Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng) inhibits obesity and improves lipid metabolism in high fat diet-fed castrated mice

Red Ginseng Attenuates the Hepatic Cellular Senescence in Aged Mice

Cellular senescence is defined as an irreversible cell cycle arrest accompanied by morphological and physiological alterations during aging. Red ginseng (RG), processed from fresh ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) with a one-time steaming and drying process, is a well-known beneficial herbal medicine showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties. The current study aimed to investigate the benefits of RG in alleviating hepatic cellular senescence and its adverse effects in 19-month-old aged mice. We applied two different intervention methods and durations to compare RG's effects in a time-dependent manner: (1) oral gavage injection for 4 weeks and (2) ad libitum intervention for 14 weeks. We observed that 4-week RG administration was exerted to maintain insulin homeostasis against developing age-associated insulin insensitivity and suppressed cellular senescence pathway in the liver and primary hepatocytes. Moreover, with remarkable improvement of insulin homeostasis, 14-week RG supplementation downregulated the activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and its downstream transcriptional factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in aged mice. Lastly, RG treatment significantly reduced the senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal)-positive cells in primary hepatocytes and ionizing radiation (IR)-exposed mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Taken together, we suggest that RG can be a promising candidate for a senolytic substance by preventing hepatic cellular senescence.

The anti-aging mechanism of ginsenosides with medicine and food homology

With the acceleration of global aging and the rise in living standards, the achievement of healthy aging is becoming an imperative issue globally. Ginseng, a medicinal plant that has a long history of dietary intake and remarkable medicinal value, has become a research hotspot in the field of food and medicine. Ginsenosides, especially protopanaxadiol-type saponins and protopanaxatriol-type saponins, are among the most important active ingredients in ginseng. Ginsenosides have been found to exhibit powerful and diverse pharmacological activities, such as antiaging, antitumor, antifatigue and immunity enhancement activities. Their effects in antiaging mainly include (1) promotion of metabolism and stem cell proliferation, (2) protection of skin and nerves, (3) modulation of intestinal flora, (4) maintenance of mitochondrial function, and (5) enhancement of telomerase activity. The underlying mechanisms are primarily associated with the intervention of the signaling pathways in apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress. In this review, the mechanism of action of ginsenosides in antiaging as well as the potential values of developing ginsenoside-based functional foods and antiaging drugs are discussed.

Red ginseng extracts ameliorate high-fat diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance by activating the intestinal TGR5-mediated bile acids signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Obesity has emerged as a worldwide metabolic disease, given its rapid growth in global prevalence. Red ginseng extracts (RGS), one of the traditional processed products of ginseng, show the potential to improve the metabolic phenotype of obesity. However, the RGS mechanism for regulating obesity and late insulin resistance remains to be clarified.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to emphasize the potential use of RGS in treatment of obesity and insulin resistance (IR) and explore the underlying mechanism affecting glucose and lipid metabolism improvements.

METHODS

The role of RGS was evaluated in a high-fat diet (HFD) rodent model. Glucose tolerance test (GTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT) were performed to characterize the glucose metabolism level. The expression of lipolysis proteins and uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1) were investigated by western blot. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) protein expression in the intestine were determined via immunofluorescence. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS were used to detect the alterations in bile acids (BAs) levels in serum, ileum, and inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT). In addition, intestine-specific Tgr5 knockout mice were employed to verify the efficacy of RGS in improving obesity.

RESULTS

RGS treatment alleviated dietary-induced dyslipidemia and IR in obese mice in a dose-dependent manner and improved glucose and insulin tolerance, and energy expenditure. RGS treatment significantly reduced lipid deposition and induced GLP-1 secretion in the intestine of wild-type mice but not in Tgr5ΔIN obese mice. Furthermore, RGS intervention increased BA levels in serum, ileum, and iWAT. The increase of circulating BAs in mice was related to the activation of ileal TGR5 and the promotion of ASBT translocation to the plasma membrane, thus affecting BA transport. Next, the increased level of circulating BAs entered the periphery, which might facilitate lipolysis and energy consumption by activating TGR5 in iWAT.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that RGS significantly alleviated HFD-induced obesity and insulin resistance in mice. RGS intervention improved glucose metabolism, promoted lipolysis, and energy metabolism by activating TGR5 in the intestine. In addition, we found that activating intestinal TGR5 facilitated the localization of ASBT to the plasma membrane, which ultimately promoted the transport of BAs to regulate metabolic phenotype.

Identification of bioactive compounds and potential mechanisms of scutellariae radix-coptidis rhizoma in the treatment of atherosclerosis by integrating network pharmacology and experimental validation

OBJECTIVE

This study aims at investigating the potential targets and functional mechanisms of Scutellariae Radix-Coptidis Rhizoma (QLYD) against atherosclerosis (AS) through network pharmacology, molecular docking, bioinformatic analysis and experimental validation.

