in a rat model of protein appetite to record neuronal activity in the VTA, a central brain region for the control of food-related processes. In adult male rats, protein restriction increased preference for casein (protein) over maltodextrin (carbohydrate). Moreover, protein consumption was associated with a greater VTA response, relative to carbohydrate. After initial nutrient preference, a switch from a normal balanced diet to protein restriction induced rapid development of protein preference but required extensive exposure to macronutrient solutions to induce elevated VTA responses to casein. Furthermore, prior protein restriction induced long-lasting food preference and VTA responses. This study reveals that VTA circuits are involved in protein appetite in times of need, a crucial process for animals to acquire an adequate amount of protein in their diet.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Acquiring insufficient protein in one's diet has severe consequences for health and ultimately will lead to death. In addition, a low level of dietary protein has been proposed as a driver of obesity as it can leverage up intake of fat and carbohydrate. However, much remains unknown about the role of the brain in ensuring adequate intake of protein. Here, we show that in a state of protein restriction a key node in brain reward circuitry, the VTA, is activated more strongly during consumption of protein than carbohydrate. Moreover, although rats' behavior changed to reflect new protein status, patterns of neural activity were more persistent and only loosely linked to protein status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Chiacchierini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Naneix
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Kate Zara Peters
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom
| | - John Apergis-Schoute
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom
| | | | - James Edgar McCutcheon
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, 9037, Norway
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33
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Loganathan K, Ho ETW. Value, drug addiction and the brain. Addict Behav 2021; 116:106816. [PMID: 33453587 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Over the years, various models have been proposed to explain the psychology and biology of drug addiction, built primarily around the habit and compulsion models. Recent research indicates drug addiction may be goal-directed, motivated by excessive valuation of drugs. Drug consumption may initially occur for the sake of pleasure but may transition to a means of escaping withdrawal, stress and negative emotions. In this hypothetical paper, we propose a value-based neurobiological model for drug addiction. We posit that during dependency, the value-based decision-making system in the brain is not inactive but has instead prioritized drugs as the reward of choice. In support of this model, we consider the role of valuation in choice, its influence on pleasure and punishment, and how valuation is contrasted in impulsive and compulsive behaviours. We then discuss the neurobiology of value, beginning with the dopaminergic system and its relationship with incentive salience before moving to brain-wide networks involved in valuation, control and prospection. These value-based neurobiological components are then integrated into the cycle of addiction as we consider the development of drug dependency from a valuation perspective. We conclude with a discussion of cognitive interventions utilizing value-based decision-making, highlighting not just advances in recalibrating the valuation system to focus on non-drug rewards, but also areas for improvement in refining this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavinash Loganathan
- Centre for Intelligent Signal & Imaging, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia.
| | - Eric Tatt Wei Ho
- Centre for Intelligent Signal & Imaging, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia; Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Perak, Malaysia
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34
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Chang LJ, Jolly E, Cheong JH, Rapuano KM, Greenstein N, Chen PHA, Manning JR. Endogenous variation in ventromedial prefrontal cortex state dynamics during naturalistic viewing reflects affective experience. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabf7129. [PMID: 33893106 PMCID: PMC8064646 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abf7129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
How we process ongoing experiences is shaped by our personal history, current needs, and future goals. Consequently, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) activity involved in processing these subjective appraisals appears to be highly idiosyncratic across individuals. To elucidate the role of the vmPFC in processing our ongoing experiences, we developed a computational framework and analysis pipeline to characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of individual vmPFC responses as participants viewed a 45-minute television drama. Through a combination of functional magnetic resonance imaging, facial expression tracking, and self-reported emotional experiences across four studies, our data suggest that the vmPFC slowly transitions through a series of discretized states that broadly map onto affective experiences. Although these transitions typically occur at idiosyncratic times across people, participants exhibited a marked increase in state alignment during high affectively valenced events in the show. Our work suggests that the vmPFC ascribes affective meaning to our ongoing experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J Chang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
| | - Eshin Jolly
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Jin Hyun Cheong
