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Gronseth JR, Nelson HN, Johnson TL, Mallon TA, Martell MR, Pfaffenbach KA, Duxbury BB, Henke JT, Treichel AJ, Hines JH. Synaptic vesicle release regulates pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte-axon interactions in a neuron subtype-specific manner. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1386352. [PMID: 38841202 PMCID: PMC11150666 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1386352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte-lineage cells are central nervous system (CNS) glia that perform multiple functions including the selective myelination of some but not all axons. During myelination, synaptic vesicle release from axons promotes sheath stabilization and growth on a subset of neuron subtypes. In comparison, it is unknown if pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte process extensions selectively interact with specific neural circuits or axon subtypes, and whether the formation and stabilization of these neuron-glia interactions involves synaptic vesicle release. In this study, we used fluorescent reporters in the larval zebrafish model to track pre-myelinating oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with spinal axons utilizing in vivo imaging. Monitoring motile oligodendrocyte processes and their interactions with individually labeled axons revealed that synaptic vesicle release regulates the behavior of subsets of process extensions. Specifically, blocking synaptic vesicle release decreased the longevity of oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with reticulospinal axons. Furthermore, blocking synaptic vesicle release increased the frequency that new interactions formed and retracted. In contrast, tracking the movements of all process extensions of singly-labeled oligodendrocytes revealed that synaptic vesicle release does not regulate overall process motility or exploratory behavior. Blocking synaptic vesicle release influenced the density of oligodendrocyte process extensions interacting with reticulospinal and serotonergic axons, but not commissural interneuron or dopaminergic axons. Taken together, these data indicate that alterations to synaptic vesicle release cause changes to oligodendrocyte-axon interactions that are neuron subtype specific.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jacob H. Hines
- Biology Department, Winona State University, Winona, MN, United States
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2
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Bin JM, Suminaite D, Benito-Kwiecinski SK, Kegel L, Rubio-Brotons M, Early JJ, Soong D, Livesey MR, Poole RJ, Lyons DA. Importin 13-dependent axon diameter growth regulates conduction speeds along myelinated CNS axons. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1790. [PMID: 38413580 PMCID: PMC10899189 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45908-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Axon diameter influences the conduction properties of myelinated axons, both directly, and indirectly through effects on myelin. However, we have limited understanding of mechanisms controlling axon diameter growth in the central nervous system, preventing systematic dissection of how manipulating diameter affects myelination and conduction along individual axons. Here we establish zebrafish to study axon diameter. We find that importin 13b is required for axon diameter growth, but does not affect cell body size or axon length. Using neuron-specific ipo13b mutants, we assess how reduced axon diameter affects myelination and conduction, and find no changes to myelin thickness, precision of action potential propagation, or ability to sustain high frequency firing. However, increases in conduction speed that occur along single myelinated axons with development are tightly linked to their growth in diameter. This suggests that axon diameter growth is a major driver of increases in conduction speeds along myelinated axons over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenea M Bin
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
| | - Daumante Suminaite
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | | | - Linde Kegel
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Maria Rubio-Brotons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Jason J Early
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Daniel Soong
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Matthew R Livesey
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2HQ, UK
- Neuroscience Institute, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Richard J Poole
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.
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3
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Heller DT, Kolson DR, Brandebura AN, Amick EM, Wan J, Ramadan J, Holcomb PS, Liu S, Deerinck TJ, Ellisman MH, Qian J, Mathers PH, Spirou GA. Astrocyte ensheathment of calyx-forming axons of the auditory brainstem precedes accelerated expression of myelin genes and myelination by oligodendrocytes. J Comp Neurol 2024; 532:e25552. [PMID: 37916792 PMCID: PMC10922096 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Early postnatal brain development involves complex interactions among maturing neurons and glial cells that drive tissue organization. We previously analyzed gene expression in tissue from the mouse medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) during the first postnatal week to study changes that surround rapid growth of the large calyx of Held (CH) nerve terminal. Here, we present genes that show significant changes in gene expression level during the second postnatal week, a developmental timeframe that brackets the onset of airborne sound stimulation and the early stages of myelination. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that many of these genes are related to the myelination process. Further investigation of these genes using a previously published cell type-specific bulk RNA-Seq data set in cortex and our own single-cell RNA-Seq data set in the MNTB revealed enrichment of these genes in the oligodendrocyte lineage (OL) cells. Combining the postnatal day (P)6-P14 microarray gene expression data with the previously published P0-P6 data provided fine temporal resolution to investigate the initiation and subsequent waves of gene expression related to OL cell maturation and the process of myelination. Many genes showed increasing expression levels between P2 and P6 in patterns that reflect OL cell maturation. Correspondingly, the first myelin proteins were detected by P4. Using a complementary, developmental series of electron microscopy 3D image volumes, we analyzed the temporal progression of axon wrapping and myelination in the MNTB. By employing a combination of established ultrastructural criteria to classify reconstructed early postnatal glial cells in the 3D volumes, we demonstrated for the first time that astrocytes within the mouse MNTB extensively wrap the axons of the growing CH terminal prior to OL cell wrapping and compaction of myelin. Our data revealed significant expression of several myelin genes and enrichment of multiple genes associated with lipid metabolism in astrocytes, which may subserve axon wrapping in addition to myelin formation. The transition from axon wrapping by astrocytes to OL cells occurs rapidly between P4 and P9 and identifies a potential new role of astrocytes in priming calyceal axons for subsequent myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Douglas R. Kolson
- WVU Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