METHODS

The compositions of QLYD were collected from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform (TCMSP) and literature, where the main active components of QLYD and corresponding targets were identified. The potential therapeutic targets of AS were excavated using the OMIM database, DrugBank database, DisGeNET database, CTD database and GEO datasets. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of common targets was constructed and visualized by Cytoscape 3.7.2 software. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis were performed to analyze the function of core targets in the PPI network. Molecular docking was carried out using AutoDockTools, AutoDock Vina, and PyMOL software to verify the correlation between the main components of QLYD and the core targets. Mouse AS model was established and the results of network pharmacology were verified by in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

Totally 49 active components and 225 corresponding targets of QLYD were obtained, where 68 common targets were identified by intersecting with AS-related targets. Five hub genes including IL6, VEGFA, AKT1, TNF, and IL1B were screened from the PPI network. GO functional analysis reported that these targets had associations mainly with cellular response to oxidative stress, regulation of inflammatory response, epithelial cell apoptotic process, and blood coagulation. KEGG pathway analysis demonstrated that these targets were correlated to AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, TNF signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and NF-kappa B signaling pathway. Results of molecular docking indicated good binding affinity of QLYD to FOS, AKT1, and TNF. Animal experiments showed that QLYD could inhibit inflammation, improve blood lipid levels and reduce plaque area in AS mice to prevent and treat AS.

CONCLUSION

QLYD may exert anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress effects through multi-component, multi-target and multi-pathway to treat AS.

Korean Ginseng Berry Extract Enhances the Male Steroidogenesis Enzymes In Vitro and In Vivo

PURPOSE

Testosterone hormonal replacement is the most commonly prescribed solution for men with reproductive issues; however, this treatment has various drawbacks. Hence, the identification of a natural product that promotes steroidogenesis is urgently needed. Ginseng is a popular traditional medicine. This study aimed to investigate steroidogenic effects of Korean ginseng berry extract (GBE; Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro model, mouse Leydig cells were treated with varying concentrations of GBE, and the levels of steroidogenesis-related genes and proteins and testosterone were measured using western blotting, qRT-PCR, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Similarly, in an in vivo model using lipopolysaccharide-injected C57BL/6J mice, expression of steroidogenesis-related genes and proteins and testosterone levels were analyzed. Additionally, sleep deprivation was used to simulate common life stressors related to late-onset hypogonadism (LOH) and the natural effects of aging. Mice were fed sham or GBE before being subjected to paradoxical sleep deprivation.

RESULTS

In vitro, GBE induced steroidogenic effects by increasing the levels of enzymes associated with steroidogenesis, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), CYP11A1, and CYP17A1. In vivo, GBE significantly increased mRNA and protein levels of steroidogenic enzymes. Furthermore, the synthetic testosterone levels in mouse Leydig cell supernatants and blood sera were increased. In the sleep deprivation study, mice fed GBE showed increased testosterone production and survival under such stressful conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

GBE increased mRNA and protein levels of steroidogenesis-related enzymes STAR, CYP11A1, and CYP17A1. These key enzymes induced the increased production of testosterone both in vivo and in vitro. Thus, GBE might be a promising therapeutic or additive nutritional agent for improving men's health by increasing steroidogenesis or improving LOH.

The Efficacy of Panax ginseng for the Treatment of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Studies

Although tremendous research has reported the protective effects of natural compounds in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), there is still no approved drug. This study aimed to examine the efficacy of Panax ginseng in NAFLD in preclinical studies. A total of 41 studies were identified by searching the PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases. The methodological quality was assessed by the risk of bias tool from the Systematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation. The standardized mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval was calculated, and the random effects model was used to examine overall efficacy or heterogeneity. The publication bias was analyzed by Egger's test. The results showed that Panax ginseng treatment significantly reduced the systemic levels of alanine aminotransferase (SMD: -2.15 IU/L; p < 0.0001), aspartate aminotransferase (SMD: -2.86 IU/L; p < 0.0001), triglyceride (SMD: -2.86 mg/dL; p < 0.0001), total cholesterol (SMD: -1.69 mg/dL; p < 0.0001), low-density lipoprotein (SMD: -1.46 mg/dL; p < 0.0001), and fasting glucose (SMD: -1.45 mg/dL; p < 0.0001) while increasing high-density lipoprotein (SMD: 1.22 mg/dL; p = 0.0002) in NAFLD regardless of animal models or species. These findings may suggest that Panax ginseng is a promising therapeutic agent for NAFLD treatment.

Antitumor Effect of Korean Red Ginseng through Blockade of PD-1/PD-L1 Interaction in a Humanized PD-L1 Knock-In MC38 Cancer Mouse Model

Blocking immune checkpoints, programmed death-1 (PD-1) and its ligand PD-L1, has proven a promising anticancer strategy for enhancing cytotoxic T cell activity. Although we previously demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3, Rh2, and compound K block the interaction of PD-1 and PD-L1, the antitumor effect through blockade of this interaction by Korean Red Ginseng alone is unknown. Therefore, we determined the effects of Korean Red Ginseng extract (RGE) on the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction and its antitumor effects using a humanized PD-1/PD-L1-expressing colorectal cancer (CRC) mouse model. RGE significantly blocked the interaction between human PD-1 and PD-L1 in a competitive ELISA. The CD8⁺ T cell-mediated tumor cell killing effect of RGE was evaluated using murine hPD-L1-expressing MC38 cells and tumor-infiltrating hPD-1-expressing CD8⁺ T cells isolated from hPD-L1 MC38 tumor-bearing hPD-1 mice. RGE also reduced the survival of hPD-L1 MC38 cells in a cell co-culture system using tumor-infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells as effector cells combined with hPD-L1 MC38 target cells. RGE or Keytruda (positive control) treatment markedly suppressed the growth of hPD-L1 MC38 allograft tumors, increased CD8⁺ T cell infiltration into tumors, and enhanced the production of Granzyme B. RGE exhibits anticancer effects through the PD-1/PD-L1 blockade, which warrants its further development as an immunotherapy.

