Determinants of prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) among urban, minority infants born between 1998 and 2006

Multimedia distribution and exchange characteristics of organophosphorus flame retardants in a typical semi-arid city in China

After the ban on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the replacement of these compounds with organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) has drawn widespread attention worldwide. In arid/semi-arid regions, characteristics such as low precipitation, frequent strong winds, and low soil organic carbon content potentially influence the environmental fate of OPFRs. In this study, we investigated the concentrations of nine OPFRs in water, sediment, soil, air, and dry deposition in Lanzhou, an arid/semi-arid region in China. The total concentration of OPFRs (Σ9OPFRs) were 54.8-334 ng/L in water, 37.3-484 ng/g (dry weight, dw) in sediment, 134-510 ng/g (dw) in urban soil, 1.53-6.22 ng/m3 in urban air, and measured dry deposition fluxes were 119-681 ng/(m2·d). TPrP, TDCPP and TCPP were the primary OPFR individuals in water and sediment, while TPrP, TDCPP and TPPO predominated in urban soil and air. The fugacity approach revealed the environmental fate of OPFRs were mainly: soil-to-air, air-to-water and sediment-to-water. Ulteriorly, intermediate exchange fluxes were calculated. This study reveals that in this climatic region, urban soil acts both as a "sink" for emissions and a "source" for re-emissions into the atmosphere, further emphasizing the significance of atmospheric transport as a critical pathway in this area.

Exposure to OPFRs Is Associated with Obesity and Dysregulated Serum Lipid Profiles: Data from 2017-2018 NHANES

Widespread exposure to organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) has been observed in the general population. Emerging studies have revealed OPFRs possess endocrine-disturbing properties. The present study aims to assess the association between urinary metabolites of OPFRs, BMI, and serum lipid profiles. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017-2018 were obtained, with 1334 adults enrolled in the current study. Urinary concentrations of bis (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPP), bis(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (BCEP), bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP), dibutyl phosphate (DBUP), and diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) were quantified to assess OPFR exposure. Covariate-adjusted linear and logistic regression models were conducted to explore the associations between log2-transformed concentrations of OPFR metabolites, BMI, obesity, and serum lipid profiles. Stratified analyses were performed to assess the heterogeneity of associations by age, gender, race, etc. Positive associations were found between OPFR exposure and the risk of obesity. The multivariate linear analysis indicated that a one-unit increase in log2-transformed urinary concentrations of BCEP and BDCPP was associated with 0.27 (95% CI: 0.02-0.52, p = 0.0338) and 0.56 (95% CI: 0.25-0.87, p = 0.0004) higher BMI value, respectively. One log2-unit increase in urinary BCEP and BDCPP concentrations was associated with 1.1-fold (95% CI: 1.02-1.18, p = 0.0096) and 1.19-fold (95% CI: 1.09-1.30, p = 0.0001) risk for developing obesity. Furthermore, the non-linear relationship between exposure to OPFRs and obesity was identified. Additionally, multivariable linear regression showed that urinary DPHP concentrations were inversely correlated with serum triglyceride (TG) levels (β = -7.41, 95% CI: -12.13 to -2.68, p = 0.0022). However, no other OPFR metabolites were found to be significantly statistically associated with serum lipid levels after adjusting for potential confounders. In conclusion, environmental exposure to OPFRs might contribute to obesity and dysregulated TG concentrations in adults. Future prospective research is warranted to confirm the causal relationship between metabolites of OPFRs and obesity.

Proteomic analyses of primary human villous trophoblasts exposed to flame retardant BDE-47 using SWATH-MS