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | | | - Nathan Greenstein
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Pin-Hao A Chen
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jeremy R Manning
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
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35
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Nguyen D, Naffziger EE, Berridge KC. Positive Affect: Nature and brain bases of liking and wanting. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021; 39:72-78. [PMID: 33748351 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The positive affect of rewards is an important contributor to well-being. Reward involves components of pleasure 'liking', motivation 'wanting', and learning. 'Liking' refers to the hedonic impact of positive events, with underlying mechanisms that include hedonic hotspots in limbic brain structures that amplify 'liking' reactions. 'Wanting' refers to incentive salience, a motivational process that makes reward cues attractive and able to trigger craving for their reward, mediated by larger dopamine-related mesocorticolimbic networks. Under normal conditions, 'liking' and 'wanting' cohere. However, 'liking' and 'wanting' can be dissociated by alterations in neural signaling, either induced in animal neuroscience laboratories or arising spontaneously in addictions and other affective disorders, which can be detrimental to positive well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nguyen
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Erin E Naffziger
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Kent C Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
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36
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Xiao Q, Zhou X, Wei P, Xie L, Han Y, Wang J, Cai A, Xu F, Tu J, Wang L. A new GABAergic somatostatin projection from the BNST onto accumbal parvalbumin neurons controls anxiety. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:4719-4741. [PMID: 32555286 PMCID: PMC8589681 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-0816-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The prevailing view is that parvalbumin (PV) interneurons play modulatory roles in emotional response through local medium spiny projection neurons (MSNs). Here, we show that PV activity within the nucleus accumbens shell (sNAc) is required for producing anxiety-like avoidance when mice are under anxiogenic situations. Firing rates of sNAcPV neurons were negatively correlated to exploration time in open arms (threatening environment). In addition, sNAcPV neurons exhibited high excitability in a chronic stress mouse model, which generated excessive maladaptive avoidance behavior in an anxiogenic context. We also discovered a novel GABAergic pathway from the anterior dorsal bed nuclei of stria terminalis (adBNST) to sNAcPV neurons. Optogenetic activation of these afferent terminals in sNAc produced an anxiolytic effect via GABA transmission. Next, we further demonstrated that chronic stressors attenuated the inhibitory synaptic transmission at adBNSTGABA → sNAcPV synapses, which in turn explains the hyperexcitability of sNAc PV neurons on stressed models. Therefore, activation of these GABAergic afferents in sNAc rescued the excessive avoidance behavior related to an anxious state. Finally, we identified that the majority GABAergic input neurons, which innervate sNAcPV cells, were expressing somatostatin (SOM), and also revealed that coordination between SOM- and PV- cells functioning in the BNST → NAc circuit has an inhibitory influence on anxiety-like responses. Our findings provide a potentially neurobiological basis for therapeutic interventions in pathological anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Xiao
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China
| | - Xinyi Zhou
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China
| | - Pengfei Wei
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China
| | - Li Xie
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China
| | - Yaning Han
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China
| | - Jie Wang
- grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309Center of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan, 430071 PR China
| | - Aoling Cai
- grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 PR China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309Center of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan, 430071 PR China
| | - Fuqiang Xu
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055 China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309Center of Brain Science, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Wuhan, 430071 PR China ,grid.33199.310000 0004 0368 7223Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074 PR China
| | - Jie Tu
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR, China.
| | - Liping Wang
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, 518055, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR, China.
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37
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Noël X. Les addictions sous l’angle neurocognitif. PSYCHO-ONCOLOGIE 2020. [DOI: 10.3166/pson-2020-0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Les principaux modèles neurocognitifs conçoivent l’addiction comme le résultat d’un déséquilibre de trois systèmes cérébraux en constante interaction : un circuit striatoamygdalien qui favorise les comportements automatiques, habituels et saillants, le cortex préfrontal impliqué dans la prise de décision et dans le contrôle inhibiteur. Enfin, la région insulaire permet un traitement proprioceptif à l’origine d’états émotionnels conscients, ce qui exerce une influence sur la prise de décision. L’influence du stress ainsi que les perspectives cliniques sont discutées.