Myostain is involved in ginsenoside Rb1-mediated anti-obesity

CONTEXT

Obesity, one of the major public health problems worldwide, has attracted increasing attention. Ginsenoside Rb1 is the most abundant active component of Panax ginseng C.A.Mey (Araliaceae) and is reported to have beneficial effects on obesity and diabetes. However, the mechanisms by which Rb1 regulates obesity remain to be explored.

OBJECTIVE

This paper intends to further explore the mechanism of Rb1 in regulating obesity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The C57BL/6 obese mice were divided into two groups: the control (CTR) and Rb1. The CTR group [intraperitoneally (ip) administered with saline] and the Rb1 group (ip administered with Rb1, 40 mg/kg/d) were treated daily for four weeks. In vitro, Rb1 (0, 10, 20, 40 μM) was added to differentiated C2C12 cells and Rb1 (0, 20, 40 μM) was added to 3T3-L1 cells. After 24 h, total RNA and protein from C2C12 cells and 3T3-L1 cells were used to detect myostatin (MSTN) and fibronectin type III domain-containing 5 (FNDC5) expression.

RESULTS

Rb1 reduced the body weight and adipocyte size. Improved glucose tolerance and increased basic metabolic activity were also found in Rb1 treated mice. MSTN was downregulated in differentiated C2C12 cells, 3T3-L1 cells and adipose tissues upon Rb1 treatment. FNDC5 was increased after Rb1 treatment. However, MSTN overexpression attenuated Rb1-mediated decrease accumulation of lipid droplets in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSIONS

Rb1 may ameliorate obesity in part through the MSTN/FNDC5 signalling pathway. Our results showed that Rb1 can be used as an effective drug in the treatment of human obesity.

The Efficacy of Ginseng (Panax) on Human Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Results from different clinical trials on the effects of ginseng on prediabetes and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) are still inconsistent. To fill this knowledge gap, we investigated the overall effects of ginseng supplementation on improving cardiometabolic biomarkers among these patients. A systematic literature search was conducted on PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane library. A random-effect model was applied to estimate the weighted mean difference and 95% CI for each outcome. Overall, 20 eligible RCTs were included. Meta-analyses revealed that ginseng supplementation significantly reduced serum concentration of FPG, TC, IL-6, and HOMA-IR values. It also increased HR and TNF-α levels. Ginseng supplementation changed HOMA-IR and HDL-C significantly based on dose and changed HOMA-IR and LDL-C significantly based on study duration in a non-linear fashion. Furthermore, meta-regression analyses indicated a linear relationship between ginseng dose and absolute changes in HDL-C. Moreover, subgroup analyses showed that ginseng supplementation changed TC and LDL-C when the supplementation dose was ≥2 g/day. Our findings suggest that ginseng supplementation may be an effective strategy for improving cardiometabolic profiles in individuals with prediabetes and T2DM.

A comprehensive review on the phytochemistry, pharmacokinetics, and antidiabetic effect of Ginseng

BACKGROUND

Radix Ginseng, one of the well-known medicinal herbs, has been used in the management of diabetes and its complications for more than 1000 years.

PURPOSE

The aim of this review is devoted to summarize the phytochemistry and pharmacokinetics of Ginseng, and provide evidence for the antidiabetic effects of Ginseng and its ingredients as well as the underlying mechanisms involved.

METHODS

For the purpose of this review, the following databases were consulted: the PubMed Database (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov), Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (http://www.cnki.net), National Science and Technology Library (http://www.nstl.gov.cn/), Wanfang Data (http://www.wanfangdata.com.cn/) and the Web of Science Database (http://apps.webofknowledge.com/).

RESULTS

Ginseng exhibits glucose-lowering effects in different diabetic animal models. In addition, Ginseng may prevent the development of diabetic complications, including liver, pancreas, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, nephropathy, cardiomyopathy, retinopathy, atherosclerosis and others. The main ingredients of Ginseng include ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The underlying mechanisms whereby this herb exerts antidiabetic activities may be attributed to the regulation of multiple signaling pathways, including IRS1/PI3K/AKT, LKB1/AMPK/FoxO1, AGEs/RAGE, MAPK/ERK, NF-κB, PPARδ/STAT3, cAMP/PKA/CERB and HIF-1α/VEGF, etc. The pharmacokinetic profiles of ginsenosides provide valuable information on therapeutic efficacy of Ginseng in diabetes. Although Ginseng is well-tolerated, dietary consumption of this herb should follow the doctors' advice.

CONCLUSION

Ginseng may offer an alternative strategy in protection against diabetes and its complications through the regulations of the multi-targets via various signaling pathways. Efforts to understand the underlying mechanisms with strictly-controlled animal models, combined with well-designed clinical trials and pharmacokinetic evaluation, will be important subjects of the further investigations and weigh in translational value of this herb in diabetes management.

Supplementation With Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Reduce Obesity in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice by Modulation of Gut Microbiota

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) have been proved to prevent obesity and modulate gut microbiota. However, the underlying mechanisms of LBPs’ regulating lipid metabolism remain entirely unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether LBPs are able to modulate the gut microbiota to prevent obesity. The results showed that oral administration of LBPs alleviated dyslipidemia by decreasing the serum levels of total triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and elevating the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in obese mice. Furthermore, LBP treatment decreased the number and size of adipocytes in epididymal adipose tissues and downregulated the expression of adipogenesis-related genes, including acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, fatty acid synthase, stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α. 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis showed that LBPs increased the diversity of bacteria, reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, and improved the gut dysbiosis induced by a high-fat diet; for example, LBPs increased the production of short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria Lacticigenium, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Butyricicoccus. LBPs treatment also increased the content of fecal short-chain fatty acids, including butyric acid. These findings illustrate that LBPs might be developed as a potential prebiotic to improve lipid metabolism and intestinal diseases.