- Otolaryngology HNS, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
| | - Ashley N. Brandebura
- WVU Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
- Biochemistry, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
| | - Emily M. Amick
- Medical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Jun Wan
- Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Jad Ramadan
- Otolaryngology HNS, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
| | - Paul S. Holcomb
- WVU Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
| | - Sheng Liu
- Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Thomas J. Deerinck
- National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research, University of California, San Diego, CA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, CA
| | - Mark H. Ellisman
- National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research, University of California, San Diego, CA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, CA
| | - Jiang Qian
- Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Peter H. Mathers
- WVU Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
- Otolaryngology HNS, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
- Biochemistry, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
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4
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Jensen D, Chen J, Turner JA, Stephen JM, Wang YP, Wilson TW, Calhoun VD, Liu J. Epigenetic associations with adolescent grey matter maturation and cognitive development. Front Genet 2023; 14:1222619. [PMID: 37529779 PMCID: PMC10390095 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1222619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Adolescence, a critical phase of human neurodevelopment, is marked by a tremendous reorganization of the brain and accompanied by improved cognitive performance. This development is driven in part by gene expression, which in turn is partly regulated by DNA methylation (DNAm). Methods: We collected brain imaging, cognitive assessments, and DNAm in a longitudinal cohort of approximately 200 typically developing participants, aged 9-14. This data, from three time points roughly 1 year apart, was used to explore the relationships between seven cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) sites in genes highly expressed in brain tissues (GRIN2D, GABRB3, KCNC1, SLC12A9, CHD5, STXBP5, and NFASC), seven networks of grey matter (GM) volume change, and scores from seven cognitive tests. Results: The demethylation of the CpGs as well as the rates of change in DNAm were significantly related to improvements in total, crystalized, and fluid cognition scores, executive function, episodic memory, and processing speed, as well as several networks of GM volume increases and decreases that highlight typical patterns of brain maturation. Discussion: Our study provides a first look at the DNAm of genes involved in myelination, excitatory and inhibitory receptors, and connectivity, how they are related to the large-scale changes occurring in the brain structure as well as cognition during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn Jensen
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS), Georgia State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jiayu Chen
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS), Georgia State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jessica A. Turner
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS), Georgia State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Wexnar Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | | | - Yu-Ping Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Tony W. Wilson
- Institute for Human Neuroscience, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Vince D. Calhoun
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS), Georgia State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- The Mind Research Network, Albuquerque, NM, United States
- Psychology Department and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jingyu Liu
- Tri-Institutional Center for Translational Research in Neuroimaging and Data Science (TReNDS), Georgia State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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5
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McKie SJ, Nicholson AS, Smith E, Fawke S, Caroe ER, Williamson JC, Butt BG, Kolářová D, Peterka O, Holčapek M, Lehner PJ, Graham SC, Deane JE. Altered plasma membrane abundance of the sulfatide-binding protein NF155 links glycosphingolipid imbalances to demyelination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2218823120. [PMID: 36996106 PMCID: PMC10083573 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2218823120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelin is a multilayered membrane that tightly wraps neuronal axons, enabling efficient, high-speed signal propagation. The axon and myelin sheath form tight contacts, mediated by specific plasma membrane proteins and lipids, and disruption of these contacts causes devastating demyelinating diseases. Using two cell-based models of demyelinating sphingolipidoses, we demonstrate that altered lipid metabolism changes the abundance of specific plasma membrane proteins. These altered membrane proteins have known roles in cell adhesion and signaling, with several implicated in neurological diseases. The cell surface abundance of the adhesion molecule neurofascin (NFASC), a protein critical for the maintenance of myelin-axon contacts, changes following disruption to sphingolipid metabolism. This provides a direct molecular link between altered lipid abundance and myelin stability. We show that the NFASC isoform NF155, but not NF186, interacts directly and specifically with the sphingolipid sulfatide via multiple binding sites and that this interaction requires the full-length extracellular domain of NF155. We demonstrate that NF155 adopts an S-shaped conformation and preferentially binds sulfatide-containing membranes in cis, with important implications for protein arrangement in the tight axon-myelin space. Our work links glycosphingolipid imbalances to disturbance of membrane protein abundance and demonstrates how this may be driven by direct protein-lipid interactions, providing a mechanistic framework to understand the pathogenesis of galactosphingolipidoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon J. McKie
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
| | - Alex S. Nicholson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
| | - Emily Smith
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
| | - Stuart Fawke
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
| | - Eve R. Caroe
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
| | - James C. Williamson
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0AW, UK
| | - Benjamin G. Butt
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1QP, UK
| | - Denisa Kolářová
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Pardubice, Pardubice53210, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Peterka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Pardubice, Pardubice53210, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Holčapek
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Pardubice, Pardubice53210, Czech Republic
| | - Paul J. Lehner
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0AW, UK
| | - Stephen C. Graham
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1QP, UK
| | - Janet E. Deane
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 0XY, UK