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a class of brominated flame retardants and recognized developmental toxicants that are detectable in placental tissues. Higher levels of in utero PBDE exposure have been associated with an increased risk of adverse birth outcomes. During pregnancy, cytotrophoblasts (CTBs) from the placenta play critical roles in the formation of the maternal-fetal interface via uterine invasion and vascular remodeling. The differentiation of these cells towards an invasive phenotype is crucial for proper placental development. We previously have shown that BDE-47 can impact CTB viability and hinder the ability of these cells to migrate and invade. To expand on potential toxicological mechanisms, we utilized quantitative proteomic approaches to identify changes in the global proteome of mid-gestation primary human CTBs after exposure to BDE-47. Using sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment-ion spectra (SWATH), we identified 3024 proteins in our CTB model of differentiation/invasion. Over 200 proteins were impacted as a function of BDE-47 exposure (1 μM and 5 μM) across the treatment period (15, 24, and 39 h). The differentially expressed molecules displayed time- and concentration-dependent changes in expression and were enriched in pathways associated with aggregatory and adhesive processes. Network analysis identified CYFIP1, a molecule previously unexplored in a placental context, to be dysregulated at BDE-47 concentrations previously seen to impact CTB migration/invasion. Our SWATH-MS dataset thus demonstrates BDE-47 impacts the global proteome of differentiating CTBs and serves as a valuable resource for further understanding of the relationship between environmental chemical exposures and placental development and function. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL: Raw chromatograms are deposited on the MassIVE proteomic database (https://massive.ucsd.edu) under accession number MSV000087870. Normalized relative abundances are also available as Table S1.

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and inattention/hyperactivity symptoms in mid to late adolescents

Introduction

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) has been associated with increased symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early to middle childhood, as well as early adolescence. However, data are limited for the long-lasting impact of exposure on outcomes assessed across the entire adolescent period and the sex-specificity of such associations.

Methods

We investigated the association between continuous natural-log-transformed cord plasma PBDE concentrations and ADHD rating scale 4th edition (ADHD-RS-IV) score from mid adolescence (approximately 11 years old) to late adolescence (approximately 17 years old). The study sample includes a subset (n = 219) of the African American and Dominican children enrolled in the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health Mothers and Newborns birth cohort. We used generalized estimating equations to account for the repeated measure of ADHD-RS scores. We examined interactions between exposure to PBDE and sex using cross-product terms and sex-stratified models. In addition, we used linear regression using an age-stratified sample as a sensitivity analysis.

Results and Discussion

Associations between prenatal exposure and parents' reports of ADHD symptoms varied by sex (p-interaction <0.20), with positive relationships observed among girls but not boys from sex-stratified models. Our finding suggests prenatal exposure to PBDE may affect ADHD symptoms assessed during middle to late adolescence and the sex-specificity of such impact. Our results can be confirmed by future studies with larger and more diverse samples.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Environmental Exposures on Neurocognitive Outcomes in Children: Empirical Evidence, Potential Mechanisms, and Implications

The purpose of this article is to examine the current literature regarding the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and environmental exposures. Specifically, the paper will focus on how this relationship between ACEs and physical environmental factors impacts the neurocognitive development of children. With a comprehensive literary search focusing on ACEs, inclusive of socioeconomic status (SES), and environmental toxins common in urban environments, the paper explores how these factors contribute to cognitive outcomes that are associated with the environment and childhood nurturing. The relationship between ACEs and environmental exposures reveals adverse outcomes in children's neurocognitive development. These cognitive outcomes include learning disabilities, lowered IQ, memory and attention problems, and overall poor educational outcomes. Additionally, potential mechanisms of environmental exposures and children's neurocognitive outcomes are explored, referencing data from animal studies and evidence from brain imaging studies. This study further analyzes the current gaps in the literature, such as the lack of data focusing on exposure to environmental toxicants resulting from experiencing ACEs and discusses the research and social policy implications of ACEs and environmental exposure in the neurocognitive development of children.

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and birth outcomes

BACKGROUND

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were used as flame retardants and from their end-use products they can be released to accumulate within indoor environments. This may result in exposures to pregnant women with potential adverse effects on the developing fetus. While studies have shown associations between prenatal PBDE exposure and poor birth outcomes, research has mainly focused on birth weight and gestational age and may miss important indicators of newborn size.