The effects of ginseng on the metabolic syndrome: An updated review

Metabolic syndrome is a group of risk factors including high blood glucose, dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, and high body weight. It can increase the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disorders, which are the important reasons for death around the world. Nowadays, there are numerous demands for herbal medicine because of less harmful effects and more useful effects in comparison with chemical options. Ginseng is one of the most famous herbs used as a drug for a variety of disorders in humans. The antihyperlipidemia, antihypertension, antihyperglycemic, and anti-obesity effects of ginseng and its active constituents such as ginsenosides have been shown in different studies. In this review article, the different in vitro, in vivo, and human studies concerning the effects of ginseng and its active constituents in metabolic syndrome have been summarized. According to these studies, ginseng can control metabolic syndrome and related diseases.

Pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of Bambusa multiplex cv. Fernleaf leaf extract in vitro and in vivo

Bambusa multiplex cv Fernleaf (B. multiplex) is a species of bamboo. In the present study, B. multiplex leaf extract was prepared through the resin absorption/desorption procedure and analyzed by HPLC. C-Glycosyl flavonoids are the main constituents of B. multiplex extract, and the content of isoorientin and vitexin was 51.8 and 23.1 mg g^-1, respectively. Besides, the extract exhibited inhibitory activities on pancreatic lipase and α-glucosidase with IC50 values of 0.91 and 1.16 mg mL^-1, respectively. The extract could bind to pancreatic lipase and showed mixed-type inhibition. An in vivo study showed that pre-administration of B. multiplex extract significantly reduced the fat absorption in rats and increased fat excretion through feces. The change in the C-glycosyl flavonoid content in feces was the same as that in the triglyceride content. The inhibitory activity of B. multiplex leaf extract on pancreatic lipase was confirmed both in vitro and in vivo.

Ginseng Prong Added to Broiler Diets Reduces Lipid Peroxidation in Refrigerated and Frozen Stored Poultry Meats

Fatty acid content and lipid oxidation products were compared in chicken breast and leg meats derived from birds fed on animal-fat- and vegetable-oil-based diets, supplemented with ginseng prong powder. The first experiment examined polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content and the formation of primary and secondary lipid oxidation products in meats stored at refrigeration temperatures (4 °C) for up to 10 days, while the second experiment examined similar changes in the poultry meats when frozen stored at −18 °C, for up to six months. Results showed that initial lipid hydroperoxide concentrations increased in both breast and leg meat within the first week of refrigerated storage and also was ongoing during the first three to four months of frozen storage. A higher (p < 0.05) PUFA content in leg meat, especially in broilers fed a vegetable-oil-blended diet, corresponded to greater tendency for generation of primary lipid oxidation products after refrigerated and frozen storage (p < 0.05). The inclusion of powdered ginseng prong in broiler diets significantly inhibited (p < 0.05) secondary lipid oxidation products (e.g., malonaldehyde [MDA]) formation in both stored leg and breast meat, compared to controls. Significant interactions (p < 0.05) were obtained for storage time and inclusion of ginseng against production of primary and secondary lipid oxidation in broiler breast and leg meats from broilers fed PUFA-containing diets. We conclude that including ginseng prong in broiler growing diets represents a viable strategy to control lipid oxidation in refrigerated/cold-stored meat products.

Therapeutic potential of ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf for Huntington's disease

Ginseng is a popular herbal medicine and known to have protective and therapeutic effects in various diseases. Ginsenosides are active gradients representing the diverse pharmacological efficacy of ginseng. Huntington's disease (HD) is incurable genetic disorder associated with mutant huntingtin (mHtt) aggregation in the central nervous system. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf on mHtt aggregation, cell viability, mitochondrial function, and apoptotic molecules on HD model. To investigate the effect of ginsenosides on HD, neural stem cells were isolated from the R6/2 mouse brain and used as a cellular model of HD. Nuclear aggregation of mHtt was measured by immunocytochemistry, and expressions of mitochondrial biogenesis and apoptotic molecules were investigated by western blot. As a result, the number of mHtt aggregates positive cells has decreased by ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf treatment in cellular model of HD. Mitochondrial biogenesis-related molecules such as PGC-1α and phosphorylated CREB were increased or showed increased tendency by ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf. Apoptotic molecules, p53, Bax, and cleaved caspase-3, were down-regulated by treatment of ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf. In addition, Lysotracker staining result showed that cellular lysosomal content was reduced by ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf. Given that ginsenoside Rg3 and Rf have the potential to reduce mHtt aggregation and cellular apoptosis, these ginsenosides can be possible therapeutic candidates for treating HD phenotypes.

Aging Liver: Can Exercise be a Better Way to Delay the Process than Nutritional and Pharmacological Intervention? Focus on Lipid Metabolism

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Nowadays, the world is facing a common problem that the population aging process is accelerating. How to delay metabolic disorders in middle-aged and elderly people, has become a hot scientific and social issue worthy of attention. The liver plays an important role in lipid metabolism, and abnormal lipid metabolism may lead to liver diseases. Exercise is an easily controlled and implemented intervention, which has attracted extensive attention in improving the health of liver lipid metabolism in the elderly. This article reviewed the body aging process, changes of lipid metabolism in the aging liver, and the mechanism and effects of different interventions on lipid metabolism in the aging liver, especially focusing on exercise intervention.