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6
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Chataigner LMP, Gogou C, den Boer MA, Frias CP, Thies-Weesie DME, Granneman JCM, Heck AJR, Meijer DH, Janssen BJC. Structural insights into the contactin 1 - neurofascin 155 adhesion complex. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6607. [PMID: 36329006 PMCID: PMC9633819 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34302-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-surface expressed contactin 1 and neurofascin 155 control wiring of the nervous system and interact across cells to form and maintain paranodal myelin-axon junctions. The molecular mechanism of contactin 1 - neurofascin 155 adhesion complex formation is unresolved. Crystallographic structures of complexed and individual contactin 1 and neurofascin 155 binding regions presented here, provide a rich picture of how competing and complementary interfaces, post-translational glycosylation, splice differences and structural plasticity enable formation of diverse adhesion sites. Structural, biophysical, and cell-clustering analysis reveal how conserved Ig1-2 interfaces form competing heterophilic contactin 1 - neurofascin 155 and homophilic neurofascin 155 complexes whereas contactin 1 forms low-affinity clusters through interfaces on Ig3-6. The structures explain how the heterophilic Ig1-Ig4 horseshoe's in the contactin 1 - neurofascin 155 complex define the 7.4 nm paranodal spacing and how the remaining six domains enable bridging of distinct intercellular distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas M. P. Chataigner
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Structural Biochemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christos Gogou
- grid.5292.c0000 0001 2097 4740Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Maurits A. den Boer
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands ,Netherlands Proteomics Center, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Cátia P. Frias
- grid.5292.c0000 0001 2097 4740Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Dominique M. E. Thies-Weesie
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Van’t Hoff Laboratory for Physical and Colloid Chemistry, Debye Institute of Nanomaterials Science, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joke C. M. Granneman
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Structural Biochemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Albert J. R. Heck
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands ,Netherlands Proteomics Center, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Dimphna H. Meijer
- grid.5292.c0000 0001 2097 4740Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Bert J. C. Janssen
- grid.5477.10000000120346234Structural Biochemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
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7
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Dermitzakis I, Manthou ME, Meditskou S, Miliaras D, Kesidou E, Boziki M, Petratos S, Grigoriadis N, Theotokis P. Developmental Cues and Molecular Drivers in Myelinogenesis: Revisiting Early Life to Re-Evaluate the Integrity of CNS Myelin. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:3208-3237. [PMID: 35877446 PMCID: PMC9324160 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44070222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) coordinates its communication through saltatory conduction, facilitated by myelin-forming oligodendrocytes (OLs). Despite the fact that neurogenesis from stem cell niches has caught the majority of attention in recent years, oligodendrogenesis and, more specifically, the molecular underpinnings behind OL-dependent myelinogenesis, remain largely unknown. In this comprehensive review, we determine the developmental cues and molecular drivers which regulate normal myelination both at the prenatal and postnatal periods. We have indexed the individual stages of myelinogenesis sequentially; from the initiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, including migration and proliferation, to first contact with the axon that enlists positive and negative regulators for myelination, until the ultimate maintenance of the axon ensheathment and myelin growth. Here, we highlight multiple developmental pathways that are key to successful myelin formation and define the molecular pathways that can potentially be targets for pharmacological interventions in a variety of neurological disorders that exhibit demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iasonas Dermitzakis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Maria Eleni Manthou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Soultana Meditskou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Dimosthenis Miliaras
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Evangelia Kesidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Marina Boziki
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Steven Petratos
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Prahran, VIC 3004, Australia;
| | - Nikolaos Grigoriadis
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Paschalis Theotokis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
- Correspondence:
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8
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Vagionitis S, Auer F, Xiao Y, Almeida RG, Lyons DA, Czopka T. Clusters of neuronal neurofascin prefigure the position of a subset of nodes of Ranvier along individual central nervous system axons in vivo. Cell Rep 2022; 38:110366. [PMID: 35172135 PMCID: PMC8864464 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The spacing of nodes of Ranvier crucially affects conduction properties along myelinated axons. It is assumed that node position is primarily driven by growing myelin sheaths. Here, we reveal an additional mechanism of node positioning that is driven by the axon. Through longitudinal live imaging of node formation dynamics in the zebrafish central nervous system, we show that stable clusters of the cell adhesion molecule neurofascin a can accumulate at specific sites along axons prior to myelination. While some of these clusters are pushed into future node position by extending myelin sheaths, others are not and thus prefigure the position of where a mature node forms. Animals that lack full-length neurofascin a show increased internodal distances and less regular nodal spacing along single axons. Together, our data reveal the existence of an axonal mechanism to position nodes of Ranvier that does not depend on regulation by myelin sheath growth. Stable clusters of neuronal neurofascin can form along axons prior to myelination Some clusters are pushed in place by developing myelin sheaths Other clusters restrict sheath growth and thus prefigure node position Animals lacking axonal neurofascin have longer and less regular internodal spacing
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavros Vagionitis
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Franziska Auer
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Yan Xiao
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Rafael G Almeida
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB Edinburgh, UK
| | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4SB Edinburgh, UK
| | - Tim Czopka
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany; Munich Cluster of Systems Neurology (SyNergy), 81377 Munich, Germany; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Chancellor's Building, 49 Little France Crescent, EH16 4SB Edinburgh, UK.