METHODS

The sample included a cohort of Dominican and African American mother-child pairs from New York City recruited from 1998 to 2006. PBDE congeners (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, and BDE-153) were measured in cord serum at birth and dichotomized into low (<80th percentile) and high (>80th percentile) categories. Weight, length, head circumference, and gestational age were measured at birth and the ponderal index (birth weight/length x 100), size for gestational age, and population-based z-scores were calculated (n = 305). Separate regression analyses were conducted to estimate associations between PBDEs or PBDE sum (ng/g lipid) and birth outcomes. Quantile g-computation was performed to estimate the effect of total PBDE mixture. We also assessed effect modification by sex and ethnicity.

RESULTS

Adjusting for relevant covariates, the high exposure category of BDE-153 was associated with lower birth weight z-score (-0.25, 95% CI: -0.5, 0.0) and longer gestation (0.43 weeks, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.79). The high exposure category of BDE-99 was associated with lower birth length z-score (-0.55, 95% CI: -0.98, -0.12). There was a negative association between the overall PBDE mixture and birth length z-score (-0.10, 95% CI: -0.21, 0.00) per 1 quintile increase in PBDEs. There was no effect modification by sex or ethnicity.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that prenatal exposures to BDE-153, BDE-99, and total PBDE mixture are associated with birth outcomes in a cohort of Dominican and African American newborns.

Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and BMI Z-scores from 5 to 14 years

BACKGROUND

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame-retardant compounds widely used in household products until phase out in 2004. PBDEs are endocrine disruptors and are suggested to influence signaling related to weight control. Prenatal exposures to PBDEs may alter childhood adiposity, yet few studies have examined these associations in human populations.

METHODS

Data were collected from a birth cohort of Dominican and African American mother-child pairs from New York City recruited from 1998 to 2006. PBDE congeners BDE-47, - 99, - 100, and - 153 were measured in cord plasma (ng/μL) and dichotomized into low (< 80th percentile) and high (>80th percentile) exposure categories. Height and weight were collected at ages 5, 7, 9, 11, and an ancillary visit from 8 to 14 years (n = 289). Mixed-effects models with random intercepts for participant were used to assess associations between concentrations of individual PBDE congeners or the PBDE sum and child BMI z-scores (BMIz). To assess associations between PBDEs and the change in BMIz over time, models including interactions between PBDE categories and child age and (child age)² were fit. Quantile g-computation was used to investigate associations between BMIz and the total PBDE mixture. Models were adjusted for baseline maternal covariates: ethnicity, age, education, parity, partnership status, and receipt of public assistance, and child covariates: child sex and cord cholesterol and triglycerides.

RESULTS

The prevalence of children with obesity at age 5 was 24.2% and increased to 30% at age 11. Neither cord levels of individual PBDEs nor the total PBDE mixture were associated with overall BMIz in childhood. The changes in BMIz across childhood were not different between children with low or high PBDEs. Results were similar when adjusting for postnatal PBDE exposures.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal PBDE exposures were not associated with child growth trajectories in a cohort of Dominican and African American children.

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Serum Concentrations and Depressive Symptomatology in Pregnant African American Women

(1) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were widely produced in the United States until 2004 but remain highly persistent in the environment. The potential for PBDEs to disrupt normal neuroendocrine pathways resulting in depression and other neurological symptoms is largely understudied. This study examined whether PBDE exposure in pregnant women was associated with antenatal depressive symptomatology. (2) Data were collected from 193 African American pregnant women at 8–14 weeks gestation. Serum PBDEs and depressive symptoms were analyzed and a mixture effect was calculated. (3) Urban pregnant African American women in the Southeastern United States had a high risk of depression (27%) compared to the National average. Increased levels of PBDEs were found. BDE-47 and -99 exposures are significantly associated with depressive symptomatology in the pregnant cohort. The weighted body burden estimate of the PBDE mixture was associated with a higher risk of mild to moderate depression using an Edinburgh Depression Scale cutoff score of ≥10 (OR = 2.93; CI 1.18, 7.82). (4) Since antenatal depression may worsen in postpartum, reducing PBDE exposure may have significant clinical implications.

Fetal sex and maternal postpartum depressive symptoms: findings from two prospective pregnancy cohorts

BACKGROUND

Fetal sex is known to modify the course and complications of pregnancy, with recent evidence of sex-differential fetal influences on the maternal immune and endocrine systems. In turn, heightened inflammation and surges in reproductive hormone levels associated with pregnancy and parturition have been linked with the development of perinatal depression. Here, we examined whether there is an association between fetal sex and maternal depression assessed during the prenatal and postnatal periods.