METHODS

A literature search was performed using PubMed-NCBI, EBSCO Host and Web of Science, and also a report from WHO. In total, 143 studies were included from 1986 to 15 February 2020.

CONCLUSION

Nutritional and pharmacological interventions can improve liver disorders, and nutritional interventions are less risky relatively. Exercise intervention can prevent and improve age-related liver disease, especially the best high-intensity interval training intensity and duration is expected to be one of the research directions in the future.

Advances on hormone-like activity of Panax ginseng and ginsenosides

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been paid much attentions due to the prevention and treatment of steroid hormone disorders. Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (Araliaceae), is one of the most valuable herbs in complementary and alternative medicines around the world. A series of dammarane triterpenoid saponins, also known as phytosteroids, were reported as the primary ingredients of Ginseng, and indicated broad spectral pharmacological actions, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammation and anti-fatigue. The skeletons of the dammarane triterpenoid aglycone are structurally similar to the steroid hormones. Both in vitro and in vivo studies showed that Ginseng and its active ingredients have beneficial hormone-like role in hormonal disorders. This review thus summarizes the structural similarities between hormones and dammarane ginsenosides and integrates the analogous effect of Ginseng and ginsenosides on prevention and treatment of hormonal disorders published in recent twenty years (1998-2018). The review may provide convenience for anticipate structure-function relationship between saponins structure and hormone-like effect.

Pharmacological Properties of a Traditional Korean Formula Bojungchiseup-tang on 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes and High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity Mouse Model

The global obesity epidemic has nearly doubled since 1980, and this increasing prevalence is threatening public health. It has been reported that natural products could contain potential functional ingredients that may assist in preventing obesity. Bojungchiseub-tang (BJT), mentioned in the Donguibogam as an herbal medication for the treatment of edema, a symptom of obesity, consists of eleven medicinal herbs. However, the pharmacological activity of BJT has not been investigated. The present study was designed to investigate the putative effect of BJT on the adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells and the weight gain of high-fat diet (HFD-) fed C57BL/6 mice. Oil Red O staining was conducted to examine the amount of lipids in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups: standard diet group (control, CON), 45% HFD group (HFD), and HFD supplemented with 10% of BJT (BJT). The expression levels of genes and proteins related to adipogenesis in cells, WAT, and liver were analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot, respectively. We found that BJT treatment significantly decreased the protein and mRNA levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) in a dose-dependent manner in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Similar to the results of the in vitro experiment, BJT suppressed HFD-induced weight gain in an obese mouse model. In addition, BJT effectively reduced the HFD-induced epididymal adipose tissue weight/body weight index. BJT also downregulated the mRNA levels of PPARγ, C/EBPα, and SREBP1 in the epididymal adipose and liver tissue of HFD-fed obese mice. These findings suggest that BJT induces weight loss by affecting adipogenic transcription factors.

Herbal Medicine for Slowing Aging and Aging-associated Conditions: Efficacy, Mechanisms and Safety

Aging and aging-associated diseases are issues with unsatisfactory answers in the medical field. Aging causes important physical changes which, even in the absence of the usual risk factors, render the cardiovascular system prone to some diseases. Although aging cannot be prevented, slowing down the rate of aging is entirely possible to achieve. In some traditional medicine, medicinal herbs such as Ginseng, Radix Astragali, Ganoderma lucidum, Ginkgo biloba, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum are recognized by the "nourishing of life" and their role as anti-aging phytotherapeutics is increasingly gaining attention. By mainly employing PubMed here we identify and critically analysed 30 years of published studies focusing on the above herbs' active components against aging and aging-associated conditions. Although many plant-based compounds appear to exert an anti-aging effect, the most effective resulted in being flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, and polysaccharides, which include astragaloside, ginkgolide, ginsenoside, and gypenoside specifically covered in this review. Their effects as antiaging factors, improvers of cognitive impairments, and reducers of cardiovascular risks are described, as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying the above-mentioned effects along with their potential safety. Telomere and telomerase, PPAR-α, GLUTs, FOXO1, caspase-3, bcl-2, along with SIRT1/AMPK, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, and insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 pathways appear to be their preferential targets. Moreover, their ability to work as antioxidants and to improve the resistance to DNA damage is also discussed. Although our literature review indicates that these traditional herbal medicines are safe, tolerable, and free of toxic effects, additional well-designed, large-scale randomized control trials need to be performed to evaluate short- and long-term effects and efficacy of these medicinal herbs.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng on metabolic syndrome

Metabolic syndrome (MS) refers to a clustering of at least three of the following medical conditions: high blood pressure, abdominal obesity, hyperglycemia, low high-density lipoprotein level, and high serum triglycerides. MS is related to a wide range of diseases which includes obesity, diabetes, insulin resistance, cardiovascular disease, dyslipidemia, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. There remains an ongoing need for improved treatment strategies for MS. The most important risk factors are dietary pattern, genetics, old age, lack of exercise, disrupted biology, medication usage, and excessive alcohol consumption, but pathophysiology of MS has not been completely identified. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) refers to steamed/dried ginseng, traditionally associated with beneficial effects such as anti-inflammation, anti-fatigue, anti-obesity, anti-oxidant, and anti-cancer effects. KRG has been often used in traditional medicine to treat multiple metabolic conditions. This paper summarizes the effects of KRG in MS and related diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, diabetes, dyslipidemia, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease based on experimental research and clinical studies.