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9
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New oligodendrocytes exhibit more abundant and accurate myelin regeneration than those that survive demyelination. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:415-420. [PMID: 35165460 PMCID: PMC7612594 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-021-01009-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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10
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Panganiban CH, Barth JL, Tan J, Noble KV, McClaskey CM, Howard BA, Jafri SH, Dias JW, Harris KC, Lang H. Two distinct types of nodes of Ranvier support auditory nerve function in the mouse cochlea. Glia 2021; 70:768-791. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.24138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clarisse H. Panganiban
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
- Wolfson Centre for Age‐Related Diseases King's College London London UK
| | - Jeremy L. Barth
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Junying Tan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Kenyaria V. Noble
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Carolyn M. McClaskey
- Department of Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Blake A. Howard
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Shabih H. Jafri
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - James W. Dias
- Department of Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Kelly C. Harris
- Department of Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
| | - Hainan Lang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Medical University of South Carolina Charleston South Carolina USA
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11
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Li G, Liu J, Guan Y, Ji X. The role of hypoxia in stem cell regulation of the central nervous system: From embryonic development to adult proliferation. CNS Neurosci Ther 2021; 27:1446-1457. [PMID: 34817133 PMCID: PMC8611781 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia is involved in the regulation of various cell functions in the body, including the regulation of stem cells. The hypoxic microenvironment is indispensable from embryonic development to the regeneration and repair of adult cells. In addition to embryonic stem cells, which need to maintain their self-renewal properties and pluripotency in a hypoxic environment, adult stem cells, including neural stem cells (NSCs), also exist in a hypoxic microenvironment. The subventricular zone (SVZ) and hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) are the main sites of adult neurogenesis in the brain. Hypoxia can promote the proliferation, migration, and maturation of NSCs in these regions. Also, because most neurons in the brain are non-regenerative, stem cell transplantation is considered as a promising strategy for treating central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Hypoxic treatment also increases the effectiveness of stem cell therapy. In this review, we firstly describe the role of hypoxia in different stem cells, such as embryonic stem cells, NSCs, and induced pluripotent stem cells, and discuss the role of hypoxia-treated stem cells in CNS diseases treatment. Furthermore, we highlight the role and mechanisms of hypoxia in regulating adult neurogenesis in the SVZ and DG and adult proliferation of other cells in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaifen Li
- Laboratory of Brain DisordersMinistry of Science and TechnologyCollaborative Innovation Center for Brain DisordersBeijing Institute of Brain DisordersCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Department of NeurosurgeryXuanwu HospitalCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jia Liu
- Laboratory of Brain DisordersMinistry of Science and TechnologyCollaborative Innovation Center for Brain DisordersBeijing Institute of Brain DisordersCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Yuying Guan
- Laboratory of Brain DisordersMinistry of Science and TechnologyCollaborative Innovation Center for Brain DisordersBeijing Institute of Brain DisordersCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Department of NeurosurgeryXuanwu HospitalCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xunming Ji
- Laboratory of Brain DisordersMinistry of Science and TechnologyCollaborative Innovation Center for Brain DisordersBeijing Institute of Brain DisordersCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Department of NeurosurgeryXuanwu HospitalCapital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
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12
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Neely SA, Lyons DA. Insights Into Central Nervous System Glial Cell Formation and Function From Zebrafish. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:754606. [PMID: 34912801 PMCID: PMC8666443 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.754606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The term glia describes a heterogenous collection of distinct cell types that make up a large proportion of our nervous system. Although once considered the glue of the nervous system, the study of glial cells has evolved significantly in recent years, with a large body of literature now highlighting their complex and diverse roles in development and throughout life. This progress is due, in part, to advances in animal models in which the molecular and cellular mechanisms of glial cell development and function as well as neuron-glial cell interactions can be directly studied in vivo in real time, in intact neural circuits. In this review we highlight the instrumental role that zebrafish have played as a vertebrate model system for the study of glial cells, and discuss how the experimental advantages of the zebrafish lend themselves to investigate glial cell interactions and diversity. We focus in particular on recent studies that have provided insight into the formation and function of the major glial cell types in the central nervous system in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A. Neely
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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13
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Madden ME, Suminaite D, Ortiz E, Early JJ, Koudelka S, Livesey MR, Bianco IH, Granato M, Lyons DA. CNS Hypomyelination Disrupts Axonal Conduction and Behavior in Larval Zebrafish. J Neurosci 2021; 41:9099-9111. [PMID: 34544838 PMCID: PMC8570833 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0842-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelination is essential for central nervous system (CNS) formation, health and function. As a model organism, larval zebrafish have been extensively employed to investigate the molecular and cellular basis of CNS myelination, because of their genetic tractability and suitability for non-invasive live cell imaging. However, it has not been assessed to what extent CNS myelination affects neural circuit function in zebrafish larvae, prohibiting the integration of molecular and cellular analyses of myelination with concomitant network maturation. To test whether larval zebrafish might serve as a suitable platform with which to study the effects of CNS myelination and its dysregulation on circuit function, we generated zebrafish myelin regulatory factor (myrf) mutants with CNS-specific hypomyelination and investigated how this affected their axonal conduction properties and behavior. We found that myrf mutant larvae exhibited increased latency to perform startle responses following defined acoustic stimuli. Furthermore, we found that hypomyelinated animals often selected an impaired response to acoustic stimuli, exhibiting a bias toward reorientation behavior instead of the stimulus-appropriate startle response. To begin to study how myelination affected the underlying circuitry, we established electrophysiological protocols to assess various conduction properties along single axons. We found that the