The consumption of canned food and beverages and urinary Bisphenol A concentrations in NHANES 2003-2008

Associations of urinary biomarkers of phthalates, phenols, parabens, and organophosphate esters with glycemic traits in pregnancy: The Healthy Start Study

BACKGROUND

Certain endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are widespread in consumer products and may alter glucose metabolism. However, the impact of EDC exposures on glucose and insulin regulation during pregnancy is incompletely understood, despite potential adverse consequences for maternal and infant health. We estimated associations between 37 urinary biomarkers of EDCs and glucose-insulin traits among pregnant women.

METHODS

Seventeen phthalate or phthalate substitute metabolites, six environmental phenols, four parabens, and ten organophosphate ester metabolites were quantified in mid-pregnancy urine from 298 participants in the Healthy Start Study. Fasting blood glucose, insulin, and hemoglobin A1c were assessed concurrently, and Homeostasis Model Assessment 2-Insulin Resistance (HOMA2-IR) was calculated. Gestational diabetes diagnoses and screening results were obtained from medical records for a subset of participants. We estimated associations between each EDC and outcome separately using linear and robust Poisson regression models and analyzed EDC mixture effects.

RESULTS

The EDC mixture was positively associated with glucose, insulin, and HOMA2-IR, although overall associations were attenuated after adjustment for maternal BMI. Two mixture approaches identified di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites as top contributors to the mixture's positive associations. In single-pollutant models, DEHP metabolites were positively associated with fasting glucose, fasting insulin, and HOMA2-IR even after adjustment for maternal BMI. For example, each interquartile range increase in log2-transformed mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate was associated with 2.4 mg/dL (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1, 3.6) higher fasting glucose, 11.8% (95%CI: 3.6, 20.5) higher fasting insulin, and 12.3% (95%CI: 4.2, 21.1) higher HOMA2-IR. Few EDCs were associated with hemoglobin A1c or with a combined outcome of impaired glucose tolerance or gestational diabetes.

DISCUSSION

Exposures to phthalates and particularly DEHP during pregnancy are associated with altered glucose-insulin regulation. Disruptions in maternal glucose metabolism during pregnancy may contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes including gestational diabetes and fetal macrosomia, and associated long-term consequences for maternal and child health.

BPA Exposure Affects Mouse Gastruloids Axial Elongation by Perturbing the Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway

Mammalian embryos are very vulnerable to environmental toxicants (ETs) exposure. Bisphenol A (BPA), one of the most diffused ETs, exerts endocrine-disrupting effects through estro-gen-mimicking and hormone-like properties, with detrimental health effects, including on reproduction. However, its impact during the peri-implantation stages is still unclear. This study, using gastruloids as a 3D stem cell-based in vitro model of embryonic development, showed that BPA exposure arrests their axial elongation when present during the Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation period by β-catenin protein reduction. Gastruloid reshaping might have been impeded by the downregulation of Snail, Slug and Twist, known to suppress E-cadherin expression and to activate the N-cadherin gene, and by the low expression of the N-cadherin protein. Also, the lack of gastruloids elongation might be related to altered exit of BPA-exposed cells from the pluripotency condition and their following differentiation. In conclusion, here we show that the inhibition of gastruloids' axial elongation by BPA might be the result of the concomitant Wnt/β-catenin perturbation, reduced N-cadherin expression and Oct4, T/Bra and Cdx2 altered patter expression, which all together concur in the impaired development of mouse gastruloids.

Recent use of consumer and personal care products and exposures to select endocrine disrupting chemicals among urban children with asthma

BACKGROUND

Emerging studies suggest that endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in personal care and other consumer products are linked with various adverse health effects, including respiratory and reproductive effects. Despite Black persons using more personal care products than other demographic groups and having a high asthma burden, little is known regarding their consumer product use patterns and associated EDC exposures.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between recent exposure to select EDCs with specific consumer products and behaviors in a cohort of 110 predominantly Black children with asthma, ages 8-17 years, living in Baltimore City, Maryland.

METHODS

We quantified concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F, two dichlorophenols, four parabens, triclosan, benzophenone-3, and triclocarban in spot urine samples. Questionnaires were used to capture recent (last 24-h) consumer product use and behaviors. Associations between EDCs and consumer product uses/behaviors were assessed using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and caregiver income level. Effect estimates were expressed as geometric mean ratios of biomarker concentrations of product-users vs non-users.

RESULTS

Increased concentrations to select EDCs were associated with recent use of air freshener (ratios; BPA: 1.9, 95%CI 1.4-2; BPS 1.7, 95%CI 1-2.97; propyl paraben: 3.0, 95%CI 1.6-5.6), scented candles (methyl paraben: 2.6, 95%CI 1.1-6.1), and scented carpet powder (2,5-dichlorophenol: 2.8, 95%CI 1.2-6.3). Additionally, consuming canned food was associated with some increased biomarker concentrations (ratios: BPA: 1.7, 95%CI 1.2-2.4; BPS: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2-3.6).

SIGNIFICANCE

These findings add to the body of evidence suggesting that recent use of select consumer products in Black children contributes to exposure of chemicals of concern and could potentially inform exposure mitigation interventions. Findings have broad potential health implications for pediatric populations and Black children who may face exposure and health disparities.

IMPACT

Little is known about how children's personal care product use and consumer behaviors affect their exposures to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). This is particularly true for Black children who often experience a disparate exposure burden to many EDCs. This is a significant knowledge gap among children that are uniquely vulnerable to EDCs as they undergo critical windows of growth and development. Our findings show associations between consumer products and EDC exposures in predominantly Black children in low-income settings. Identifying EDC exposure determinants has broad health implications as many of these chemicals have been associated with adverse health risks.

Mass Spectrometric Study of the Most Common Potential Migrants Extractible from the Inner Coatings of Metallic Beverage Cans

Population exposure to endocrine disrupting chemical- bisphenols, which are used commonly in food containers and drinking water pipes in Europe, is above acceptable health and safety levels, according to updated research data. In order to evaluate the most abundant potential migrants in canned sweetened beverages marketed in Poland, we performed the HPLC-MS screening test of the migrants present in the can coating material. The analyzed samples represented the three top-ranked companies of the global soft drink market; it is reasonable to assume that the obtained data are of global validity. The tested can coatings and beverages contained bisphenols conjugates such as five butoxyethanol (BuOEtOH) adducts with bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE), one butoxyethanol adduct with bisphenol A monoglycidyl ether (BAMGE), and cyclo-di-BADGE. The performed HPLC-MS/MS analysis in the MRM mode enabled evaluation of the concentrations of the detected conjugates in canned beverages which were found to be very low, namely at the level of 1 µg/L. On the other hand, the high consumption of canned beverages may yield a risk associated with the presence of these compounds in the diet. The subsequent HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS experiments allowed, for the first time, a detailed determination of the fragmentation pathways of the detected migrants as well as detection of the isomers of the two migrants, namely BADGE + BuOEtOH and BADGE + BuOEtOH + HCl.

Ultra-processed and fast food consumption, exposure to phthalates during pregnancy, and socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposures

BACKGROUND

Consuming ultra-processed foods may increase exposure to phthalates, a group of endocrine disruptors prevalent in food contact materials.

OBJECTIVES

Investigate associations between ultra-processed food intake and urinary phthalates during pregnancy, and evaluate whether ultra-processed foods mediate socioeconomic disparities in phthalate exposures.

METHODS

In a socioeconomically diverse sample of 1031 pregnant women from the Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) Study in the urban South, the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire was administered and urinary phthalate metabolites were measured in the second trimester. Linear regressions modeled associations between phthalates and overall ultra-processed food consumption, individual ultra-processed foods, and exploratory factor analysis dietary patterns. Causal mediation analyses examined whether ultra-processed food intake mediates relationships between socioeconomic disparities and phthalate exposures.

RESULTS

Ultra-processed foods constituted 9.8-59.0 % (mean = 38.6 %) of participants' diets. 10 % higher dietary proportion of ultra-processed foods was associated with 13.1 % (95 %CI: 3.4 %-22.9 %) higher molar sum concentrations of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites (ΣDEHP). 10 % higher consumption of minimally-processed foods was associated with lower ΣDEHP (10.8 %: 3.4 %-22.9 %). Ultra- and minimally-processed food consumption were not associated with non-DEHP metabolites. Standard deviation higher consumptions of hamburger/cheeseburger, French fries, soda, and cake were associated with 10.5 % (4.2 %-17.1 %), 9.2 % (2.6 %-16.2 %), 7.4 % (1.4 %-13.6 %), and 6.0 % (0.0 %-12.4 %), respectively, higher ΣDEHP. Exploratory factor analysis corroborated positive associations of processed food with ΣDEHP, and uncovered a healthy dietary pattern associated with lower urinary ΣDEHP, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) (MEHHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) (MECPP), mono(2-carboxymethylhexyl) (MCMHP), and mono-isononyl (MINP) phthalates. Significant indirect effects indicated that lower income and education levels were associated with 1.9 % (0.2 %-4.2 %) and 1.4 % (0.1 %-3.3 %) higher ΣDEHP, respectively, mediated via increased ultra-processed food consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of ultra-processed foods may increase exposure to phthalates. Policies to reduce dietary phthalate exposures from food packaging and processing are needed, as socioeconomic barriers can preclude dietary recommendations as a sole means to reduce phthalate exposures.