METHODS

The study included two multi-ethnic, prospective pregnancy cohorts that enrolled women from prenatal clinics in the Northeastern United States between 2001 and 2018. Maternal depressive symptoms were measured during the prenatal and postnatal periods using the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), and newborn sex was reported by the mother following delivery. We used logistic regression to examine associations between fetal sex and maternal depressive symptoms (EPDS > 10) during the prenatal period only, postnatal period only, or both periods versus no depressive symptoms during either period. We considered both unadjusted models and models adjusted for a core set of sociodemographic and lifestyle variables.

RESULTS

In adjusted models using PRISM data (N = 528), women pregnant with a male versus female fetus had significantly greater odds of depressive symptoms during the postnatal period compared to women without depressive symptoms during either period (odds ratio [OR] = 5.24, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.93, 14.21). The direction of results was consistent in the ACCESS cohort, although the findings did not reach statistical significance (OR = 2.05, 95% CI = 0.86, 4.93). Significant associations were not observed in either cohort among women with prenatal symptoms only or women with prenatal and postnatal symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Male fetal sex was associated with the onset of depressive symptoms during the postnatal period.

Inevitable human exposure to emissions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: A perspective on potential health risks

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) serve as flame retardants in many household materials such as electrical and electronic devices, furniture, textiles, plastics, and baby products. Though the use of PBDEs like penta-, octa- and deca-BDE greatly reduces the fire damage, indoor pollution by these toxic emissions is ever-growing. In fact, a boom in the global market projections of PBDEs threatens human health security. Therefore, efforts are made to minimize PBDEs pollution in USA and Europe by encouraging voluntary phasing out of the production or imposing compelled regulations through Stockholm Convention, but >500 kilotons of PBDEs still exist globally. Both 'environmental persistence' and 'bioaccumulation tendencies' are the hallmarks of PBDE toxicities; however, both these issues concerning household emissions of PBDEs have been least addressed theoretically or practically. Critical physiological functions, lipophilicity and toxicity, trophic transfer and tissue specificities are of utmost importance in the benefit/risk assessments of PBDEs. Since indoor debromination of deca-BDE often yields many products, a better understanding on their sorption propensity, environmental fate and human toxicities is critical in taking rigorous measures on the ever-growing global deca-BDE market. The data available in the literature on human toxicities of PBDEs have been validated following meta-analysis. In this direction, the intent of the present review was to provide a critical evaluation of the key aspects like compositional patterns/isomer ratios of PBDEs implicated in bioaccumulation, indoor PBDE emissions versus human exposure, secured technologies to deal with the toxic emissions, and human toxicity of PBDEs in relation to the number of bromine atoms. Finally, an emphasis has been made on the knowledge gaps and future research directions related to endurable flame retardants which could fit well into the benefit/risk strategy.

Exposure pathways, levels and toxicity of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in humans: A review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are extensively used as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in different types of materials, which have been listed as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention in 2009 and 2017. Due to their ubiquities in the environment and toxicities, PBDEs have posed great threat to both human health and ecosystems. The aim of this review is to offer a comprehensive understanding of the exposure pathways, levels and trends and associated health risks of PBDEs in human body in a global scale. We systematically reviewed and described the scientific data of PBDE researches worldwide from 2010 to March 2020, focusing on the following three areas: (1) sources and human external exposure pathways of PBDEs; (2) PBDE levels and trends in humans; (3) human data of PBDEs toxicity. Dietary intake and dust ingestion are dominant human exposure pathways. PBDEs were widely detected in human samples, especially in human serum and human milk. Data showed that PBDEs are generally declining in human samples worldwide as a result of their phasing out. Due to the common use of PBDEs, their levels in humans from the USA were generally higher than that in other countries. High concentrations of PBDEs have been detected in humans from PBDE production regions and e-waste recycling sites. BDE-47, -153 and -99 were proved to be the primary congeners in humans. Human toxicity data demonstrated that PBDEs have extensively endocrine disruption effects, developmental effects, and carcinogenic effects among different populations.