hypomyelinated myrf mutants exhibited reduced action potential conduction velocity and an impaired ability to sustain high-frequency action potential firing. This study indicates that larval zebrafish can be used to bridge molecular and cellular investigation of CNS myelination with multiscale assessment of neural circuit function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Myelination of CNS axons is essential for their health and function, and it is now clear that myelination is a dynamic life-long process subject to modulation by neuronal activity. However, it remains unclear precisely how changes to myelination affects animal behavior and underlying action potential conduction along axons in intact neural circuits. In recent years, zebrafish have been employed to study cellular and molecular mechanisms of myelination, because of their relatively simple, optically transparent, experimentally tractable vertebrate nervous system. Here we find that changes to myelination alter the behavior of young zebrafish and action potential conduction along individual axons, providing a platform to integrate molecular, cellular, and circuit level analyses of myelination using this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Madden
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - D Suminaite
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - E Ortiz
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - J J Early
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - S Koudelka
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - M R Livesey
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2HQ, United Kingdom
| | - I H Bianco
- Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - M Granato
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - D A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
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14
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de la Fuente Revenga M, Zhu B, Guevara CA, Naler LB, Saunders JM, Zhou Z, Toneatti R, Sierra S, Wolstenholme JT, Beardsley PM, Huntley GW, Lu C, González-Maeso J. Prolonged epigenomic and synaptic plasticity alterations following single exposure to a psychedelic in mice. Cell Rep 2021; 37:109836. [PMID: 34686347 PMCID: PMC8582597 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical evidence suggests that rapid and sustained antidepressant action can be attained with a single exposure to psychedelics. However, the biological substrates and key mediators of psychedelics' enduring action remain unknown. Here, we show that a single administration of the psychedelic DOI produces fast-acting effects on frontal cortex dendritic spine structure and acceleration of fear extinction via the 5-HT2A receptor. Additionally, a single dose of DOI leads to changes in chromatin organization, particularly at enhancer regions of genes involved in synaptic assembly that stretch for days after the psychedelic exposure. These DOI-induced alterations in the neuronal epigenome overlap with genetic loci associated with schizophrenia, depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Together, these data support that epigenomic-driven changes in synaptic plasticity sustain psychedelics' long-lasting antidepressant action but also warn about potential substrate overlap with genetic risks for certain psychiatric conditions.
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MESH Headings
- Amphetamines/pharmacology
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Dendritic Spines/drug effects
- Dendritic Spines/metabolism
- Epigenesis, Genetic/drug effects
- Epigenome/drug effects
- Epigenomics
- Extinction, Psychological/drug effects
- Fear/drug effects
- Frontal Lobe/drug effects
- Frontal Lobe/metabolism
- Hallucinogens/pharmacology
- Male
- Mice, 129 Strain
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Neuronal Plasticity/drug effects
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/drug effects
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/genetics
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/metabolism
- Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists/pharmacology
- Synapses/drug effects
- Synapses/metabolism
- Time Factors
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario de la Fuente Revenga
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Virginia Institute of Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Bohan Zhu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Christopher A Guevara
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Lynette B Naler
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Justin M Saunders
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Zirui Zhou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Rudy Toneatti
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Salvador Sierra
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Jennifer T Wolstenholme
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Patrick M Beardsley
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Center for Biomarker Research and Precision Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - George W Huntley
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Chang Lu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, USA.
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15
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Hughes EG, Stockton ME. Premyelinating Oligodendrocytes: Mechanisms Underlying Cell Survival and Integration. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:714169. [PMID: 34368163 PMCID: PMC8335399 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.714169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheaths that enwrap neuronal axons to provide trophic support and increase conduction velocity. New oligodendrocytes are produced throughout life through a process referred to as oligodendrogenesis. Oligodendrogenesis consists of three canonical stages: the oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC), the premyelinating oligodendrocyte (preOL), and the mature oligodendrocyte (OL). However, the generation of oligodendrocytes is inherently an inefficient process. Following precursor differentiation, a majority of premyelinating oligodendrocytes are lost, likely due to apoptosis. If premyelinating oligodendrocytes progress through this survival checkpoint, they generate new myelinating oligodendrocytes in a process we have termed integration. In this review, we will explore the intrinsic and extrinsic signaling pathways that influence preOL survival and integration by examining the intrinsic apoptotic pathways, metabolic demands, and the interactions between neurons, astrocytes, microglia, and premyelinating oligodendrocytes. Additionally, we will discuss similarities between the maturation of newly generated neurons and premyelinating oligodendrocytes. Finally, we will consider how increasing survival and integration of preOLs has the potential to increase remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Deepening our understanding of premyelinating oligodendrocyte biology may open the door for new treatments for demyelinating disease and will help paint a clearer picture of how new oligodendrocytes are produced throughout life to facilitate brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan G Hughes
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Michael E Stockton
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States
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16