Risk assessment of food contact materials

Bisphenol A (BPA) is authorised for use as a chemical compound for the production of plastic food contact materials (FCMs) under Regulation (EU) No 10/2011. But according to requirements of the Regulation (EU) No 2018/213, BPA has been banned in the manufacture of polycarbonate drinking cups or feeding bottles intended for infants and young children. Food has been identified as the main source of human exposure to BPA, followed by dermal absorption, air and dust inhalation, revealing ubiquitous and continuous contact with BPA. Considering that BPA is able to enter the food chain through the migration from food packaging into foodstuffs, assessment of dietary exposure is necessary for accurate estimations and identification of potential exposure from food sources. In 2015, EFSA set a temporary tolerable daily intake (TDI) for BPA of 4 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day and concluded that no health concern from BPA exposure for any age group was to be expected. In 2023, EFSA has re-evaluated BPA safety and the new TDI was reduced by a factor of 20,000 resulting in a TDI of 0.2 ng/kg bw per day. In this case, the CEP Panel concluded that there is a health concern from dietary exposure to BPA. Amongst others, the BfR identified several points of criticism which, in the opinion of the BfR, call into question the risk assessment carried out by EFSA. The BfR derived a TDI of 200 ng/kg bw per day and suggests taking this into account for risk assessment. In the proposed EU-FORA programme, the fellow had the opportunity to gain experience in the exposure assessment and then integrate the data together with the BfR hazard assessment to perform a comprehensive risk assessment. As second objective of the work programme, the fellow was in charge of performing a toxicokinetic analysis in an attempt to correlate external exposure with urinary BPA levels.

A descriptive analysis of first trimester urinary concentrations of 14 bisphenol analogues in the MIREC Canadian pregnancy cohort

BACKGROUND

Concern over the health effects of BPA, particularly for the developing fetus, has led to an increasing use of bisphenol analogues in industrial and consumer products, which may be as hormonally active as BPA. Biomonitoring data for many bisphenol analogues, especially in pregnant populations, are limited.

METHODS

We measured concentrations of 14 bisphenol analogues in 1st trimester urine samples (n = 1851) from the Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) Canadian pregnancy cohort (2008-2011). We examined patterns of exposure according to sociodemographic and sampling characteristics as well as occupation and frequency of consumption of canned fish within the previous 3 months.

RESULTS

BPA was detected in 89% of participants with a specific gravity standardized geometric mean concentration of 0.990 μg/L. Biphenol 4,4' (BP 4,4'), 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl ether (DHDPE), and bisphenol E (BPE) were detected in >97% of participants. Bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) were detected in >60% of participants. Specific gravity standardized geometric mean concentrations of these 5 compounds ranged from 0.024 to 0.564 μg/L. Nine bisphenol analogues were detected in <9% of participants. Concentrations of BP 4,4', DHDPE, and BPE were higher in younger women and those with higher pre-pregnancy BMI, lower household income, lower education, and among smokers. We found a similar pattern of differences in BPF for age, education, and smoking status while BPS similarly differed across categories of pre-pregnancy BMI. Participants who were unemployed or working in the service industry had higher molar sum of 7 bisphenol analogues than those working in healthcare, education, or an office setting. Canned fish consumption was not related to bisphenol analogue concentrations.

CONCLUSION

BP 4,4', DHDPE, BPE, BPF, and BPS were highly detected in 1st trimester urine samples in this large pan-Canadian pregnancy cohort. This suggests widespread exposure to these analogues around 2008-2011 and warrants further investigation into associations with health outcomes.

Endocrine disrupting compounds in the baby's world - A harmful environment to the health of babies

Globally, there has been a significant increase in awareness of the adverse effects of chemicals with known or suspected endocrine-acting properties on human health. Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) mainly occurs by ingestion and to some extent by inhalation and dermal uptake. Although it is difficult to assess the full impact of human exposure to EDCs, it is well known that timing of exposure is of importance and therefore infants are more vulnerable to EDCs and are at greater risk compared to adults. In this regard, infant safety and assessment of associations between prenatal exposure to EDCs and growth during infancy and childhood has been received considerable attention in the last years. Hence, the purpose of this review is to provide a current update on the evidence from biomonitoring studies on the exposure of infants to EDCs and a comprehensive view of the uptake, the mechanisms of action and biotransformation in baby/human body. Analytical methods used and concentration levels of EDCs in different biological matrices (e.g., placenta, cord plasma, amniotic fluid, breast milk, urine, and blood of pregnant women) are also discussed. Finally, key issues and recommendations were provided to avoid hazardous exposure to these chemicals, taking into account family and lifestyle factors related to this exposure.

Susceptibility of male reproductive system to bisphenol A, an endocrine disruptor: Updates from epidemiological and experimental evidence

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an omnipresent environmental pollutant. Despite being restrictions in-force for its utilization, it is widely being used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Direct, low-dose, and long-term exposure to BPA is expected when they are used in the packaging of food products and are used as containers for food consumption. Occupationally, workers are typically exposed to BPA at higher levels and for longer periods during the manufacturing process. BPA is a known endocrine disruptor chemical (EDC), that causes male infertility, which has a negative impact on human life from emotional, physical, and societal standpoints. To minimize the use of BPA in numerous consumer products, efforts and regulations are being made. Despite legislative limits in numerous nations, BPA is still found in consumer products. This paper examines BPA's overall male reproductive toxicity, including its impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular (HPT) axis, hormonal homeostasis, testicular steroidogenesis, sperm parameters, reproductive organs, and antioxidant defense system. Furthermore, this paper highlighted the role of non-monotonic dose-response (NMDR) in BPA exposure, which will help to improve the overall understanding of the harmful effects of BPA on the male reproductive system.

Development and evaluation of a novel dietary bisphenol A (BPA) exposure risk tool

BACKGROUND

Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals such as bisphenol A (BPA) is primarily from the diet through canned foods. Characterizing dietary exposures can be conducted through biomonitoring and dietary surveys; however, these methods can be time-consuming and challenging to implement.

METHODS

We developed a novel dietary exposure risk questionnaire to evaluate BPA exposure and compared these results to 24-hr dietary recall data from participants (n = 404) of the Diet Intervention Examining The Factors Interacting with Treatment Success (DIETFITS) study, a dietary clinical trial, to validate questionnaire responses. High BPA exposure foods were identified from the dietary recalls and used to estimate BPA exposure. Linear regression models estimated the association between exposure to BPA and questionnaire responses. A composite risk score was developed to summarize questionnaire responses.

RESULTS

In questionnaire data, 65% of participants ate canned food every week. A composite exposure score validated that the dietary exposure risk questionnaire captured increasing BPA exposure. In the linear regression models, utilizing questionnaire responses vs. 24-hr dietary recall data, participants eating canned foods 1-2 times/week (vs. never) consumed 0.78 more servings (p < 0.001) of high BPA exposure foods, and those eating canned foods 3+ times/week (vs. never) consumed 0.89 more servings (p = 0.013) of high BPA exposure foods. Participants eating 3+ packaged items/day (vs. never) consumed 62.65 more total grams of high BPA exposure food (p = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary exposure risk questionnaires may provide an efficient alternative approach to 24-hour dietary recalls to quantify dietary BPA exposure with low participant burden.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was prospectively registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01826591 on April 8, 2013.

Human health risk assessment of bisphenol A (BPA) through meat products

Meat and meat products are often consumed in our daily diet, providing essential nutrients. Contamination by chemical hazards, including bisphenol A (BPA) in meat products, is a concern and is continuously monitored. BPA is well-known for its endocrine-disrupting properties, which may cause potential toxicological effects on reproductive, nervous, and immune systems. Dietary consumption is the main route of BPA exposure, and meat products are a major contributor. BPA exposure from meat consumption is the focus of this review. This review found that BPA has been widely detected in canned and non-canned meat products. BPA in canned meat is assumed to be predominantly from migration from can coatings. Relatively low levels are observed in non-canned products, and the source of contamination in these products has yet to be definitively identified. A recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) draft opinion has proposed to lower the tolerable daily intake of BPA from 4 μg kg body weight (bw)^-1 day^-1 to 0.04 ng kg body weight (bw)^-1 day^-1, therefore potential health risks need to be addressed. This review has investigated potential contamination at the farm, industrial processes, and retail levels. Data gaps in the literature are also identified to improve future food safety in the meat industry. Also, a unified risk assessment strategy has been proposed. Further understanding of BPA migration in meat products is needed as a part of the exposure assessment to reduce potential risk, and more data on the dose-response relationship will help comprehend potential adverse health effects of BPA on humans. This research will inform the public, meat producers and processing industry, and policymakers on potential exposure to BPA and risk reduction measures, thus, ensuring food safety.