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38
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Morales I, Berridge KC. 'Liking' and 'wanting' in eating and food reward: Brain mechanisms and clinical implications. Physiol Behav 2020; 227:113152. [PMID: 32846152 PMCID: PMC7655589 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It is becoming clearer how neurobiological mechanisms generate 'liking' and 'wanting' components of food reward. Mesocorticolimbic mechanisms that enhance 'liking' include brain hedonic hotspots, which are specialized subregions that are uniquely able to causally amplify the hedonic impact of palatable tastes. Hedonic hotspots are found in nucleus accumbens medial shell, ventral pallidum, orbitofrontal cortex, insula cortex, and brainstem. In turn, a much larger mesocorticolimbic circuitry generates 'wanting' or incentive motivation to obtain and consume food rewards. Hedonic and motivational circuitry interact together and with hypothalamic homeostatic circuitry, allowing relevant physiological hunger and satiety states to modulate 'liking' and 'wanting' for food rewards. In some conditions such as drug addiction, 'wanting' is known to dramatically detach from 'liking' for the same reward, and this may also occur in over-eating disorders. Via incentive sensitization, 'wanting' selectively becomes higher, especially when triggered by reward cues when encountered in vulnerable states of stress, etc. Emerging evidence suggests that some cases of obesity and binge eating disorders may reflect an incentive-sensitization brain signature of cue hyper-reactivity, causing excessive 'wanting' to eat. Future findings on the neurobiological bases of 'liking' and 'wanting' can continue to improve understanding of both normal food reward and causes of clinical eating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Morales
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1043, United States.
| | - Kent C Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1043, United States
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Swiercz AP, Iyer L, Yu Z, Edwards A, Prashant NM, Nguyen BN, Horvath A, Marvar PJ. Evaluation of an angiotensin Type 1 receptor blocker on the reconsolidation of fear memory. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:363. [PMID: 33110066 PMCID: PMC7591922 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-01043-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of the angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) has been shown to decrease fear responses in both humans and rodents. These effects are attributed to modulation of extinction learning, however the contribution of AT1R to alternative memory processes remains unclear. Using classic Pavlovian conditioning combined with radiotelemetry and whole-genome RNA sequencing, we evaluated the effects of the AT1R antagonist losartan on fear memory reconsolidation. Following the retrieval of conditioned auditory fear memory, animals were given a single intraperitoneal injection of losartan or saline. In response to the conditioned stimulus (CS), losartan-treated animals exhibited significantly less freezing at 24 h and 1 week; an effect that was dependent upon memory reactivation and independent of conditioned cardiovascular reactivity. Using an unbiased whole-genome RNA sequencing approach, transcriptomic analysis of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) identified losartan-dependent differences in gene expression during the reconsolidation phase. These findings demonstrate that post-retrieval losartan modifies behavioral and transcriptomic markers of conditioned fear memory, supporting an important regulatory role for this receptor in reconsolidation and as a potential pharmacotherapeutic target for maladaptive fear disorders such as PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam P. Swiercz
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Laxmi Iyer
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Zhe Yu
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Allison Edwards
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - N. M. Prashant
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Bryan N. Nguyen
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Computational Biology Institute, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Anelia Horvath
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
| | - Paul J. Marvar
- grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA ,grid.253615.60000 0004 1936 9510Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052 USA
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Molecular Mechanisms of Reconsolidation-Dependent Memory Updating. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186580. [PMID: 32916796 PMCID: PMC7555418 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory is not a stable record of experience, but instead is an ongoing process that allows existing memories to be modified with new information through a reconsolidation-dependent updating process. For a previously stable memory to be updated, the memory must first become labile through a process called destabilization. Destabilization is a protein degradation-dependent process that occurs when new information is presented. Following destabilization, a memory becomes stable again through a protein synthesis-dependent process called restabilization. Much work remains to fully characterize the mechanisms that underlie both destabilization and subsequent restabilization, however. In this article, we briefly review the discovery of reconsolidation as a potential mechanism for memory updating. We then discuss the behavioral paradigms that have been used to identify the molecular mechanisms of reconsolidation-dependent memory updating. Finally, we outline what is known about the molecular mechanisms that support the memory updating process. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying reconsolidation-dependent memory updating is an important step toward leveraging this process in a therapeutic setting to modify maladaptive memories and to improve memory when it fails.