Regulation of Obesity by Antiangiogenic Herbal Medicines

Obesity is the result of an energy imbalance caused by an increased ratio of caloric intake to energy expenditure. In conjunction with obesity, related metabolic disorders, such as dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and type 2 diabetes, have become global health problems. Obesity progression is thought to be associated with angiogenesis and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. Angiogenesis occurs in growing adult adipose tissues, which are similar to neoplastic tissues. Adipose tissue is highly vascularized, and each adipocyte is nourished by an extensive capillary network. Adipocytes produce proangiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor A and fibroblast growth factor 2, which promote neovascularization within the adipose tissue. Furthermore, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), including MMP-2 and MMP-9, play important roles in adipose tissue development and microvessel maturation by modifying the ECM. Thus, modulation of angiogenesis and MMP activity provides a promising therapeutic approach for controlling human obesity and its related disorders. Over the past decade, there has been a great increase in the use of alternative treatments, such as herbal remedies, for these diseases. This review will focus on the role of angiogenesis in adipose tissue growth and the regulation of obesity by antiangiogenic herbal medicines.

The Effect of a 2-Week Red Ginseng Supplementation on Food Efficiency and Energy Metabolism in Mice

Red ginseng (RG) ingestion reportedly affects body weight, food intake, and fat accumulation reduction. It also induces changes in energy metabolism regulation and glycemic control. Previously, 2-week RG ingestion with endurance training was found to enhance fat oxidation during exercise. However, such effects on energy metabolism and the expression of mRNAs related to energy substrate utilization in resting mice (untrained mice) are still unclear. Here, we determined the effect of RG on energy metabolism and substrate utilization in untrained male mice. Twenty-four mice were separated into an RG group that received a daily dosage of 1 g/kg RG for 2 weeks, and a control (CON). Energy expenditure, blood and tissue glycogen levels, and expression of mRNAs related to energy substrate utilization in muscles were measured before and 2 weeks after treatment. Total food intake was significantly lower in the RG than in the CON group (p < 0.05), but final body weights did not differ. Carbohydrate and fat oxidation over 24 h did not change in either group. There were no significant differences in gastrocnemius GLUT4, MCT1, MCT4, FAT/CD36, and CPT1b mRNA levels between groups. Thus, the effects of RG ingested during rest differ from the effects of RG ingestion in combination with endurance exercise; administering RG to untrained mice for 2 weeks did not change body weight and energy metabolism. Therefore, future studies should consider examining the RG ingestion period and dosage for body weight control and improving energy metabolism.

Herbal Medicine for Cardiovascular Diseases: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Safety

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a significant health burden with an ever-increasing prevalence. They remain the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The use of medicinal herbs continues to be an alternative treatment approach for several diseases including CVDs. Currently, there is an unprecedented drive for the use of herbal preparations in modern medicinal systems. This drive is powered by several aspects, prime among which are their cost-effective therapeutic promise compared to standard modern therapies and the general belief that they are safe. Nonetheless, the claimed safety of herbal preparations yet remains to be properly tested. Consequently, public awareness should be raised regarding medicinal herbs safety, toxicity, potentially life-threatening adverse effects, and possible herb–drug interactions. Over the years, laboratory data have shown that medicinal herbs may have therapeutic value in CVDs as they can interfere with several CVD risk factors. Accordingly, there have been many attempts to move studies on medicinal herbs from the bench to the bedside, in order to effectively employ herbs in CVD treatments. In this review, we introduce CVDs and their risk factors. Then we overview the use of herbs for disease treatment in general and CVDs in particular. Further, data on the ethnopharmacological therapeutic potentials and medicinal properties against CVDs of four widely used plants, namely Ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, Ganoderma lucidum, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum, are gathered and reviewed. In particular, the employment of these four plants in the context of CVDs, such as myocardial infarction, hypertension, peripheral vascular diseases, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathies, and dyslipidemias has been reviewed, analyzed, and critically discussed. We also endeavor to document the recent studies aimed to dissect the cellular and molecular cardio-protective mechanisms of the four plants, using recently reported in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally, we reviewed and reported the results of the recent clinical trials that have been conducted using these four medicinal herbs with special emphasis on their efficacy, safety, and toxicity.

Plant Extracts and Reactive Oxygen Species as Two Counteracting Agents with Anti- and Pro-Obesity Properties

Obesity is a complex disease of great public health significance worldwide: It entails several complications including diabetes mellitus type 2, cardiovascular dysfunction and hypertension, and its prevalence is increasing around the world. The pathogenesis of obesity is closely related to reactive oxygen species. The role of reactive oxygen species as regulatory factors in mitochondrial activity in obese subjects, molecules taking part in inflammation processes linked to excessive size and number of adipocytes, and as agents governing the energy balance in hypothalamus neurons has been examined. Phytotherapy is the traditional form of treating health problems using plant-derived medications. Some plant extracts are known to act as anti-obesity agents and have been screened in in vitro models based on the inhibition of lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells and activity of pancreatic lipase methods and in in vivo high-fat diet-induced obesity rat/mouse models and human models. Plant products may be a good natural alternative for weight management and a source of numerous biologically-active chemicals, including antioxidant polyphenols that can counteract the oxidative stress associated with obesity. This review presents polyphenols as natural complementary therapy, and a good nutritional strategy, for treating obesity without serious side effects.