Pharmacokinetics and toxicity evaluation following oral exposure to bisphenol F

Bisphenol F is a substitute material for bisphenol A and is widely used in household products as a raw material for polycarbonate resin, epoxy resin, and plastic reinforcement. It is known to be mainly used in food containers, thermal paper for receipts, and coatings for water pipes. In some countries, bisphenol F has been detected in drinking water and human urine samples. However, due to the lack of safety evaluation data on bisphenol F, it is difficult to establish appropriate guidelines for the proper use of the substance, and social anxiety is increasing accordingly. This study investigated the use, exposure route, and distribution flow of bisphenol F, a household chemical. To determine the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) and target organ of bisphenol F after exposure, a single-dose oral toxicity, dose-range finding (28 day oral), repeated dose toxicity (90 day oral), and genotoxicity (reverse mutation, chromosomal abnormality, in vivo micronucleus test) tests were performed. The pharmacokinetic profile was also obtained. The test results are as follows: in the pharmacokinetic study, it was confirmed that single oral exposure to BPF resulted in systemic exposure; in single oral dose toxicity test, the approximate lethal dose was found to be 4000 mg/kg and confusion and convulsion was shown in the test animals; NOAEL was determined to be 2 mg/kg/day for male and 5 mg/kg/day for female, and the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) was determined to be 2 mg/kg/day for males and 1 mg/kg/day for females, and the target organ was the small intestine; genotoxicity tests confirmed that BPF does not induce genotoxicity.

Environmental Phenol and Paraben Exposure Risks and Their Potential Influence on the Gene Expression Involved in the Prognosis of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the leading malignant tumors in US men. The lack of understanding of the molecular pathology on the risk of food supply chain exposures of environmental phenol (EP) and paraben (PB) chemicals limits the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment options. This research aims to utilize a risk assessment approach to demonstrate the association of EP and PB exposures detected in the urine samples along with PCa in US men (NHANES data 2005−2015). Further, we employ integrated bioinformatics to examine how EP and PB exposure influences the molecular pathways associated with the progression of PCa. The odds ratio, multiple regression model, and Pearson coefficients were used to evaluate goodness-of-fit analyses. The results demonstrated associations of EPs, PBs, and their metabolites, qualitative and quantitative variables, with PCa. The genes responsive to EP and PB exposures were identified using the Comparative Toxicogenomic Database (CTD). DAVID.6.8, GO, and KEGG enrichment analyses were used to delineate their roles in prostate carcinogenesis. The plug-in CytoHubba and MCODE completed identification of the hub genes in Cytoscape software for their roles in the PCa prognosis. It was then validated by using the UALCAN database by evaluating the expression levels and predictive values of the identified hub genes in prostate cancer prognosis using TCGA data. We demonstrate a significant association of higher levels of EPs and PBs in the urine samples, categorical and numerical confounders, with self-reported PCa cases. The higher expression levels of the hub genes (BUB1B, TOP2A, UBE2C, RRM2, and CENPF) in the aggressive stages (Gleason score > 8) of PCa tissues indicate their potential role(s) in the carcinogenic pathways. Our results present an innovative approach to extrapolate and validate hub genes responsive to the EPs and PBs, which may contribute to the severity of the disease prognosis, especially in the older population of US men.

Determination of bisphenol A in commercial cat food marketed in the Czech Republic

OBJECTIVES

Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most widely used synthetic compounds on the planet. It is used in the synthesis of polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resins and other polymer materials. Owing to its excellent chemical and physical properties, it is used to produce food and beverage containers or the linings for metal products. BPA has been mentioned as a possible cause of feline hyperthyroidism. Cat food is considered one of the main sources of BPA intake. The purpose of this study was to evaluate BPA concentration in various types of commercial cat food available in the Czech Republic.

METHODS

In total, 172 samples prepared from 86 different types of commercial cat food were assessed. The concentration of BPA was measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Measurable concentration of BPA was found in all samples (range 0.065-131 ng/g), with the highest concentration (mean ± SD) of BPA in canned food (24.6 ± 34.8 ng/g). When comparing BPA concentration in food trays (1.58 ± 0.974 ng/g), pouches (0.591 ± 0.592 ng/g) and dry food (1.18 ± 0.518 ng/g), concentrations of BPA in food trays and dry food were significantly higher (P <0.01) compared with pouches. Comparing BPA concentrations in canned food of different manufacturers, statistically significant differences were found as well.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The highest concentrations of BPA were found in cans. Thus, cans represent the highest possibility of exposure to BPA in comparison with other types of commercial feline food.

Uncovering Evidence: Associations between Environmental Contaminants and Disparities in Women's Health

Over the years, industrial accidents and military actions have led to unintentional, large-scale, high-dose human exposure to environmental contaminants with endocrine-disrupting action. These historical events, in addition to laboratory studies, suggest that exposure to toxicants such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls negatively impact the reproductive system and likely influence the development of gynecologic diseases. Although high-level exposure to a single toxicant is rare, humans living in industrialized countries are continuously exposed to a complex mixture of manmade and naturally produced endocrine disruptors, including persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals. Since minorities are more likely to live in areas with known environmental contamination; herein, we conducted a literature review to identify potential associations between toxicant exposure and racial disparities in women's health. Evidence within the literature suggests that the body burden of environmental contaminants, especially in combination with inherent genetic variations, likely contributes to previously observed racial disparities in women's health conditions such as breast cancer, endometriosis, polycystic ovarian syndrome, uterine fibroids, and premature birth.

Interaction of prenatal bisphenols, maternal nutrients, and toxic metal exposures on neurodevelopment of 2-year-olds in the APrON cohort

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies suggest that Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a developmental neurotoxicant, but the modifying effects of maternal nutrient status or neurotoxicant metal co-exposures have not been reported. Bisphenol-S (BPS) is being used as a BPA-alternative, but few epidemiological studies have evaluated its effects.

OBJECTIVES

To examine if prenatal maternal BPA or BPS exposure are associated with children's neurodevelopment at two years of age while adjusting for effect-measure modification by sex, maternal nutrients, and co-exposure to neurotoxic metals.

METHODS

Total BPA and BPS concentrations were analyzed in spot maternal urine from the second trimester; metals and maternal nutrient status were analyzed in blood. Child neurodevelopment was evaluated with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III (Bayley-III) at age 2 (394 maternal-child pairs) and linear regression was used to investigate associations.

RESULTS

Among nutrients and neurotoxic metals, selenium (Se) and cadmium (Cd) were the most significant predictors of Bayley-III scale scores. Higher maternal Cd was significantly correlated with poorer motor performance (p < 0.01), and higher levels of maternal Se were significantly associated with poorer performance on the cognitive, motor, and adaptive behavior scales (p < 0.05). While maternal Cd did not modify relationships between bisphenol exposures and Bayley-III scores, both maternal Se and child sex were significant effect-measure modifiers. Associations between BPA exposure and social emotional scores were negative for boys (p = 0.056) but positive for girls (p = 0.046). Higher exposure to bisphenols was associated with lower motor scores among children with lower levels of maternal Se.

CONCLUSION

Higher maternal Cd was associated with poorer motor development, but it was not an effect-measure modifier of bisphenols' effects on motor development. Maternal Se may be protective against adverse effects of bisphenols, and additional nutrient-bisphenol interaction studies examining sex-specific effects of BPA and BPS on child development are warranted.

Chemical contaminants in canned food and can-packaged food: a review

Canning, as a preservation technique, is widely used to extend the shelf life as well as to maintain the quality of perishable foods. During the canning process, most of the microorganisms are killed, reducing their impact on food quality and safety. However, the presence of a range of undesirable chemical contaminants has been reported in canned foods and in relation to the canning process. The present review provides an overview of these chemical contaminants, including metals, polymeric contaminants and biogenic amine contaminants. They have various origins, including migration from the can materials, formation during the canning process, or contamination during steps required prior to canning (e.g. the disinfection step). Some other can-packaged foods (e.g. beverages or milk powder), which are not canned foods by definition, were also discussed in this review, as they have been frequently studied simultaneously with canned foods in terms of contamination. The occurrence of these contaminants, the analytical techniques involved, and the factors influencing the presence of these contaminants in canned food and can-packaged food are summarized and discussed.