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Chen PHA, Jolly E, Cheong JH, Chang LJ. Intersubject representational similarity analysis reveals individual variations in affective experience when watching erotic movies. Neuroimage 2020; 216:116851. [PMID: 32294538 PMCID: PMC7955800 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We spend much of our lives pursuing or avoiding affective experiences. However, surprisingly little is known about how these experiences are represented in the brain and if they are shared across individuals. Here, we explored variations in the construction of an affective experience during a naturalistic viewing paradigm based on subjective preferences in sociosexual desire and self-control using intersubject representational similarity analysis (IS-RSA). We found that when watching erotic movies, intersubject variations in sociosexual desire preferences of 26 heterosexual males were associated with similarly structured fluctuations in the cortico-striatal reward, default mode, and mentalizing networks. In contrast, variations in the self-control preferences were associated with shared dynamics in the fronto-parietal executive control and cingulo-insular salience networks. Importantly, these results were specific to the affective experience, as we did not observe any relationship with variation in preferences when individuals watched neutral movies. Moreover, these results appear to require multivariate representations of preferences as we did not observe any significant associations using single scalar summary scores. Our findings indicate that multidimensional variations in individual preferences can be used to uncover unique dimensions of an affective experience, and that IS-RSA can provide new insights into the neural processes underlying psychological experiences elicited through naturalistic experimental designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin-Hao A Chen
- Department of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Eshin Jolly
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Jin Hyun Cheong
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA
| | - Luke J Chang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA.
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Kruglanski AW, Szumowska E. Habitual Behavior Is Goal-Driven. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020; 15:1256-1271. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691620917676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We address the relation between goal-driven and habitual behaviors. Whereas in recent years the two have been juxtaposed, we suggest that habitual behavior is in fact goal-driven. To support this view, we show that habitual behavior is sensitive to changes in goal properties (reward contingencies), namely goal value and its expectancy of attainment. Whereas adjustment to these properties may be slower for habitual (or overlearned) than for nonhabitual behavior, this is likely due to the routinized (or automatic) nature of such behavior, characterized as it is by reduced attention to its consequences. Furthermore, we show that habitual behavior’s prolonged persistence despite its manifest detachment from the original goal likely stems from its attachment to a different goal. Thus, there is no need to postulate purposeless behavior. The view that habitual behavior is goal-driven offers an integrative account of a considerable body of evidence and is consistent with a functional account of psychological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ewa Szumowska
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park
- Department of Philosophy, Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University
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Abstract
Expensive and extensive studies on the epidemiology of excessive Na intake and its pathology have been conducted over four decades. The resultant consensus that dietary Na is toxic, as well as the contention that it is less so, ignores the root cause of the attractiveness of salted food. The extant hypotheses are that most Na is infiltrated into our bodies via heavily salted industrialised food without our knowledge and that mere exposure early in life determines lifelong intake. However, these hypotheses are poorly evidenced and are meagre explanations for the comparable salt intake of people worldwide despite their markedly different diets. The love of salt begins at birth for some, vacillates in infancy, climaxes during adolescent growth, settles into separate patterns for men and women in adulthood and, with age, fades for some and persists for others. Salt adds flavour to food. It sustains and protects humans in exertion, may modulate their mood and contributes to their ailments. It may have as yet unknown benefits that may promote its delectability, and it generates controversy. An understanding of the predilection for salt should allow a more evidence-based and effective reduction of the health risks associated with Na surfeit and deficiency. The purpose of this brief review is to show the need for research into the determinants of salt intake by summarising the little we know.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micah Leshem
- School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Haifa, Haifa3498838, Israel