Racial/ethnic and geographic differences in polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels across maternal, placental, and fetal tissues during mid-gestation

Prenatal polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposures are a public health concern due to their persistence and potential for reproductive and developmental harm. However, we have little information about the extent of fetal exposures during critical developmental periods and the variation in exposures for groups that may be more highly exposed, such as communities of color and lower socioeconomic status (SES). To characterize maternal-fetal PBDE exposures among potentially vulnerable groups, PBDE levels were examined in the largest sample of matched maternal serum, placenta, and fetal liver tissues during mid-gestation among a geographically, racially/ethnically, and socially diverse population of pregnant women from Northern California and the Central Valley (n = 180; 2014-16). Maternal-fetal PBDE levels were compared to population characteristics using censored Kendall's tau correlation and linear regression. PBDEs were commonly detected in all biomatrices. Before lipid adjustment, wet-weight levels of all four PBDE congeners were highest in the fetal liver (p < 0.001), whereas median PBDE levels were significantly higher in maternal serum than in the fetal liver or placenta after lipid-adjustment (p < 0.001). We also found evidence of racial/ethnic disparities in PBDE exposures (Non-Hispanic Black > Latina/Hispanic > Non-Hispanic White > Asian/Pacific Islander/Other; p < 0.01), with higher levels of BDE-100 and BDE-153 among non-Hispanic Black women compared to the referent group (Latina/Hispanic women). In addition, participants living in Fresno/South Central Valley had 34% (95% CI: - 2.4 to 84%, p = 0.07) higher wet-weight levels of BDE-47 than residents living in the San Francisco Bay Area. PBDEs are widely detected and differentially distributed in maternal-fetal compartments. Non-Hispanic Black pregnant women and women from Southern Central Valley geographical populations may be more highly exposed to PBDEs. Further research is needed to identify sources that may be contributing to differential exposures and associated health risks among these vulnerable populations.

Perinatal exposure to octabromodiphenyl ether mixture, DE-79, alters the vasopressinergic system in adult rats

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are persistent environmental pollutants considered as neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors with important biological effects ranging from alterations in growth, reproduction, and effects on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. The vasopressinergic (AVPergic) system is a known target for pentaBDEs mixture (DE-71) and the structurally similar chemicals, polychlorinated biphenyls. However, the potential adverse effects of mixtures containing octaBDE compounds, like DE-79, on the AVPergic system are still unknown. The present study aims to examine the effects of perinatal DE-79 exposure on the AVPergic system. Dams were dosed from gestational day 6 to postnatal day 21 at doses of 0 (control), 1.7 (low) or 10.2 (high) mg/kg/day, and male offspring from all doses at 3-months-old were subjected to normosmotic and hyperosmotic challenge. Male offspring where later assessed for alterations in osmoregulation (i.e. serum osmolality and systemic vasopressin release), and both vasopressin immunoreactivity (AVP-IR) and gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Additionally, to elucidate a possible mechanism for the effects of DE-79 on the AVPergic system, both neuronal nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity (nNOS-IR) and mRNA expression were investigated in the same hypothalamic nuclei. The results showed that perinatal DE-79 exposure AVP-IR, mRNA expression and systemic release in adulthood under normosmotic conditions and more evidently under hyperosmotic stimulation. nNOS-IR and mRNA expression were also affected in the same nuclei. Since NO is an AVP regulator, we propose that disturbances in NO could be a mechanism underlying the AVPergic system disruption following perinatal DE-79 exposure leading to osmoregulation deficits.