Bisphenol A, S, and F exposure, ESR1/2, CAT, and eNOS genetic polymorphisms, and the risk of hypertension

While bisphenol A (BPA) exposure was inconsistently associated with hypertension risk, little is known about whether its alternatives bisphenol S and F (BPS and BPF) have similar hypertensive effects. Furthermore, epidemiologic studies on the genetic susceptibility to the hypertensive effects of bisphenols are scarce. We conducted a case-control study in 439 pairs of hypertension cases and matched controls. Urinary bisphenols concentrations were measured to characterize the internal exposure levels. The genotyping of ESR1/2, CAT, and eNOS was performed by a multiplex fluorescent polymerase chain reaction. BPA exposure was positively associated with hypertension risk. Carriers of rs2234693 C allele in ESR1 were associated with increased hypertension risk. Significant associations of BPA exposure with increased hypertension risk were suggested in individuals with the major allele of rs1256049 in ESR2, rs769214 in CAT, and rs1799983 in eNOS. Besides, rs4755374 in CAT might modify the association of BPA exposure with hypertension risk. Individuals with specific genotypes in ESR1/2, CAT, and eNOS might be more susceptible to the hypertensive effects of BPA.

Dietary quality and bisphenols: trends in bisphenol A, F, and S exposure in relation to the Healthy Eating Index using representative data from the NHANES 2007-2016

BACKGROUND

Given policy regulations restricting bisphenol A (BPA) in food-related products, and consumer concerns about adverse health effects, newer bisphenols such as bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS) have been developed. Exposure to BPA has been linked to dietary behaviors and poor health outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to examine how the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) and its 13 subgroups, the healthy American diet, the Mediterranean diet, the vegetarian diet, and other dietary quality behaviors are related to BPA and the newer substitutes in a representative sample of US adults.

METHODS

Dietary intakes from the NHANES were used to determine dietary scores. Osmolality-adjusted urinary BPA (n = 6418) and BPF and BPS (n = 2520) concentrations were tested for their association with dietary intake in models that adjusted for sociodemographics.

RESULTS

Compared with low scores, high scores for total HEI and the American, Mediterranean, and vegetarian diets were associated with lower odds of high BPA concentration (OR: 0.65, 0.60, 0.59, and 0.60, respectively). Of the HEI subgroups, lower BPA concentration was associated with high total fruit (OR: 0.61; 99.95% CI: 0.42, 0.89), whole fruit (OR: 0.59; 99.95% CI: 0.41, 0.86), and whole grain (OR: 0.68; 99.95% CI: 0.40, 0.94) intake, when compared with low intakes. Compared with low intakes, high intakes of plain and tap water were associated with lower odds of high BPA concentration (OR: 0.65; 99.95% CI: 0.47, 0.91 and OR: 0.70; 99.95% CI: 0.50, 0.99, respectively). A perception of high, compared with low, dietary quality was also associated with lower odds of high BPA concentration (OR: 0.72; 99.95% CI: 0.53, 0.98).

CONCLUSIONS

Healthier dietary quality and several HEI subgroups were related to lower urinary BPA concentrations; no significant (P ≤ 0.0005) findings were observed for BPF and BPS. The association between bisphenol substitutes and dietary quality should continue to be monitored as bisphenol substitutes continue to increase in the food system.

Impacts of brewing time, brewing temperature and brands on the leaching of phthalates and bisphenol A in dry tea

Although tea is often considered a healthy drink, there is the possibility for it to contain bisphenol A and phthalates. This project was designed to quantitate the amount of these compounds when tea was prepared in a variety of conditions, and with a variety of different brands and flavours. BPA and phthalates were extracted using solid phase extraction and quantitated using gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. The leaching concentration of di-n-butyl phthalate, a major phthalate in dry tea samples, increased with respect to both brewing time and temperature at rates of 5.9 ng/g/min and 2.3 ng/g/°C, respectively. Loose leaf green teas showed lower concentrations of contaminants than bagged teas. The highest concentrations found of all compounds were for benzylbutyl phthalate in both Brand2 English breakfast and Brand2 green teas with concentrations of 244 ± 76 ng/g and 197 ± 9 ng/g, respectively. Di-n-butyl phthalate, benzylbutyl phthalate and bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate were all present in concentrations of 50 ng/g or more in 3 or more samples.

Plasticizers and Cardiovascular Health: Role of Adipose Tissue Dysfunction

Since the 1950s, the production of plastics has increased 200-fold, reaching 360 million tonnes in 2019. Plasticizers, additives that modify the flexibility and rigidity of the product, are ingested as they migrate into food and beverages. Human exposure is continuous and widespread; between 75 and 97% of urine samples contain detectable levels of bisphenols and phthalates, the most common plasticizers. Concern over the toxicity of plasticizers arose in the late 1990s, largely focused around adverse developmental and reproductive effects. More recently, many studies have demonstrated that exposure to plasticizers increases the risk for obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). In the 2000s, many governments including Canada, the United States and European countries restricted the use of certain plasticizers in products targeted towards infants and children. Resultant consumer pressure motivated manufacturers to substitute plasticizers with analogues, which have been marketed as safe. However, data on the effects of these new substitutes are limited and data available to-date suggest that many exhibit similar properties to the chemicals they replaced. The adverse effects of plasticizers have largely been attributed to their endocrine disrupting properties, which modulate hormone signaling. Adipose tissue has been well-documented to be a target of the disrupting effects of both bisphenols and phthalates. Since adipose tissue function is a key determinant of cardiovascular health, adverse effects of plasticizers on adipocyte signaling and function may underlie their link to cardiovascular disease. Herein, we discuss the current evidence linking bisphenols and phthalates to obesity and CVD and consider how documented impacts of these plasticizers on adipocyte function may contribute to the development of CVD.

Exposure to phthalates and bisphenol analogues among childbearing-aged women in Korea: Influencing factors and potential health risks

Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), widely applied in industrial and consumer products, can affect hormones associated with the human reproductive system. Because the incidence of reproductive diseases is increasing, a comprehensive exposure assessment of phthalates and bisphenol analogues (BPs) is required for childbearing-aged women. Phthalate metabolites and BPs were measured in urine samples collected from 509 childbearing-aged women (20-48 years) in Korea to investigate their current exposure status, profiles, influencing factors, and potential health risks. DEHP metabolites and BPA were the dominant compounds found, indicating that they are highly consumed in daily life. Bisphenol S (BPS), as an alternative to BPA, was detected in most urine samples. Total concentrations of phthalate metabolites and BPs ranged from 3.42 to 3570 (GM: 45.6) ng/mL and from <LOQ to 80.3 (0.91) ng/mL, respectively, which were within the ranges observed in women in previous studies. Exposure to diethyl phthalate (DEP) was significantly associated with the use of cosmetics and personal care products such as perfume, body lotion, and sunscreen. Higher ratios of urinary BPS/BPA were observed in younger and more highly educated women and in women living in urbanized regions than others. This result suggests that a shift in consumption from BPA to BPS was preferentially occurring in urbanized regions. The assessment of the cumulative risk posed by phthalates and BPs showed that they pose only a small health risk to Korean women. This study provides baseline data on exposure levels, profiles, and influencing factors for phthalates and BPs in childbearing-aged women.

Bisphenol A and 17α-ethinylestradiol-induced transgenerational gene expression differences in the brain-pituitary-testis axis of medaka, Oryzias latipes†

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), such as bisphenol A (BPA) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), can have far reaching health effects, including transgenerational abnormalities in offspring that never directly contacted either chemical. We previously reported reduced fertilization rates and embryo survival at F2 and F3 generations caused by 7-day embryonic exposure (F0) to 100 μg/L BPA or 0.05 μg/L EE2 in medaka. Crossbreeding of fish in F2 generation indicated subfertility in males. To further understand the mechanisms underlying BPA or EE2-induced adult onset and transgenerational reproductive defects in males, the present study examined the expression of genes regulating the brain-pituitary-testis (BPT) axis in the same F0 and F2 generation male medaka. Embryonic exposure to BPA or EE2 led to hyperactivation of brain and pituitary genes, which are actively involved in reproduction in adulthood of the F0 generation male fish, and some of these F0 effects continued to the F2 generation (transgenerational effects). Particularly, the F2 generation inherited the hyperactivated state of expression for kisspeptin (kiss1 and kiss2) and their receptors (kiss1r and kiss2r), and gnrh and gnrh receptors. At F2 generation, expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (dnmt1) decreased in brain of the BPA treatment lineage, while EE2 treatment lineage showed increased dnmt3bb expression. Global hypomethylation pattern was observed in the testis of both F0 and F2 generation fish. Taken together, these results demonstrated that BPA or EE2-induced transgenerational reproductive impairment in the F2 generation was associated with alterations of reproductive gene expression in brain and testis and global DNA methylation in testis.