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Warlow SM, Naffziger EE, Berridge KC. The central amygdala recruits mesocorticolimbic circuitry for pursuit of reward or pain. Nat Commun 2020; 11:2716. [PMID: 32483118 PMCID: PMC7264246 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16407-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
How do brain mechanisms create maladaptive attractions? Here intense maladaptive attractions are created in laboratory rats by pairing optogenetic channelrhodopsin (ChR2) stimulation of central nucleus of amygdala (CeA) in rats with encountering either sucrose, cocaine, or a painful shock-delivering object. We find that pairings make the respective rats pursue either sucrose exclusively, or cocaine exclusively, or repeatedly self-inflict shocks. CeA-induced maladaptive attractions, even to the painful shock-rod, recruit mesocorticolimbic incentive-related circuitry. Shock-associated cues also gain positive incentive value and are pursued. Yet the motivational effects of paired CeA stimulation can be reversed to negative valence in a Pavlovian fear learning situation, where CeA ChR2 pairing increases defensive reactions. Finally, CeA ChR2 valence can be switched to neutral by pairing with innocuous stimuli. These results reveal valence plasticity and multiple modes for motivation via mesocorticolimbic circuitry under the control of CeA activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley M Warlow
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA.
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Erin E Naffziger
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Kent C Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
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Amaya KA, Stott JJ, Smith KS. Sign-tracking behavior is sensitive to outcome devaluation in a devaluation context-dependent manner: implications for analyzing habitual behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 27:136-149. [PMID: 32179656 PMCID: PMC7079568 DOI: 10.1101/lm.051144.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Motivationally attractive cues can draw in behavior in a phenomenon termed incentive salience. Incentive cue attraction is an important model for animal models of drug seeking and relapse. One question of interest is the extent to which the pursuit of motivationally attractive cues is related to the value of the paired outcome or can become unrelated and habitual. We studied this question using a sign-tracking (ST) paradigm in rats, in which a lever stimulus preceding food reward comes to elicit conditioned lever-interaction behavior. We asked whether reinforcer devaluation by means of conditioned taste aversion, a classic test of habitual behavior, can modify ST to incentive cues, and whether this depends upon the manner in which reinforcer devaluation takes place. In contrast to several recent reports, we conclude that ST is indeed sensitive to reinforcer devaluation. However, this effect depends critically upon the congruence between the context in which taste aversion is learned and the context in which it is tested. When the taste aversion successfully transfers to the testing context, outcome value strongly influences ST behavior, both when the outcome is withheld (in extinction) and when animals can learn from outcome feedback (reacquisition). When taste aversion does not transfer to the testing context, ST remains high. In total, the extent to which ST persists after outcome devaluation is closely related to the extent to which that outcome is truly devalued in the task context. We believe this effect of context on devaluation can reconcile contradictory findings about the flexibility/inflexibility of ST. We discuss this literature and relate our findings to the study of habits generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A Amaya
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA
| | - Jeffrey J Stott
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA
| | - Kyle S Smith
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA
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Hill CM, Qualls-Creekmore E, Berthoud HR, Soto P, Yu S, McDougal DH, Münzberg H, Morrison CD. FGF21 and the Physiological Regulation of Macronutrient Preference. Endocrinology 2020; 161:5734531. [PMID: 32047920 PMCID: PMC7053867 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqaa019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The ability to respond to variations in nutritional status depends on regulatory systems that monitor nutrient intake and adaptively alter metabolism and feeding behavior during nutrient restriction. There is ample evidence that the restriction of water, sodium, or energy intake triggers adaptive responses that conserve existing nutrient stores and promote the ingestion of the missing nutrient, and that these homeostatic responses are mediated, at least in part, by nutritionally regulated hormones acting within the brain. This review highlights recent research that suggests that the metabolic hormone fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) acts on the brain to homeostatically alter macronutrient preference. Circulating FGF21 levels are robustly increased by diets that are high in carbohydrate but low in protein, and exogenous FGF21 treatment reduces the consumption of sweet foods and alcohol while alternatively increasing the consumption of protein. In addition, while control mice adaptively shift macronutrient preference and increase protein intake in response to dietary protein restriction, mice that lack either FGF21 or FGF21 signaling in the brain fail to exhibit this homeostatic response. FGF21 therefore mediates a unique physiological niche, coordinating adaptive shifts in macronutrient preference that serve to maintain protein intake in the face of dietary protein restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Paul Soto