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Hughes AN. Glial Cells Promote Myelin Formation and Elimination. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:661486. [PMID: 34046407 PMCID: PMC8144722 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.661486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Building a functional nervous system requires the coordinated actions of many glial cells. In the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes myelinate neuronal axons to increase conduction velocity and provide trophic support. Myelination can be modified by local signaling at the axon-myelin interface, potentially adapting sheaths to support the metabolic needs and physiology of individual neurons. However, neurons and oligodendrocytes are not wholly responsible for crafting the myelination patterns seen in vivo. Other cell types of the CNS, including microglia and astrocytes, modify myelination. In this review, I cover the contributions of non-neuronal, non-oligodendroglial cells to the formation, maintenance, and pruning of myelin sheaths. I address ways that these cell types interact with the oligodendrocyte lineage throughout development to modify myelination. Additionally, I discuss mechanisms by which these cells may indirectly tune myelination by regulating neuronal activity. Understanding how glial-glial interactions regulate myelination is essential for understanding how the brain functions as a whole and for developing strategies to repair myelin in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria N. Hughes
- Section of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado, Aurora, Aurora, CO, United States
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17
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Siems SB, Jahn O, Hoodless LJ, Jung RB, Hesse D, Möbius W, Czopka T, Werner HB. Proteome Profile of Myelin in the Zebrafish Brain. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:640169. [PMID: 33898427 PMCID: PMC8060510 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.640169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The velocity of nerve conduction along vertebrate axons depends on their ensheathment with myelin. Myelin membranes comprise specialized proteins well characterized in mice. Much less is known about the protein composition of myelin in non-mammalian species. Here, we assess the proteome of myelin biochemically purified from the brains of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio), considering its increasing popularity as model organism for myelin biology. Combining gel-based and gel-free proteomic approaches, we identified > 1,000 proteins in purified zebrafish myelin, including all known constituents. By mass spectrometric quantification, the predominant Ig-CAM myelin protein zero (MPZ/P0), myelin basic protein (MBP), and the short-chain dehydrogenase 36K constitute 12%, 8%, and 6% of the total myelin protein, respectively. Comparison with previously established mRNA-abundance profiles shows that expression of many myelin-related transcripts coincides with the maturation of zebrafish oligodendrocytes. Zebrafish myelin comprises several proteins that are not present in mice, including 36K, CLDNK, and ZWI. However, a surprisingly large number of ortholog proteins is present in myelin of both species, indicating partial evolutionary preservation of its constituents. Yet, the relative abundance of CNS myelin proteins can differ markedly as exemplified by the complement inhibitor CD59 that constitutes 5% of the total zebrafish myelin protein but is a low-abundant myelin component in mice. Using novel transgenic reporter constructs and cryo-immuno electron microscopy, we confirm the incorporation of CD59 into myelin sheaths. These data provide the first proteome resource of zebrafish CNS myelin and demonstrate both similarities and heterogeneity of myelin composition between teleost fish and rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie B Siems
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Olaf Jahn
- Proteomics Group, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Laura J Hoodless
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ramona B Jung
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dörte Hesse
- Proteomics Group, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wiebke Möbius
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany.,Electron Microscopy Core Unit, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tim Czopka
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Hauke B Werner
- Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute for Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
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18
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Pantazou V, Roux T, Oliveira Moreira V, Lubetzki C, Desmazières A. Interaction between Neurons and the Oligodendroglial Lineage in Multiple Sclerosis and Its Preclinical Models. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:231. [PMID: 33799653 PMCID: PMC7999210 DOI: 10.3390/life11030231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex central nervous system inflammatory disease leading to demyelination and associated functional deficits. Though endogenous remyelination exists, it is only partial and, with time, patients can enter a progressive phase of the disease, with neurodegeneration as a hallmark. Though major therapeutic advances have been made, with immunotherapies reducing relapse rate during the inflammatory phase of MS, there is presently no therapy available which significantly impacts disease progression. Remyelination has been shown to favor neuroprotection, and it is thus of major importance to better understand remyelination mechanisms in order to promote them and hence preserve neurons. A crucial point is how this process is regulated through the neuronal crosstalk with the oligodendroglial lineage. In this review, we present the current knowledge on neuron interaction with the oligodendroglial lineage, in physiological context as well as in MS and its experimental models. We further discuss the therapeutic possibilities resulting from this research field, which might allow to support remyelination and neuroprotection and thus limit MS progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Pantazou
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France; (V.P.); (T.R.); (V.O.M.); (C.L.)
- Service de Neurologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 46 Rue du Bugnon, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Roux
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France; (V.P.); (T.R.); (V.O.M.); (C.L.)
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Neurology Department, Pitié Salpêtrière University Hospital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Vanessa Oliveira Moreira
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France; (V.P.); (T.R.); (V.O.M.); (C.L.)
| | - Catherine Lubetzki
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France; (V.P.); (T.R.); (V.O.M.); (C.L.)
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Neurology Department, Pitié Salpêtrière University Hospital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Anne Desmazières
- Paris Brain Institute (ICM), Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Inserm, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 47 boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France; (V.P.); (T.R.); (V.O.M.); (C.L.)
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19
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Zhao S, Qian Y, Mu Y. Tracking single cells in zebrafish brain. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 353:109086. [PMID: 33508409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Changes in cell locations and morphologies shape the brain. Tracking single cells over time is a vital step to study these changes, but densely arranged brain cells impede such observation. Larval zebrafish has become a popular model animal for single-cell tracking, owing to its small, transparent brain and easy genetic manipulation. In this article, we review recent single-cell tracking studies on neurons and non-neuronal cells in the larval zebrafish brain, including soma migration, process refinement, and interactions among cell types. These findings yield new insights regarding how the translocation and morphological changes of individual cells determine brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Zhao
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yu Qian
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yu Mu
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-Yang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China.