Hepatic Transcriptomic Patterns in the Neonatal Rat After Pentabromodiphenyl Ether Exposure

Human exposure to pentabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE) mixture (DE-71) and its PBDE-47 congener can occur both in utero and during lactation. Here, we tested the hypothesis that PBDE-induced neonatal hepatic transcriptomic alterations in Wistar Han rat pups can inform on potential toxicity and carcinogenicity after longer term PBDE exposures. Wistar Han rat dams were exposed to either DE-71 or PBDE-47 daily from gestation day (GD 6) through postnatal day 4 (PND 4). Total plasma thyroxine (T4) was decreased in PND 4 pups. In liver, transcripts for CYPs and conjugation enzymes, Nrf2, and ABC transporters were upregulated. In general, the hepatic transcriptomic alterations after exposure to DE-71 or PBDE-47 were similar and provided early indicators of oxidative stress and metabolic alterations, key characteristics of toxicity processes. The transcriptional benchmark dose lower confidence limits of the most sensitive biological processes were lower for PBDE-47 than for the PBDE mixture. Neonatal rat liver transcriptomic data provide early indicators on molecular pathway alterations that may lead to toxicity and/or carcinogenicity if the exposures continue for longer durations. These early toxicogenomic indicators may be used to help prioritize chemicals for a more complete toxicity and cancer risk evaluation.

Associations between sociodemographic characteristics and exposures to PBDEs, OH-PBDEs, PCBs, and PFASs in a diverse, overweight population of pregnant women

Exposures to persistent organohalogen chemicals during pregnancy are associated with adverse health effects. Low-income, minority women with pre-existing co-morbidities may be particularly vulnerable to these exposures, but have historically been understudied. We aimed to characterize exposures to multiple chemical classes among a sample of ethnically diverse, lower income, overweight or obese pregnant women. Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and their hydroxylated metabolites (OH-PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were measured in 98 pregnant women (California; 2011-2013). Aggregate exposures were evaluated using correlational clustering, a "chemical burden" score, and PCA. Associations between sociodemographic characteristics and individual and aggregate exposures were evaluated using multivariable linear regression. Clustering and PCA both produced four groupings: (PC1) PBDEs/OH-PBDEs, (PC2) PCBs, (PC3) PFNA/PFOA/PFDeA, (PC4) PFHxS/PFOS. Race/ethnicity and prepregnancy BMI were associated with PBDEs, OH-PBDEs and PC1. Maternal age was associated with PCBs and PC2. Parity was associated with PBDEs, OH-PBDEs and PC2. Poverty was negatively associated with PCBs, whereas food insecurity was positively associated with PFOS. We observed variations in sociodemographic profiles of exposures by chemical class and weak across-class correlations. These findings have implications for epidemiologic studies of chemical mixtures and for exposure reduction strategies.

A novel management strategy for removal and degradation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in waste printed circuit boards

Waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) contain a high level of brominated flame retardants (BFRs), among which polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are the most widely used additive BFRs. PBDEs are considered to be a type of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The efficient removal/degradation of PBDEs in waste PCBs is an urgent problem in electronic waste treatment, but the degradation of PBDEs is a great challenge due to their extreme stability and persistence in nature. In this study, a novel management strategy was developed for removal and degradation of PBDEs in waste PCBs by using a simple subcritical methanol (SubCM) process. The results showed that reaction temperature, residence time, solid-to-liquid ratio, and additive NaOH are key factors influencing the removal of PBDEs from waste PCBs. Under optimal conditions (200 °C, 60 min, 1:20 g/mL), the removal efficiency of ∑₈PBDEs from waste PCBs could reach 91.3% and 98.8% for the proposed process of SubCM and SubCM + NaOH, respectively. When the temperature is below 200 °C, highly brominated PBDEs congeners in waste PCBs were degraded into 2,'3,4',6-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE71) and 2,4,4'-Tribromodiphenyl ether (BDE28) after SubCM treatment. 4-Bromophenyl ether (BDE4) and diphenyl ether were generated by the further debromination of BDE71 and BDE28 with the increase of treatment temperature. The debromination temperature of PBDEs congeners in SubCM could be markedly lowered by adding 4 g/L of NaOH. The complete debromination of PBDEs congeners in waste PCBs could be achieved at 300 °C and 250 °C for the developed process of SubCM and SubCM + NaOH, respectively.