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Sangho Yu
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA
| | | | | | - Christopher D Morrison
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA
- Correspondence: Christopher D. Morrison, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, 6400 Perkins Road, Baton Rouge, LA, 70808. E-mail:
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Food Reward and Food Choice. An Inquiry Through The Liking and Wanting Model. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12030639. [PMID: 32121145 PMCID: PMC7146242 DOI: 10.3390/nu12030639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
What if consumers are getting obese because eating less calories is more difficult for persons that have a higher pleasure and desire towards food (Ikeda et al., 2005) and food companies do not help given only a two extreme option choice to satisfy their needs (i.e., low calories vs. high calories or healthy vs. unhealthy)? Reward systems are being described with a new conceptual approach where liking—the pleasure derived from eating a given food—and wanting—motivational value, desire, or craving—can be seen as the significant forces guiding eating behavior. Our work shows that pleasure (liking), desire (wanting), and the interaction between them influence and are good predictors of food choice and food intake. Reward responses to food are closely linked to food choice, inducing to caloric overconsumption. Based on the responses given to a self-administered questionnaire measuring liking and wanting attitudes, we found three different segments named ‘Reward lovers,’ ‘Half epicurious,’ and ‘Non indulgents’. Their behavior when choosing food is quite different. Results show differential effects on caloric consumption depending on segments. The introduction of more food choices that try to balance their content is a win-win strategy for consumers, companies, and society.
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Associative structure of conditioned inhibition produced by inhibitory perceptual learning treatment. Learn Behav 2020; 47:166-176. [PMID: 30421123 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-018-0359-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to a set of complex stimuli yields an enhanced ability to discriminate between these stimuli. In previous experimental studies, two distinguishable stimuli, X and A, were each repeatedly paired with a common Stimulus B to create compound Stimuli XB and AB. Prior evidence suggests that unique Features X and A form mutually inhibitory associations. This was evidenced by pairing Feature A with a biologically relevant stimulus (i.e., an unconditioned stimulus [US]) and observing that Stimulus X alone later serves to inhibit anticipatory behaviors for that US. These observations may reflect the mutually inhibitory nature of the two Features X and A. However, by assessing the influence of X on behavior that anticipates the US rather than Feature A, these experiments tested inhibition only indirectly. In the present experiments, a more direct measure of inhibition is proposed and tested with rats. We found evidence of retardation and negative summation of associations between unique Features X and A in their capacity to serve as competing cues during overshadowing treatments. Stimulus X was less susceptible to overshadowing by A (which is indicative of retardation of the establishment of an X-A within-compound association) and was able to suppress overshadowing by A of another stimulus (Y) when X was presented with Y at test (which is indicative of negative summation of the representation of A by X). Thus, XB/AB trials were seen to establish an inhibitory relationship between X and A.
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Stress-induced plasticity and functioning of ventral tegmental dopamine neurons. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:48-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Abstract
How do brain systems evaluate the affective valence of a stimulus - that is, its quality of being good or bad? One possibility is that a neural subsystem, or 'module' (such as a subregion of the brain, a projection pathway, a neuronal population or an individual neuron), is permanently dedicated to mediate only one affective function, or at least only one specific valence - an idea that is termed here the 'affective modules' hypothesis. An alternative possibility is that a given neural module can exist in multiple neurobiological states that give it different affective functions - an idea termed here the 'affective modes' hypothesis. This suggests that the affective function or valence mediated by a neural module need not remain permanently stable but rather can change dynamically across different situations. An evaluation of evidence for the 'affective modules' versus 'affective modes' hypotheses may be useful for advancing understanding of the affective organization of limbic circuitry.
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