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20
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Huntemer-Silveira A, Patil N, Brickner MA, Parr AM. Strategies for Oligodendrocyte and Myelin Repair in Traumatic CNS Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 14:619707. [PMID: 33505250 PMCID: PMC7829188 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.619707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A major consequence of traumatic brain and spinal cord injury is the loss of the myelin sheath, a cholesterol-rich layer of insulation that wraps around axons of the nervous system. In the central nervous system (CNS), myelin is produced and maintained by oligodendrocytes. Damage to the CNS may result in oligodendrocyte cell death and subsequent loss of myelin, which can have serious consequences for functional recovery. Demyelination impairs neuronal function by decelerating signal transmission along the axon and has been implicated in many neurodegenerative diseases. After a traumatic injury, mechanisms of endogenous remyelination in the CNS are limited and often fail, for reasons that remain poorly understood. One area of research focuses on enhancing this endogenous response. Existing techniques include the use of small molecules, RNA interference (RNAi), and monoclonal antibodies that target specific signaling components of myelination for recovery. Cell-based replacement strategies geared towards replenishing oligodendrocytes and their progenitors have been utilized by several groups in the last decade as well. In this review article, we discuss the effects of traumatic injury on oligodendrocytes in the CNS, the lack of endogenous remyelination, translational studies in rodent models promoting remyelination, and finally human clinical studies on remyelination in the CNS after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nandadevi Patil
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Megan A. Brickner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Ann M. Parr
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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21
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Cullen CL, Pepper RE, Clutterbuck MT, Pitman KA, Oorschot V, Auderset L, Tang AD, Ramm G, Emery B, Rodger J, Jolivet RB, Young KM. Periaxonal and nodal plasticities modulate action potential conduction in the adult mouse brain. Cell Rep 2021; 34:108641. [PMID: 33472075 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system myelination increases action potential conduction velocity. However, it is unclear how myelination is coordinated to ensure the temporally precise arrival of action potentials and facilitate information processing within cortical and associative circuits. Here, we show that myelin sheaths, supported by mature oligodendrocytes, remain plastic in the adult mouse brain and undergo subtle structural modifications to influence action potential conduction velocity. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and spatial learning, two stimuli that modify neuronal activity, alter the length of the nodes of Ranvier and the size of the periaxonal space within active brain regions. This change in the axon-glial configuration is independent of oligodendrogenesis and robustly alters action potential conduction velocity. Because aptitude in the spatial learning task was found to correlate with action potential conduction velocity in the fimbria-fornix pathway, modifying the axon-glial configuration may be a mechanism that facilitates learning in the adult mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlie L Cullen
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia
| | - Renee E Pepper
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia
| | | | - Kimberley A Pitman
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia
| | - Viola Oorschot
- Ramaciotti Centre for Cryo-Electron Microscopy, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Loic Auderset
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia
| | - Alexander D Tang
- Experimental and Regenerative Neuroscience, School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Georg Ramm
- Ramaciotti Centre for Cryo-Electron Microscopy, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Ben Emery
- Jungers Center for Neurosciences Research, Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
| | - Jennifer Rodger
- Experimental and Regenerative Neuroscience, School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Research, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Renaud B Jolivet
- Département de Physique Nucléaire et Corpusculaire, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Kaylene M Young
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7000, Australia.
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22
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Keefe MD, Soderholm HE, Shih HY, Stevenson TJ, Glaittli KA, Bowles DM, Scholl E, Colby S, Merchant S, Hsu EW, Bonkowsky JL. Vanishing white matter disease expression of truncated EIF2B5 activates induced stress response. eLife 2020; 9:56319. [PMID: 33300869 PMCID: PMC7752137 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vanishing white matter disease (VWM) is a severe leukodystrophy of the central nervous system caused by mutations in subunits of the eukaryotic initiation factor 2B complex (eIF2B). Current models only partially recapitulate key disease features, and pathophysiology is poorly understood. Through development and validation of zebrafish (Danio rerio) models of VWM, we demonstrate that zebrafish eif2b mutants phenocopy VWM, including impaired somatic growth, early lethality, effects on myelination, loss of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, increased apoptosis in the CNS, and impaired motor swimming behavior. Expression of human EIF2B2 in the zebrafish eif2b2 mutant rescues lethality and CNS apoptosis, demonstrating conservation of function between zebrafish and human. In the mutants, intron 12 retention leads to expression of a truncated eif2b5 transcript. Expression of the truncated eif2b5 in wild-type larva impairs motor behavior and activates the ISR, suggesting that a feed-forward mechanism in VWM is a significant component of disease pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Keefe
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Haille E Soderholm
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Hung-Yu Shih
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Tamara J Stevenson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Kathryn A Glaittli
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - D Miranda Bowles
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Erika Scholl
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Samuel Colby
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Samer Merchant
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Edward W Hsu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Joshua L Bonkowsky
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States.,Brain and Spine Center, Primary Children's Hospital, Salt Lake City, United States
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23
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Abstract
The nodes of Ranvier have clustered Na+ and K+ channels necessary for rapid and efficient axonal action potential conduction. However, detailed mechanisms of channel clustering have only recently been identified: they include two independent axon-glia interactions that converge on distinct axonal cytoskeletons. Here, we discuss how glial cell adhesion molecules and the extracellular matrix molecules that bind them assemble combinations of ankyrins, spectrins and other cytoskeletal scaffolding proteins, which cluster ion channels. We present a detailed molecular model, incorporating these overlapping mechanisms, to explain how the nodes of Ranvier are assembled in both the peripheral and central nervous systems.