Effect of Rinsing Canned Foods on Bisphenol-A Exposure: The Hummus Experiment

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is associated with adverse health outcomes and is found in many canned foods. It is not understood if some BPA contamination can be washed away by rinsing. The objective of this single-blinded crossover experiment was to determine whether BPA exposure, as measured by urinary concentrations, could be decreased by rinsing canned beans prior to consumption. Three types of hummus were prepared from dried beans, rinsed, and unrinsed canned beans. Fourteen healthy participants ate two samples of each hummus over six experimental days and collected spot urine specimens for BPA measurement. The geometric mean BPA levels for dried beans BPA (GM = 0.97 ng/ml, 95%CI = 0.74,1.26) was significantly lower than rinsed (GM = 1.89 ng/ml, 1.37,2.59) and unrinsed (GM = 2.46 ng/ml, 1.44,4.19). Difference-in-difference estimates showed an increase in GM BPA from pre- to post-hummus between unrinsed and rinsed canned beans of 1.39 ng/ml, p-value = 0.0400. Rinsing canned beans was an effective method to reduce BPA exposure.

Estimated Dietary Bisphenol-A Exposure and Adiposity in Samoan Mothers and Children

The Pacific Island nation of Samoa is marked by prevalent obesity and an increasing dependence on packaged foods likely to contain the endocrine disruptor bisphenol-A (BPA). We evaluated participant- and household-level characteristics associated with estimated dietary BPA exposure in Samoan mothers and their children and examined associations between dietary BPA exposure and body mass index (BMI) and abdominal circumference (AC). Dietary BPA exposure indices were estimated for 399 mother-child pairs by combining information from dietary questionnaires and relative concentrations of BPA measured in foods/beverages. We observed moderate to strong correlation between mother-child daily BPA indices (Spearman's rho = 0.7, p < 0.0001). In mothers, we observed lower daily BPA indices in those who were less physically active (p = 0.0004) and living in homes with higher income (p = 0.00001). In children, we observed lower daily BPA indices in those living in homes with higher income (p = 0.0003) and following a less modern dietary pattern (p = 0.002), and higher daily BPA indices in those who were less physically active (p = 0.02). No significant associations were observed between daily BPA indices and BMI or AC. Despite this, the application of the daily BPA index identified factors associated with dietary BPA exposure and warrants further examination in Samoa and other understudied populations.

Human exposure to bisphenol A through dietary sources and development of diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional study in Pakistani population

Bisphenol A (BPA) is considered as xenoestrogen, a crucial component utilized for the manufacturing of plastic products. It has a potential to disrupt the endocrine system and induces endocrine-related metabolic disorders. We aimed to investigate the exposure of BPA in Pakistani population and its association with sociodemographic features, dietary habits, and risk factors of diabetes mellitus (DM). This cross-sectional study was conducted on 400 participants among which 61.75% participants were diabetic and 38.25% were non-diabetic. We developed a structured questionnaire, gathered sociodemographic data, and collected their urine and blood samples for the estimation of BPA and various biomarkers as risk factors of DM, respectively. Pearson correlation coefficient was determined for urinary BPA levels and DM risk factors. Urinary BPA values were adjusted for confounders. Sociodemographic data shown that urinary BPA level was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in obese people (BMI > 27) living in semi-urban and industrial areas. BPA was detectable in 75% of study participants. Urinary BPA level was found to be higher in diabetic participants compared with that of non-diabetics. A significant correlation is observed between BPA exposure and DM risk factors. We found that urinary BPA level was correlated with elevated levels of HbA1c (r = 0.6028), HOMA-IR (r = 0.5356), CRP (r = 0.6946), BUN (r = 0.6077), AST (r = 0.5151), FFA (r = 0.5759), TGs (r = 0.5608), and MDA (r = 0.6908). Hence, our study adds to the growing body of evidence supporting the role of BPA exposure as a risk factor for DM and may be associated with higher glycemic index, increased pro-inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers, dyslipidemia, and impaired functioning of the liver and kidney. Heating food in plastic containers and consumption of packed food items are the main sources of BPA exposure which are positively associated with DM.

Oestrogenic Endocrine Disruptors in the Placenta and the Fetus

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that interfere with the stability and regulation of the endocrine system of the body or its offspring. These substances are generally stable in chemical properties, not easy to be biodegraded, and can be enriched in organisms. In the past half century, EDCs have gradually entered the food chain, and these substances have been frequently found in maternal blood. Perinatal maternal hormone levels are unstable and vulnerable to EDCs. Some EDCs can affect embryonic development through the blood-fetal barrier and cause damage to the neuroendocrine system, liver function, and genital development. Some also effect cross-generational inheritance through epigenetic mechanisms. This article mainly elaborates the mechanism and detection methods of estrogenic endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenol A (BPA), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), diethylstilbestrol (DES) and phthalates (PAEs), and their effects on placenta and fetal health in order to raise concerns about the proper use of products containing EDCs during pregnancy and provide a reference for human health.

Bisphenol A Exposure Enhances Endometrial Stromal Cell Invasion and Has a Positive Association with Peritoneal Endometriosis

Results of previous epidemiology studies on BPA exposure and endometriosis (EMs) risk were inconsistent, and were limited by inappropriate control selection, incorrect BPA detection method, and the generalization of different subtypes of EMs. Upregulated matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP9 are involved in the development of EMs. We conducted a case-control study among 120 EMs patients and 100 healthy women to evaluate the relationships between BPA exposure and MMP2, MMP9 expressions, and the risk of EMs subtypes. Besides, we used human endometrial stromal cell lines (HESCs) to investigate the underlying mechanisms. Creatinine-adjusted urinary BPA concentrations were positively correlated with serum MMP2, MMP9 levels, and the risk of peritoneal EMs (third vs lowest quartile: OR 4.92, 95% CI 1.47, 16.50; fourth versus lowest quartile: OR 3.70, 95% CI 1.07, 12.74, P_trend = 0.030). The risk of peritoneal EMs increased approximately tenfold when creatinine-adjusted urinary BPA concentration was 2 μg/g. In vitro study found that BPA exposure increased MMP2, MMP9 expressions in a dose-dependent manner. The effects of BPA on HESCs could be blocked by G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) inhibitor or mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) inhibitor. This study provides evidence that BPA exposure promotes peritoneal EMs, and raises a concern about the potential toxicity of BPA on the female reproductive system.

Correlates of exposure to phenols, parabens, and triclocarban in the Study of Environment, Lifestyle and Fibroids

We performed a cross-sectional analysis to identify correlates of urinary concentrations of seven phenols (bisphenols A, F, and S; 2,4-dichlorophenol; 2,5-dichlorophenol; benzophenone-3; triclosan), triclocarban, and four parabens (butyl, ethyl, methyl, and propyl). We analyzed baseline data from 766 participants in the Study of Environment, Lifestyle, and Fibroids, a prospective cohort study of 1693 Black women aged 23-34 years residing in Detroit, Michigan (2010-2012). We collected data on demographic, behavioral, and anthropometric factors via telephone interviews, clinic visits, and self-administered questionnaires. For each biomarker, we used linear regression models to estimate mean differences in log-transformed, creatinine-corrected concentrations across factors of interest. Each biomarker was detected in >50% of participants. Median creatinine-corrected concentrations were the highest for methyl paraben (116.8 μg/g creatinine), propyl paraben (16.8 μg/g creatinine), and benzophenone-3 (13.4 μg/g creatinine). Variables most strongly associated with biomarker concentrations included season of urine collection, education, and body mass index (BMI). BMI was positively associated with bisphenol A and S and triclocarban concentrations and inversely associated with butyl and methyl paraben concentrations. In this cohort of Black women, exposure to phenols, parabens, and triclocarban was prevalent and several factors were associated with biomarker concentrations.

The Norwegian biomonitoring study from the EU project EuroMix: Levels of phenols and phthalates in 24-hour urine samples and exposure sources from food and personal care products

BACKGROUND

Exposure to multiple chemicals occurs daily through several routes; diet, inhalation and dermal contact. Real-life exposure assessment is needed to understand the risk. Therefore, a human biomonitoring (BM) study was performed to examine the plausibility of source-to-dose calculations for chemical mixtures in the Horizon 2020 EuroMix project.

OBJECTIVES

To provide a detailed description of the design of the EuroMix BM study, and to present the initial results for urinary phenols and phthalates and to describe their exposure determinants from foods and personal care products (PCPs).

METHOD

Adults (44 males and 100 females) kept detailed diaries on their food consumption, PCP use and handling of cash receipts. Urine samples were collected over the same 24-hour period. Urinary levels of four parabens, five bisphenols, oxybenzone/benzophenone-3 (OXBE), triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC) and metabolites of eight phthalates and 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid diisononyl ester (DINCH) were analysed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Multivariable linear regressions were performed between PCPs/food categories and each dependent chemical variable separately, and were only sex-stratified when an interactions between sex and the independent variable was significant.