Detection Method of Environmentally Friendly Non-POP PBDEs by Derivatization-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Using the Pharmacophore Model

Background:

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are dangerous for the environment and human health because of their persistent organic pollutant (POP) characteristics, which have attracted extensive research attention. Raman spectroscopy is a simple highly sensitive detection operation. This study was performed to obtain environmentally friendly non-POP PBDE derivatives with simple detection-based molecular design and provide theoretical support for establishing enhanced Raman spectroscopic detection techniques.

Methods:

A three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3DQSAR) pharmacophore model of characteristic PBDE Raman spectral was established using 20 and 10 PBDEs as training and test sets, respectively. Full-factor experimental design was used to modify representative commercial PBDEs, and their flame retardancy and POP characteristics were evaluated.

Results:

The pharmacophore model (Hypo1) exhibited good predictive ability with the largest correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.88, the smallest root mean square (RMS) value of 0.231, and total cost of 81.488 with a configuration value of 12.56 (˂17).74 monosubstituted and disubstituted PBDE derivatives were obtained based on the Hypo 1 pharmacophore model and full-factor experimental design auxiliary. Twenty PBDE derivatives were screened, and their flame-retardant capabilities were enhanced and their migration and bio-concentration were reduced (log(KOW) <5), with unchanged toxicity and high biodegradability. The Raman spectral intensities increased up to 380%. In addition, interference analysis of the Raman peaks by group frequency indicated that the 20 PBDE derivatives were easily detected with no interference in gaseous environments.

Conclusion:

Nine pharmacophore models were constructed in this study; Hypo 1 was the most accurate. Twenty PBDE derivatives showed Raman spectral intensities increased up to 380%; these were classified as new non-POP environmentally friendly flame retardants with low toxicity, low migration, good biodegradability, and low bio-concentrations. 2D QSAR analysis showed that the most positive Milliken charge and lowest occupied orbital energy were the main contributors to the PBDE Raman spectral intensities. Raman peak analysis revealed no interference between the derivatives in gaseous environments.

Distribution of the parent compound and its metabolites in serum, urine, and feces of mice administered 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether

2,2',4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) is a predominant polybromodiphenyl ether congener in the environment. Its absorption, excretion, and metabolism in animals have been investigated; however, the distribution of BDE-47 and its metabolites in excreta and blood at steady-state conditions has been unclear. In the present study, we addressed the issue by determining the amounts of BDE-47, eight monohydroxylated metabolites (OH-BDEs), and 2,4-dibromophenol (2,4-DBP) in serum, urine, and feces of gpt delta transgenic mice orally administered BDE-47 at 1.5, 10, and 30 mg/kg/d for 6 weeks during the 24 h period (for urine and feces) or at 24 h (for blood) post-last dosing. The distribution profiles in the three matrices showed that BDE-47, OH-BDEs, and 2,4-DBP were mostly distributed in urine (59-70%), feces (95-96%), and urine (51-80%), respectively. In each matrix, BDE-47 was the predominant compound under all doses, which accounted for 84-96% in serum, 68-98% in urine, and 37-92% in feces. However, exclusive of BDE-47, OH-BDEs were the predominant class of metabolites in serum (72-86%) and feces (67-87%), whereas 2,4-DBP was the major metabolite in urine (98-99%). Among monohydroxylated metabolites, the dominant compounds were 4-hydroxy-2,2',3,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (4-OH-BDE-42) and 4'-hydroxy-2,2',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (4'-OH-BDE-49) in feces (27-33% and 25-43%, respectively), and 3-hydroxy-2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (3-OH-BDE-47) in serum (26-43%). Thus, BDE-47 and 2,4-DBP were mostly present in urine, and OH-BDEs were primarily found in feces. Blood was not an important carrier for either BDE-47 or its metabolites. The data provide information for distribution and elimination of BDE-47 and its metabolites in mice at steady-state conditions.