Phytochemicals as potential candidates to combat obesity via adipose non-shivering thermogenesis

Obesity is a chronic metabolic disease caused by a long-term imbalance between energy intake and expenditure. The discovery of three different shades of adipose tissues has implications in terms of understanding the pathogenesis and potential interventions for obesity and its related complications. Fat browning, as well as activation of brown adipocytes and new beige adipocytes differentiated from adipogenic progenitor cells, are emerging as interesting and promising methods to curb obesity because of their unique capacity to upregulate non-shivering thermogenesis. This capacity is due to catabolism of stored energy to generate heat through the best characterized thermogenic effector uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). A variety of phytochemicals have been shown in the literature to contribute to thermogenesis by acting as chemical uncouplers, UCP1 inducers or regulators of fat differentiation and browning. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms and strategies for targeting adipose-mediated thermogenesis and highlight the role of phytochemicals in targeting adipose thermogenesis to fight against obesity. We also discuss proposed targets for how these phytochemical molecules promote BAT activity, WAT browning and beige cell development, thereby offering novel insights into interventional strategies of how phytochemicals may help prevent and manage obesity via adipose thermogenesis.

The G115 standardized ginseng extract: an example for safety, efficacy, and quality of an herbal medicine

Ginseng products on the market show high variability in their composition and overall quality. This becomes a challenge for both consumers and health-care professionals who are in search of high-quality, reliable ginseng products that have a proven safety and efficacy profile. The botanical extract standardization is of crucial importance in this context as it determines the reproducibility of the quality of the product that is essential for the evaluation of effectiveness and safety. This review focuses on the well-characterized and standardized ginseng extract, G115, which represents an excellent example of an herbal drug preparation with constant safety and efficacy within the herbal medicinal products. Over the many decades, extensive preclinical and clinical research has been conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of G115. In vitro and in vivo studies of G115 have shown pharmacological effects on physical performance, cognitive function, metabolism, and the immune system. Furthermore, a significant number of G115 clinical studies, most of them double-blind placebo-controlled, have reinforced the findings of preclinical evidence and proved the efficacy of this extract on blood glucose and lipid regulation, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, energy, physical performance, and immune and cognitive functions. Clinical trials and 50 years of presence on the market are proof of a good safety profile of G115.

Anti-diabetic properties of different fractions of Korean red ginseng

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been traditionally used to treat diabetes. Ginsenosides are considered as the major bioactive components mediating anti-diabetic effects of KRG. However, considering that ginsenosides account for only about 3-4% of ginsengs, other fractions of KRG may also carry potential anti-diabetic effects. There is no study reporting the differentiated effects of ginsenosides (Spn) and non-saponin fractions (NSpn) of KRG on glycemic control.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the effects of KRG, Spn, and NSpn on the indications of glycemic control and sought to elucidate physiological factors contributing their effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human T2DM mimicking Nagoya-Shibata-Yasuda (NSY/hos) mice were given KRG, Spn, or NSpn admixed in rodent diet at 200 mg/kg/day for 24 weeks. Glycemic and obesity indications, blood lipid profile, systematic and local oxidative stress markers in metabolically important organs, and systematic inflammatory markers were assessed. Molecular assessments associated with glycemic control in liver and skeletal muscle were further performed.

RESULTS

KRG attenuated deterioration in glucose homeostasis as evidenced by significantly lower fasting blood glucose from 22^nd week and AUC during GTT at the end of the experiment compare to control. Spn enhanced insulin secretion in response to glucose stimulation and reduced protein level of glycogen phosphorylase in liver. On the other hand, NSpn ameliorated oxidative stress and inflammation. Some beneficial effects of Spn and NSpn were reflected in KRG treated mice. KRG also attenuated the accumulation of malondialdehyde in skeletal muscle and, accordingly, enhanced insulin responsiveness compare to control.

CONCLUSION

Anti-diabetic properties of KRG are not solely determined by the contents of ginsenosides but the harmonic functions of its different fractions.

Secondary Metabolites, Dietary Fiber and Conjugated Fatty Acids as Functional Food Ingredients against Overweight and Obesity

Obesity is a common serious health problem leading to many serious health disorders. This phenomenon is defined as the over-storage of lipids in adipose tissue that occurs when there is an imbalance between the energy intake and energy used. During obesity, many metabolic alterations occur that can damage several organs, such as vascular or skeletal muscle resulting in the dysfunction of these tissues. In this review, we will discuss molecular genetics and causes of obesity, some of the disorders related to human obesity as well as anti-obesity tool. An interesting solution to the obesity problem is natural substances, revealing anti-obesity activity, as well as functional food enriched with aforementioned substances. Functional foods are products exhibiting a potentially positive effect on health beyond basic nutrition. They contain well-known biologically active natural compounds, which promote optimal health and reduce the risk of many diseases, including obesity.