RESULTS

The detection rate for the metabolites of phthalates and DINCH, and bisphenol A (BPA) and TCS in urine was 88-100%, while bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) were only found in 29% and 4% of the urine samples, respectively. Bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol AF (BPAF) and TCC were not detected. Food groups associated with phenol exposure were meat, bread, beverages and butter and oil. Food determinants for phthalate exposure were sweets, butter and oil, fruit and berries and other foods. The only positive association between the use of PCPs and phenols was found between BPA and lip gloss/balm. Phthalate exposure was associated with the use of shower gel, hand cream (females), toothpaste, anti-wrinkle cream (females) and shaving products (males).

CONCLUSION

The participants in the EuroMix BM study were exposed to a mixture of phenols and phthalates. A variety of food categories and PCPs were found to be possible sources of these chemicals. This indicates a complex pattern of exposure to numerous chemicals from multiple sources, depending on individual diet and PCP preferences.

Environmental pollutant induced cellular injury is reflected in exosomes from placental explants

INTRODUCTION

Exosomes are intercellular signaling vesicles whose cargo reflects the physiological status of the cell of their origin and can regulate gene expression in other tissues. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and bisphenols (A [BPA], Tetrabromobisphenol A [TBBPA], and 2,4,6-Tribromophenol [TBP]) are common environmental pollutants known to increase the risk for spontaneous preterm birth (PTB). We hypothesized that placental exposure to these environmental pollutants causes exosome cargo changes that reflect exposure associated placental response.

METHODS

Full-term, C-section placenta explants were treated with PBDE congeners (47, 100, 153, 209), TBBPA, TBP or BPA for 24 h. Exosomes were isolated from media by sequential ultracentrifugation and purified by size exclusion chromatography. Exosomes were characterized by electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis and Western blot. Proteomics identified differentially expressed exosomal proteins and Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) determined biological functions and pathways represented by identified proteins.

RESULTS

Regardless of treatment, placental expressed exosomes markers (PLAP, CD9, CD63, 81 and ALIX), had a size distribution between 50 and 175 nm and were present in the conditioned medium at 5-8 x 10¹¹ exosomes/mL. Proteomic analysis identified 2598 proteins which demonstrated that specific pollutants caused differential expression of specific proteins, including alarmin, High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1), MAPK14 (p38 MAPK) and GSK3β. IPA revealed an inhibition of pathways associated with cell survival, tissue repair and proliferation, as well as activation of cell death pathways (e.g. necrosis).

CONCLUSION

Environmental exposure of placental explants did not change the quantity of exosomes or their characteristics. However, exosome cargo composition exposed to some environment pollutants may be involved in placental nuclear and cellular injury and inflammation.

Ultra-processed food consumption and exposure to phthalates and bisphenols in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013-2014

BACKGROUND

Ultra-processed food has low nutritional quality, is associated with development of chronic diseases, and may increase exposure to chemicals used in food packaging and production.

OBJECTIVES

To assess associations of ultra-processed food consumption with exposure to phthalates and bisphenols, including newer replacements, in the general U.S.

METHODS

Among 2212 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013-2014 participants (≥6 years), we classified items reported in a 24-h dietary recall according to the NOVA food processing classification system and calculated energy intake from ultra-processed food. Urinary concentrations of mono-benzyl (MBzP), mono-(3-carboxypropyl) (MCPP), mono-(carboxyisononyl) (MCNP), mono-(carboxyisoctyl) (MCOP), and four metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) (∑DEHP) phthalates and bisphenols A, F, and S were measured in spot urine samples. We estimated percent changes in natural log creatinine-standardized concentrations per 10% higher energy from ultra-processed food in covariate-adjusted multivariable linear regression models. We examined effect measure modification by age group, race/ethnicity, and poverty:income ratio and assessed associations with minimally processed food intake.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, higher energy from ultra-processed food was associated with higher urinary concentrations of MCPP, MCNP, and MCOP but not MBzP, ∑DEHP, or bisphenols. Each 10% higher energy from ultra-processed food was associated with 8.0% (95% CI: 5.6%, 10.3%) higher urinary MCOP concentrations, with a stronger association among children than adolescents or adults. Ultra-processed sandwiches/hamburgers, French fries/other potato products, and ice cream/pops were associated with higher concentrations of multiple chemicals. Higher energy from minimally processed food was associated with lower concentrations of MCPP, MCNP, MCOP, and bisphenols A and F.

DISCUSSION

Ultra-processed food consumption may increase exposure to currently used phthalates. Additional research is needed to determine whether minimally processed food diets or changes in food production practices can reduce phthalate and bisphenol exposures and related health effects, particularly among children who are more vulnerable to toxicants and tend to consume more ultra-processed food than adults.

Phthalate and BPA Exposure in Women and Newborns through Personal Care Product Use and Food Packaging

Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are used in some personal care products (PCPs) and containers for food processing and packaging. The Plastics and Personal-Care Product use in Pregnancy (P4) Study (2009-10) explored the association between PCP use during pregnancy and the postpartum period among 80 pregnant women and 55 infants and BPA and phthalate concentrations in multiple maternal and infant urine specimens collected throughout the study (n = 1260 samples). The type, frequency, and timing of PCP and food packaging use 24 h before and during the urine collection period was collected at 5 time points for the mother using prospective diaries. Infant urine was collected up to 2 times before 3 months of age, and mothers answered questions about infant feeding and PCP use on their baby. In mothers, monoethyl phthalate (MEP) metabolite concentrations were significantly higher when women reported using makeup or body lotion in the last 24 h. MEP concentrations were consistently higher when the usage occurred within 0-6 h before the urine sample collection for almost all of the PCP categories. Infant lotion or baby powder application in the previous 24 h was associated with higher phthalate metabolite concentrations in infants. Total BPA metabolite concentrations were lower in exclusively breastfed infants compared to those who were exclusively formula fed or breastfed with supplementation. Given that PCPs tend to undergo frequent formulation changes, which could impact the relative importance of a certain product type as a source of exposure, continued research of this type is warranted.

Trends and disparities in urinary BPA concentrations among U.S. emerging adults

BACKGROUND

Emerging adulthood (ages 18-25 years) is a key turning point in the life course characterized by particularly poor eating behaviors (e.g., low in fruits and vegetables, and high in fast food) and weight gain. Emerging adults are also prime consumers of personal care and other consumer products that may result in differential exposures to environmental contaminants, such as Bisphenol A (BPA), compared to adults aged 26+ years. This is of concern given BPA has been associated with adverse health outcomes such as obesity, metabolic disorders, miscarriage, infertility and breast cancer. However, no research has examined exposure to BPA among emerging adults.

OBJECTIVE

To assess trends of exposure to urinary BPA among a representative sample of emerging adults compared to adults aged 26+ years. Secondarily, we aimed to identify differential associations between BPA concentrations and sociodemographic characteristics and BMI by age group.

METHODS

This study uses National Health and Examination Surveys (NHANES) over 2003-2014 to test differences in BPA concentrations comparing emerging adults to adults aged 26+ years. Generalized linear models predicting log BPA by age group and sex, race/ethnicity, education, income, and food security status, and generalized linear models predicting BMI by log BPA, both age group and age as a continuous variable, sex, race/ethnicity, education, income, and food security status were conducted. Interactions with age group (i.e., age group x sex) were examined for the mutually adjusted models. All models controlled for survey year, month, and time of day, and were run with, and without, an adjustment for urinary creatinine.

RESULTS

In models adjusted, and not adjusted, for urinary creatinine, emerging adults had a higher log BPA concentration than adults aged 26+ years (β=0.153, p=0.004; β=0.544, p<0.001), and a significantly steeper decline in BPA concentration between 2003-2004 and 2013-2014 than adults aged 26+ years (ß=-0.051, p=0.002; ß=-0.071, p=0.001). Males' log BPA concentration were lower than that for females when urinary creatinine was included in the model, and higher when urinary creatinine was excluded from the model (ß=-0.188, p<0.001; β=0.203, p<0.001). Higher income was significantly associated with lower log BPA concentration (ß=-0.220, p<0.001; ß=-0.166, p<0.001). A significant interaction between emerging adult age group and food security status was observed, which was associated with higher BPA exposures. Log BPA concentration was associated with BMI only when urinary creatinine was excluded from the models (urinary creatinine included: β=0.031, p=0.747; β=0.022, p=0.815, urinary creatinine excluded: β=0.528, p<0.001; β=0.552, p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Findings indicate that emerging adults had higher BPA exposures than adults aged 26+ years in 2003-2004, and that emerging adults' exposure level has decreased faster than that of adults aged 26+ years. There were suggestions that the BPA concentration of emerging adults in 2013-2014 was lower than that for adults aged 26+ years, and that BPA exposure is associated with higher BMI. Our results highlight the need for additional research to identify the sources and routes of exposure to BPA and BPA replacements among emerging adults and to better characterize the variability in exposure. Intervention studies are needed to assist emerging adults in limiting their exposure to BPA, and potentially also the BPA alternatives.