Pre- and Postnatal Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Concentrations in Relation to Thyroid Parameters Measured During Early Childhood

Background: Penta-brominated diphenyl ethers (PentaBDEs) are endocrine-disrupting chemicals that structurally resemble thyroid hormones and were widely used as flame retardants in household consumer products from 1975 to 2004. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) cross the placenta, and evidence suggests that for many children, body burdens may peak during the toddler years. This study aimed to understand the impact of exposure timing by examining both pre- and postnatal exposure to BDE-47, the predominant penta-brominated diphenyl ether congener detected in humans, in relation to thyroid hormone parameters measured during early childhood. Methods: The Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health Mothers and Newborns Study is a prospective birth cohort of African American and Dominican maternal-child pairs. Pregnant women were recruited from two prenatal clinics in Northern Manhattan and the South Bronx between 1998 and 2006. Participants included 158 children with (i) plasma PBDE concentrations measured at birth and in the toddler years (age 2-3 years), and (ii) serum thyroid parameters measured at three and/or five years of age. Outcomes included concentrations of serum thyrotropin, free thyroxine, and total thyroxine. Results: Children with high exposure to BDE-47 during the prenatal period (-17% [confidence interval -29 to -2]) or toddler age (-19% [confidence interval -31 to -5]) had significantly lower geometric mean thyrotropin levels compared to children with low BDE-47 exposure throughout early life. Associations with thyroxine were also inverse; however, they did not reach statistical significance at the p = 0.05 level. Sex-stratified models suggest associations with postnatal exposure may be stronger among boys compared to girls. Conclusions: The thyroid regulatory system may be sensitive to BDE-47 during pre- and postnatal periods.

Temporal trends and developmental patterns of plasma polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations over a 15-year period between 1998 and 2013

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were used extensively as flame retardants in furniture containing polyurethane foam until they were phased out of use, beginning in 2004. We examined temporal changes in plasma PBDE concentrations from 1998 to 2013 and characterized patterns of exposure over the early lifecourse among 334 children (903 samples) between birth and 9 years. We examined time trends by regressing PBDE concentration on year of sample collection in age-adjusted models and characterized developmental trajectories using latent class growth analysis (LCGA). Controlling for age, BDE-47 concentrations decreased 5% (95% confidence interval (CI): -9, -2) per year between 1998 and 2013. When considering only postnatal samples, this reduction strengthened to 13% (95% CI: -19, -9). Findings for BDE-99, 100 and 153 were similar, except that BDE-153 decreased to a lesser extent when both prenatal and postnatal samples were considered (-2%, 95% CI: -7, 0). These findings suggest that, on average, pentaBDE body burdens have decreased since the 2004 phase-out of these chemicals. When examining developmental period, PBDE concentrations peaked during toddler years for the majority of children, however, our observation of several unique trajectories suggests that a single measure may not accurately reflect exposure to PBDEs throughout early life.

Associations between prenatal and childhood PBDE exposure and early adolescent visual, verbal and working memory

BACKGROUND

Prenatal and childhood exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants has been inversely associated with cognitive performance, however, few studies have measured PBDE concentrations in samples collected during both prenatal and postnatal periods.

METHODS

We examined prenatal (cord) and childhood (ages 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 years) plasma PBDE concentrations in relation to memory outcomes assessed between the ages of 9 and 14 years. The study sample includes a subset (n = 212) of the African American and Dominican children enrolled in the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health Mothers and Newborns birth cohort. We used multivariable linear regression to examine associations between continuous log₁₀-transformed PBDE concentrations and performance on tests of visual, verbal and working memory in age-stratified models. We additionally used latent class growth analysis to estimate trajectories of exposure across early life, which we analyzed as a categorical variable in relation to memory outcomes. We examined interactions between PBDE exposure and sex using cross-product terms.

RESULTS

Associations between prenatal exposure and working memory significantly varied by sex (p-interaction = 0.02), with inverse relations observed only among girls (i.e. β_BDE-47 = -7.55, 95% CI: -13.84, -1.24). Children with sustained high concentrations of BDEs-47, 99 or 100 across childhood scored approximately 5-8 standard score points lower on tests of visual memory. Children with PBDE plasma concentrations that peaked during toddler years performed better on verbal domains, however, these associations were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to PBDEs during both prenatal and postnatal periods may disrupt memory domains in early adolescence. These findings contribute to a substantial body of evidence supporting the developmental neurotoxicity of PBDEs and underscore the need to reduce exposure among pregnant women and children.