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24
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Marshall-Phelps KL, Kegel L, Baraban M, Ruhwedel T, Almeida RG, Rubio-Brotons M, Klingseisen A, Benito-Kwiecinski SK, Early JJ, Bin JM, Suminaite D, Livesey MR, Möbius W, Poole RJ, Lyons DA. Neuronal activity disrupts myelinated axon integrity in the absence of NKCC1b. J Cell Biol 2020; 219:e201909022. [PMID: 32364583 PMCID: PMC7337504 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201909022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Through a genetic screen in zebrafish, we identified a mutant with disruption to myelin in both the CNS and PNS caused by a mutation in a previously uncharacterized gene, slc12a2b, predicted to encode a Na+, K+, and Cl- (NKCC) cotransporter, NKCC1b. slc12a2b/NKCC1b mutants exhibited a severe and progressive pathology in the PNS, characterized by dysmyelination and swelling of the periaxonal space at the axon-myelin interface. Cell-type-specific loss of slc12a2b/NKCC1b in either neurons or myelinating Schwann cells recapitulated these pathologies. Given that NKCC1 is critical for ion homeostasis, we asked whether the disruption to myelinated axons in slc12a2b/NKCC1b mutants is affected by neuronal activity. Strikingly, we found that blocking neuronal activity completely prevented and could even rescue the pathology in slc12a2b/NKCC1b mutants. Together, our data indicate that NKCC1b is required to maintain neuronal activity-related solute homeostasis at the axon-myelin interface, and the integrity of myelinated axons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Linde Kegel
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Marion Baraban
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Torben Ruhwedel
- Electron Microscopy Core Unit, Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Rafael G. Almeida
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Anna Klingseisen
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Jason J. Early
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jenea M. Bin
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Daumante Suminaite
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Matthew R. Livesey
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Wiebke Möbius
- Electron Microscopy Core Unit, Department of Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Experimental Medicine, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Richard J. Poole
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK
| | - David A. Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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25
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Orthmann-Murphy J, Call CL, Molina-Castro GC, Hsieh YC, Rasband MN, Calabresi PA, Bergles DE. Remyelination alters the pattern of myelin in the cerebral cortex. eLife 2020; 9:e56621. [PMID: 32459173 PMCID: PMC7292648 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Destruction of oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in cortical gray matter profoundly alters neural activity and is associated with cognitive disability in multiple sclerosis (MS). Myelin can be restored by regenerating oligodendrocytes from resident progenitors; however, it is not known whether regeneration restores the complex myelination patterns in cortical circuits. Here, we performed time lapse in vivo two photon imaging in somatosensory cortex of adult mice to define the kinetics and specificity of myelin regeneration after acute oligodendrocyte ablation. These longitudinal studies revealed that the pattern of myelination in cortex changed dramatically after regeneration, as new oligodendrocytes were formed in different locations and new sheaths were often established along axon segments previously lacking myelin. Despite the dramatic increase in axonal territory available, oligodendrogenesis was persistently impaired in deeper cortical layers that experienced higher gliosis. Repeated reorganization of myelin patterns in MS may alter circuit function and contribute to cognitive decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Orthmann-Murphy
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Cody L Call
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Gian C Molina-Castro
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Yu Chen Hsieh
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Matthew N Rasband
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor PlazaHoustonUnited States
| | - Peter A Calabresi
- Department of Neurology Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Dwight E Bergles
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreUnited States
- Johns Hopkins University Kavli Neuroscience Discovery InstituteBaltimoreUnited States
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26
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Garcia MA, Zuchero JB. Anchors Away: Glia-Neuron Adhesion Regulates Myelin Targeting and Growth. Dev Cell 2020; 51:659-661. [PMID: 31951538 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2019.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Myelination in the CNS requires oligodendrocytes to first select correct axonal targets and then extend their membranes around and along these axons. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Klingseisen et al. (2019) find that the adhesion protein Neurofascin is required in oligodendrocytes for both target selection and myelin growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A Garcia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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27
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Ronzano R, Thetiot M, Lubetzki C, Desmazieres A. Myelin Plasticity and Repair: Neuro-Glial Choir Sets the Tuning. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:42. [PMID: 32180708 PMCID: PMC7059744 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The plasticity of the central nervous system (CNS) in response to neuronal activity has been suggested as early as 1894 by Cajal (1894). CNS plasticity has first been studied with a focus on neuronal structures. However, in the last decade, myelin plasticity has been unraveled as an adaptive mechanism of importance, in addition to the previously described processes of myelin repair. Indeed, it is now clear that myelin remodeling occurs along with life and adapts to the activity of neuronal networks. Until now, it has been considered as a two-part dialog between the neuron and the oligodendroglial lineage. However, other glial cell types might be at play in myelin plasticity. In the present review, we first summarize the key structural parameters for myelination, we then describe how neuronal activity modulates myelination and finally discuss how other glial cells could participate in myelinic adaptivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remi Ronzano
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités UPMC Université Paris 06, CNRS UMR7225-Inserm U1127, Paris, France
| | - Melina Thetiot
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités UPMC Université Paris 06, CNRS UMR7225-Inserm U1127, Paris, France
- Unit Zebrafish Neurogenetics, Department of Developmental & Stem Cell Biology, Institut Pasteur, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Lubetzki
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités UPMC Université Paris 06, CNRS UMR7225-Inserm U1127, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Anne Desmazieres
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière, Sorbonne Universités UPMC Université Paris 06, CNRS UMR7225-Inserm U1127, Paris, France
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