Combination of Aronia, Red Ginseng, Shiitake Mushroom and Nattokinase Potentiated Insulin Secretion and Reduced Insulin Resistance with Improving Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis in Insulin Deficient Type 2 Diabetic Rats

The combination of freeze-dried aronia, red ginseng, ultraviolet-irradiated shiitake mushroom and nattokinase (AGM; 3.4:4.1:2.4:0.1) was examined to evaluate its effects on insulin resistance, insulin secretion and the gut microbiome in a non-obese type 2 diabetic animal model. Pancreatectomized (Px) rats were provided high fat diets supplemented with either (1) 0.5 g AGM (AGM-L), (2) 1 g AGM (AGM-H), (3) 1 g dextrin (control), or (4) 1 g dextrin with 120 mg metformin (positive-control) per kg body weight for 12 weeks. AGM (1 g) contained 6.22 mg cyanidin-3-galactose, 2.5 mg ginsenoside Rg3 and 244 mg β-glucan. Px rats had decreased bone mineral density in the lumbar spine and femur and lean body mass in the hip and leg compared to the normal-control and AGM-L and AGM-H prevented the decrease. Visceral fat mass was lower in the control group than the normal-control group and its decrease was smaller with AGM-L and AGM-H. HOMA-IR was lower in descending order of the control, positive-control, AGM-L, AGM-H and normal-control groups. Glucose tolerance deteriorated in the control group and was improved by AGM-L and AGM-H more than in the positive-control group. Glucose tolerance is associated with insulin resistance and insulin secretion. Insulin tolerance indicated insulin resistance was highly impaired in diabetic rats, but it was improved in the ascending order of the positive-control, AGM-L and AGM-H. Insulin secretion capacity, measured by hyperglycemic clamp, was much lower in the control group than the normal-control group and it was improved in the ascending order of the positive-control, AGM-L and AGM-H. Diabetes modulated the composition of the gut microbiome and AGM prevented the modulation of gut microbiome. In conclusion, AGM improved glucose metabolism by potentiating insulin secretion and reducing insulin resistance in insulin deficient type 2 diabetic rats. The improvement of diabetic status alleviated body composition changes and prevented changes of gut microbiome composition.

Obesity-Related Asthma: Immune Regulation and Potential Targeted Therapies

Obesity, one of the most severe public health problems of the 21st century, is a common metabolic syndrome due to excess body fat. The incidence and severity of obesity-related asthma have undergone a dramatic increase. Because obesity-related asthma is poorly controlled using conventional therapies, alternative and complementary therapies are urgently needed. Lipid metabolism may be abnormal in obesity-related asthma, and immune modulation therapies need to be investigated. Herein, we describe the immune regulators of lipid metabolism in obesity as well as the interplay of obesity and asthma. These lay the foundations for targeted therapies in terms of direct and indirect immune regulators of lipid metabolism, which ultimately help provide effective control of obesity-related asthma with a feasible treatment strategy.

A Controlled Fermented Samjunghwan Herbal Formula Ameliorates Non-alcoholic Hepatosteatosis in HepG2 Cells and OLETF Rats

Hepatosteatosis (HS), a clinical feature of fatty liver with the excessive intracellular accumulation of triglyceride in hepatocytes, is manifested by perturbation of the maintenance of liver lipid homeostasis. Samjunghwan (SJH) is an herbal formula used mostly in Korean traditional medicine that is effective against a number of metabolic diseases, including obesity. Herbal drugs, enriched with numerous bioactive substances, possess health-protective benefits. Meanwhile, fermented herbal products enriched with probiotics are known to improve metabolic processes. Additionally, current lines of evidence indicate that probiotics-derived metabolites, termed as postbiotics, produce the same beneficial effects as their precursors. Herein, the anti-HS effects of 5-weeks naturally fermented SJH (FSJH) was investigated with FSJH-mixed chow diet in vivo using Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) and Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) rats as animal models of HS and controls, respectively. In parallel, the anti-HS effects of postbiotic-metabolites of three bacterial strains [Lactobacillus brevis (LBB), Lactococcus lactis (LCL) and Lactobacillus plantarum (LBP)] isolated from FSJH were also evaluated in vitro using the FFAs-induced HepG2 cells. Feeding OLETF rats with FSJH-diet effectively reduced body, liver, and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) weights, produced marked hypolipidemic effects on serum and hepatic lipid parameters, decreased serum AST and ALT levels, and upregulated the HMGCOR, SREBP, and ACC, and downregulated the AMPK and LDLR gene expressions levels. Additionally, exposure of FFAs-induced HepG2 cells to postbiotic metabolic media (PMM) of bacterial strains also produced marked hypolipidemic effects on intracellular lipid contents and significantly unregulated the HMGCOR, SREBP, and ACC, and downregulated the AMPK and LDLR genes expressions levels. Overall, our results indicate that FSJH enriched with fermented metabolites could be an effective anti-HS formulation.

Panax ginseng improves glucose metabolism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats through 5' adenosine monophosphate kinase up-regulation

5′ AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), insulin receptors and transporters are distorted in diabetes mellitus. In this study, the effect of Panax ginseng was assessed on glucose manipulating enzymes activities and gene expression of AMPK, IRA and GLUT2 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats. Forty male albino rats were randomly divided to four groups 10 rats of each, group I, normal control group (received saline orally); group II, normal rats received 200 mg/kg of Panax ginseng orally; group III, Streptozotocin (STZ) –induced diabetic rats and group IV, STZ-induced diabetic rats received 200 mg/kg of Panax ginseng orally. The duration of experiment was 30 days. Results showed the ability of Panax ginseng to induce a significant decrease in the blood glucose and increase in the serum insulin levels, hepatic glucokinase (GK), and glycogen synthase (GS) activities with a modulation of lipid profile besides high expression levels of AMPK, insulin receptor A (IRA), glucose transporting protein-2 (GLUT-2) in liver of diabetic rats. In conclusion, the obtained results point to the ability of Panax ginseng to improve the glucose metabolism in diabetic models.