The adverse health effects of bisphenol A and related toxicity mechanisms

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial component commonly used in synthesis of polycarbonate plastics, epoxy resin and other polymer materials. Due to its mass productions and widespread applications, the presence of BPA is ubiquitous in the environment. BPA can enter the body via different ways such as digestive tract, respiratory tract and dermal tract. As an endocrine disruptor, BPA has estrogen-like and anti-androgen effects causing damages to different tissues and organs, including reproductive system, immune system and neuroendocrine system, etc. Recently, it has been shown that BPA could induce carcinogenesis and mutagenesis in animal models. Here, the underlying mechanisms of BPA-induced multi-organ toxicity were well summarized, involving the receptor pathways, disruption of neuroendocrine system, inhibition of enzymes, modulation of immune and inflammatory responses, as well as genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms. The aim of this review is to compile the available current research data regarding BPA and provide an overview of the current status of BPA exposure and relevant health effects covering reproductive, developmental, metabolic, immuno, respiratory, hepatic and renal toxicity and carcinogenesis of BPA. This review provides comprehensive data of BPA toxicity on human health and related mechanisms. We also identify any missing data which should be addressed by further studies.

BPA interferes with StAR-mediated mitochondrial cholesterol transport to induce germline dysfunctions

Bisphenol A is an endocrine disruptor associated with hormone synthesis and reproduction alterations. However, the initiating events underpinning these dysfunctions are still unclear. Here, we address the hypothesis that BPA interferes with the highly evolutionary conserved process of mitochondrial cholesterol transport, a crucial step in steroid hormone biosynthesis, by using the model organism C. elegans. We observed that embryonic lethality and germline apoptosis, hallmarks of BPA's reproductive toxicity in C. elegans, are fully rescued by low exogenous cholesterol supplementation. We also observed that increasing BPA concentrations proportionally reduced mitochondrial cholesterol levels. Mutants for strl-1 (ortholog of StAR), but not C41G7.9 (ortholog of TSPO), show reproductive defects similar to BPA's while BPA exposure in a strl-1 background did not worsen these effects. Finally, cholesterol supplementation rescued these defects for all strl-1 genotype/BPA combinations assessed. Together, these results uncover a novel mechanism underlying BPA's germline toxicity through the alteration of cholesterol transport.

Urinary Bisphenols and Obesity Prevalence Among U.S. Children and Adolescents

Bisphenol A (BPA) has been recognized as an endocrine disrupting chemical and identified as an obesogen. Although once ubiquitous, human exposure to BPA has been declining owing to its substitution with other bisphenols. Two structurally similar substitutes, bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF), have raised similar concerns, although fewer studies have been conducted on these newer derivatives. We used data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys from 2013 to 2016 to evaluate associations between BPA, BPS, and BPF and body mass outcomes among children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 years. Concentrations of BPA, BPS, and BPF were measured in spot urine samples using HPLC with tandem mass spectrometry. General obesity was defined as ≥95th percentile of the age- and sex-standardized body mass index (BMI) z-scores according to the 2000 US norms. Abdominal obesity was defined as a waist circumference/height ratio of ≥0.5. BPA, BPS, and BPF were detected in 97.5%, 87.8%, and 55.2% of urine samples, respectively. Log-transformed urinary BPS concentrations were associated with an increased prevalence of general obesity (OR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.32) and abdominal obesity (OR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.27). BPF detection (vs not detected) was associated with an increased prevalence of abdominal obesity (OR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.64) and continuous BMI z-score (β = 0.10; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.20). BPA and total bisphenols were not statistically significantly associated with general obesity, abdominal obesity, or any body mass outcome. These results suggest that BPA substitute chemicals are correlated with obesity in contemporary children.

Estimation of community-wide exposure to bisphenol A via water fingerprinting

Molecular epidemiology in human biomonitoring allows for verification of public exposure to chemical substances. Unfortunately, due to logistical difficulties and high cost, it evaluates only small study groups and as a result does not provide comprehensive large scale community-wide exposure data. Wastewater fingerprinting utilizing metabolic biomarkers of exposure that are excreted collectively by studied populations into urine and ultimately into the community's wastewater, provides a timely alternative to traditional approaches. This study aimed to provide comprehensive spatiotemporal community-wide exposure to bisphenol A (BPA, including BPA intake) using wastewater fingerprinting. Wastewater fingerprinting was undertaken using high resolution mass spectrometry retrospective data mining of characteristic BPA human metabolism marker (bisphenol A sulphate), applied to a large geographical area of 2000 km² and a population of ~1.5 million served by 5 WWTPs (wastewater treatment plants) accounting for >75% of the overall population in the studied catchment. Community-wide BPA intake was found to be below temporary tolerable daily intake (t-TDI) level of 4 μg kg^-1 day^-1 set by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) suggesting overall low exposure at 3 WWTPs serving residential areas with low industrial/commercial presence. However, at two WWTPs serving communities with higher industrial/commercial presence, higher BPA sulphate loads corresponding to higher (up to 14 times) BPA intakes (exceeding 10 μg kg^-1 day^-1 at one WWTP and reaching 50 μg kg^-1 day^-1 at the second WWTP) were observed and they are likely linked with occupational exposure. Characteristic temporal variations of BPA intake were noted in most studied WWTPs with the lowest intake occurring during weekends and the highest during weekdays.

Preterm birth in relation to the bisphenol A replacement, bisphenol S, and other phenols and parabens

INTRODUCTION

Preterm birth continues to be a significant public heath concern and is a leading cause of perinatal and infant mortality. Environmental exposures to phenols and parabens are suspected to potentially contribute to the pathology of preterm birth, yet limited human studies have characterized the extent to which these toxicants are associated with birth outcomes.

METHODS

We examined the associations between phenols, parabens, and preterm birth, within pregnant women who were recruited early in gestation into the LIFECODES cohort at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Urine samples were collected at up to 4 time points in pregnancy and analyzed for phenols and parabens. We selected 130 cases of preterm birth (defined as delivery before 37 weeks gestation), and 350 random controls. We categorized preterm birth subtypes based on clinical presentation and identified 75 cases of spontaneous preterm birth (characterized by spontaneous preterm labor and/or preterm premature rupture of membranes), and 37 cases of placental preterm birth (characterized by preeclampsia and/or intrauterine growth restriction). We used multivariate logistic regression with visit specific and geometric averages of phenols and parabens to determine associations with preterm birth.

RESULTS

We observed moderate variability in urinary phenol and paraben concentrations over pregnancy with intraclass correlation coefficients ranging between 0.45 and 0.68. Regression analyses indicated mostly null associations. We observed inverse associations, notably between 2,5-dichlorophenol and overall preterm birth (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence interval, CI]: 0.79 [0.67 - 0.94]), and this relationship was consistent by study visit. Conversely, ethyl paraben was associated with increased risk for placental preterm birth (adjusted odds ratio [95% CI]: 1.47 [1.14 - 1.91]). Bisphenol-S detection at visit 4 was associated with overall preterm birth (adjusted odds ratio [95% CI]: 2.05 [1.09, 3.89]).

CONCLUSIONS

While the findings from this study largely indicate null associations, we observed some relationships between select phenols, parabens and preterm birth, which warrants further investigation of these toxicants and birth outcomes.

Exposure and dietary sources of bisphenol A (BPA) and BPA-alternatives among mothers in the APrON cohort study

Diet is regarded as the main source of bisphenol A (BPA) exposure, but comparatively little is known about dietary sources of BPA-alternatives. Here we measured exposure of BPA and BPA-alternatives among pregnant women in Canada, estimated their 24-h intakes and examined the importance of various dietary sources. Free and total BPA, bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) were measured in 467 second trimester maternal urine samples, and in 455 paired samples collected at three months postpartum. Linear regression was used to evaluate associations between urinary concentrations of bisphenols and 24-h dietary recall data. The geometric means of total BPA in second trimester and postpartum urine (1.2 and 0.95 ng/mL, respectively) were 5-7 times higher than corresponding total BPS (0.16 and 0.17 ng/mL). The detection frequency of BPF was only 9% (i.e. >1.0 ng/mL). However, at both time points 95th percentiles of total BPF (7.3 and 4.2 ng/mL, respectively) were similar to total BPA (8.2 and 5.0 ng/mL). Free BPS and BPF were detected in <2% of samples, but were detectable when total BPS or BPF concentrations were highest, always at <1% of the total concentration. The tolerable daily intake for total BPA (i.e. 18 nmol/kg BW/d) was not exceeded, but for BPS the estimated 24-h intake was as high as 14 nmol/kg BW/d (95th percentile: 0.12 nmol/kg BW/d), and for BPF was even higher among the highest centile of exposure (maximum and 95th percentile: 30, 0.81 nmol/kg BW/d). Canned food consumption was associated with higher total BPA, but was not associated with BPS. For BPF, mustard consumption may be an important exposure source, particularly among the highest exposed. Relatively high exposure to BPS and BPF in a minority of pregnant women highlights the need to better understand the associated health risks and exposure sources of BPA-alternatives.

Environmental tin exposure in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults and children: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014

Tin is a naturally occurring heavy metal that occurs in the environment in both inorganic and organic forms. Human exposure to tin is almost ubiquitous; however, surprisingly little is known about factors affecting environmental tin exposure in humans. This study analyzed demographic, socioeconomic and lifestyle factors associated with total urinary tin levels in adults (N = 3522) and children (N = 1641) participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014, a nationally representative health survey in the United States. Urinary tin levels, a commonly used biomarker of environmental tin exposure, were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Detection frequencies of tin were 87.05% in adults and 91.29% in children. Median and geometric mean levels of urinary tin in the adult population were 0.42 μg/L and 0.49 μg/L, respectively. For children, median and geometric mean levels of urinary tin were 0.60 μg/L and 0.66 μg/L, respectively. Age was identified as an important factor associated with urinary tin levels. Median tin levels in the ≥60 year age group were almost 2-fold higher than the 20-39 year age group. Tin levels in children were 2-fold higher than in adolescents. Race/ethnicity and household income were associated with tin levels in both adults and children. In addition, physical activity was inversely associated with urinary tin levels in adults. These results demonstrate that total tin exposures vary across different segments of the general U.S.

POPULATION

Because the present study does not distinguish between organic and inorganic forms of tin, further studies are needed to better characterize modifiable factors associated with exposures to specific tin compounds, with the goal of reducing the overall exposure of the U.S.

POPULATION

Prenatal exposure estimation of BPA and DEHP using integrated external and internal dosimetry: A case study

Prenatal exposure to Endocrine disruptors (EDs), such as Bisphenol A (BPA) and di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), has been associated with obesity and diabetes diseases in childhood, as well as reproductive, behavioral and neurodevelopment problems. The aim of this study was to estimate the prenatal exposure to BPA and DEHP through food consumption for pregnant women living in Tarragona County (Spain). Probabilistic calculations of prenatal exposure were estimated by integrated external and internal dosimetry modelling, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, using a Monte-Carlo simulation. Physical characteristic data from the cohort, along with food intake information from the questionnaires (concentrations of BPA and DEHP in different food categories and the range of the different food ratios), were used to estimate the value of the total dietary intake for the Tarragona pregnancy cohort. The major contributors to the total dietary intake of BPA were canned fruits and vegetables, followed by canned meat and meat products. In turn, milk and dairy products, followed by ready to eat food (including canned dinners), were the most important contributors to the total dietary intake of DEHP. Despite the dietary variations among the participants, the intakes of both chemicals were considerably lower than their respective current tolerable daily intake (TDI) values established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Internal dosimetry estimates suggest that the plasma concentrations of free BPA and the most important DEHP metabolite, mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), in pregnant women were characterized by transient peaks (associated with meals) and short half-lives (< 2h). In contrast, fetal exposure was characterized by a low and sustained basal BPA and MEHP concentration due to a lack of metabolic activity in the fetus. Therefore, EDs may have a greater effect on developing organs in young children or in the unborn child.

Food contact materials and gut health: Implications for toxicity assessment and relevance of high molecular weight migrants

Gut health is determined by an intact epithelial barrier and balanced gut microbiota, both involved in the regulation of immune responses in the gut. Disruption of this system contributes to the etiology of various non-communicable diseases, including intestinal, metabolic, and autoimmune disorders. Studies suggest that some direct food additives, but also some food contaminants, such as pesticide residues and substances migrating from food contact materials (FCMs), may adversely affect the gut barrier or gut microbiota. Here, we focus on gut-related effects of FCM-relevant substances (e.g. surfactants, N-ring containing substances, nanoparticles, and antimicrobials) and show that gut health is an underappreciated target in the toxicity assessment of FCMs. Understanding FCMs' impact on gut health requires more attention to ensure safety and prevent gut-related chronic diseases. Our review further points to the existence of large population subgroups with an increased intestinal permeability; this may lead to higher uptake of compounds of not only low (<1000 Da) but also high (>1000 Da) molecular weight. We discuss the potential toxicological relevance of high molecular weight compounds in the gut and suggest that the scientific justification for the application of a molecular weight-based cut-off in risk assessment of FCMs should be reevaluated.

Parental Concern about Environmental Chemical Exposures and Children's Urinary Concentrations of Phthalates and Phenols

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether parents' concerns about environmental chemical exposures were associated with urinary phthalate and phenol concentrations in their school-age children.

STUDY DESIGN

In a prospective cohort of 218 mother-child pairs from Cincinnati, Ohio (2010-2014), we measured 11 phthalate metabolites and 5 phenols in urine samples when children were age 8 years and used questionnaire data from caregivers. We estimated the covariate-adjusted percent difference in phthalates and phenols among children of parents who expressed concern about environmental chemical exposures compared with children whose parents did not.

RESULTS

Concentrations of 4 phthalates, bisphenol S, and bisphenol A were lower among children whose parents expressed concern about environmental chemicals (n = 122) compared with those who did not (n = 96). Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites, bisphenol S, and bisphenol A concentrations were 23% (95% CI -38, -5), 37% (95% CI -49, -21), and 13% (95% CI -26, 3) lower, respectively, among children whose parents expressed concern compared with those whose parents did not. Triclosan concentrations were 35% greater (95% CI -2, 87) among children whose parents expressed concern compared with children whose parents did not.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental concern about environmental chemicals was associated with lower childhood urine concentrations of several phthalates and phenols; unexpectedly, parental concern was associated with greater triclosan concentrations. These results suggest that parental concern may be an important factor in mitigating children's phthalate and phenol exposures.

Food consumption survey of Shanghai adults in 2012 and its associations with phthalate metabolites in urine

BACKGROUND

Diet is considered to be a significant exposure pathway for phthalates. In this study, we assessed the associations between food consumption and urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites among Shanghai adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 2418 participants was conducted in the fall of 2012. Recent food consumption was assessed by a 24-h dietary recall survey, and a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) characterized long-term dietary patterns. Urinary metabolites of six phthalates were measured.

RESULTS

Both the 24-h recall survey and FFQ identified wheat, dairy, and fruits as being positively associated with the excretion of phthalate metabolites. The 24-h recall data also showed positive associations with processed meats and alcohol. We evaluated the impact of reported consumption of multiple food categories simultaneously (wheat, fruits, meats, etc.) on metabolite excretion and found that, as more food types were consumed, the number of metabolites excreted, as well as their concentrations, increased with high significance (p values<0.0001). We also evaluated the two survey instruments together. When both surveys reported consumption of fruits and dairy, the numbers of metabolites and their concentrations were significantly higher compared to when both surveys reported non-consumption, (p values<0.000001). Rice consumption was found to be negatively associated with phthalate excretion; frequent and high levels of rice consumption were found to be associated with lower excretion of metabolites.

CONCLUSION

Food consumption was associated with phthalate exposure in Shanghai adults. Both 24-h recall and FFQ identified significant associations between consumption of food types and phthalate exposure.

Bisphenol A (BPA) in the serum of pet dogs following short-term consumption of canned dog food and potential health consequences of exposure to BPA

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely present endocrine disruptor chemical found in many household items. Moreover, this chemical can bioaccumulate in various terrestrial and aquatic sources; thereby ensuring continual exposure of animals and humans. For most species, including humans, diet is considered the primary route of exposure. However, there has been little investigation whether commercial-brands of dog foods contain BPA and potential health ramifications of BPA-dietary exposure in dogs. We sought to determine BPA content within dog food, whether short-term consumption of these diets increases serum concentrations of BPA, and potential health consequences, as assessed by potential hematological, serum chemistry, cortisol, DNA methylation, and gut microbiome changes, in dogs associated with short-term dietary exposure to BPA. Fourteen healthy privately-owned dogs were used in this study. Blood and fecal samples were collected prior to dogs being placed for two-weeks on one of two diets (with one considered to be BPA-free), and blood and fecal samples were collected again. Serum/plasma samples were analyzed for chemistry and hematology profiles, cortisol concentrations, 5-methylcytosine in lymphocytes, and total BPA concentrations. Fecal samples were used for microbiome assessments. Both diets contained BPA, and after two-weeks of being on either diet, dogs had a significant increase in circulating BPA concentrations (pre-samples=0.7±0.15ng/mL, post-samples=2.2±0.15ng/mL, p<0.0001). Elevated BPA concentrations positively correlated with increased plasma bicarbonate concentrations and associated with fecal microbiome alterations. Short-term feeding of canned dog food increased circulating BPA concentrations in dogs comparable to amounts detected in humans, and greater BPA concentrations were associated with serum chemistry and microbiome changes. Dogs, who share our internal and external environments with us, are likely excellent indicators of potential human health concerns to BPA and other environmental chemicals. These findings may also have relevance to aquatic and terrestrial wildlife.