The gastrointestinal behavior of saponins and its significance for their bioavailability and bioactivities

Toxicokinetics and Tissue Distribution of the Hepatotoxic Triterpenoid Saponin Pterocephin A in Rats Using the Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) Method

Pterocephin A is a natural triterpenoid saponin isolated from Pterocephalus hookeri, a traditional Tibetan medicine with slight toxicity, which can induce liver injury in rats. This study aimed to establish a sensitive and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method for exploring the toxicokinetics and tissue distribution of pterocephin A following single intravenous and intragastric administration. Pterocephin A and prosapogenin 1C (internal standard, IS) were extracted using a simple protein precipitation technique with methanol as the precipitant for plasma samples and methanol/acetonitrile = 1:1 (v/v) for tissue samples. UPLC separation was achieved by gradient elution with 0.3 mL/min and a mobile phase consisting of 5 mM ammonium formate (A) and acetonitrile (B) (0-2 min 30% B; 2-4 min: 30-80% B; 4-5 min: 80-98% B; 5-6.5 min: 98% B; 6.5-7 min: 98-30% B; and 7-8 min: 30% B, v/v) with a column temperature of 35 °C. MS spectrometry adopted negative ion scanning mode, primary MS spectrometry adopted full scan monitoring mode, and secondary MS spectrometry adopted targeted MS2 scan monitoring mode. The assay exhibited a linear dynamic range of 0.02-15 μg/mL for pterocephin A in biological samples, with the low limit of quantification set at 0.02 μg/mL. Non-compartmental toxicokinetic parameters indicated that pterocephin A was well absorbed into the systemic circulation and had a long residual time after intravenous (10 mg/kg) and intragastric (60 mg/kg) administration, as it could still be detected after 72 h. Tissue distribution analysis revealed detectable levels of pterocephin A in various tissues, and a high concentration was maintained in the liver after intravenous (10 mg/kg) administration, with the highest concentration being 610.95 ± 25.73 ng/mL and a specific distribution pattern of liver > lung > kidney > intestine > spleen > testes > heart > stomach. The toxicokinetic process and tissue distribution characteristics of pterocephin A were expounded in this study, which can provide relevant data support for further research and clinical application of pterocephin A with its slight toxicity.

Overcoming Biopotency Barriers: Advanced Oral Delivery Strategies for Enhancing the Efficacy of Bioactive Food Ingredients

Bioactive food ingredients contribute to the promotion and maintenance of human health and wellbeing. However, these functional ingredients often exhibit low biopotency after food processing or gastrointestinal transit. Well-designed oral delivery systems can increase the ability of bioactive food ingredients to resist harsh environments inside and outside the human body, as well as allow for controlled or triggered release of bioactives to specific sites in the gastrointestinal tract or other tissues and organs. This review presents the characteristics of common bioactive food ingredients and then highlights the barriers to their biopotency. It also discusses various oral delivery strategies and carrier types that can be used to overcome these biopotency barriers, with a focus on recent advances in the field. Additionally, the advantages and disadvantages of different delivery strategies are highlighted. Finally, the current challenges facing the development of food-grade oral delivery systems are addressed, and areas where future research can lead to new advances and industrial applications of these systems are proposed.

Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of a Camellia oleifera C.Abel seed extract for use in all animal species except fin fish (NOR-FEED SAS)

Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a Camellia oleifera C.Abel seed extract (Cosap®) as technological feed additive for all animal species except fin fish. In the absence of adequate tolerance studies in the target species or toxicological studies with the additive under assessment, the EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) could not conclude on the safety of C. oleifera extract for the target species. The use of the additive in animal nutrition is not expected to cause concern for consumer safety. The additive is considered as irritant to the eyes and mucous membranes. No conclusions can be reached on the potential of the additive to be irritant to the skin or to be a dermal sensitiser. The use of the additive under the proposed conditions of use is considered safe for the terrestrial compartment. However, no conclusion can be reached on the safety of the additive for the environment when used in feed of aquatic animals other than fin fish. The Panel concluded that the additive has the potential to be efficacious as an emulsifier when used according to proposed conditions of use.

Development of phytotherapeutic nanoformulation containing Gypsophila eriocalyx and its evaluation as a candidate formulation for osteoporosis treatment on human bone marrow stem cells

INTRODUCTION

Osteoporosis, one of the common bone diseases, manifests itself as a decrease in bone mass. Recently, the use of medicinal plants in the search for effective and low-toxicity therapeutics for the prevention or treatment of osteoporosis has become a trending topic.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aim to prepare a controlled drug carrier system loaded with Gypsophila eriocalyx to determine its potential for anti-osteoporosis applications.

METHODS

Gypsophila eriocalyx extract (GEE) was prepared, and components were determined. The molecular interactions of the components with Cathepsin K (CatK), which is used as a target in drug development against osteoporosis, were revealed by in silico molecular docking and MD methods. ADMET profiles were also examined. GEE-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) were synthesized. The nanoparticles' morphology, encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, release profile, average size, polydispersity index, and zeta potentials were determined. The cytotoxic effects of GEE and GEE-loaded CNPs on the L929 and osteogenic proliferation profiles on human bone marrow stem cells (hBMC) were examined.

RESULTS

The MD analysis revealed no breaks or atomic changes in the dynamic system, and the docking analysis confirmed the continued interaction of identical residues. It was determined that the GEE-loaded CNP formulation was produced successfully, had no toxic effect on the L929, and had an osteogenic proliferation effect on hBMC.

CONCLUSION

In line with the in vitro and in silico results obtained, it was evaluated that GEE-loaded CNPs can be used as a controlled drug release system as a candidate formulation with phytotherapeutic properties for osteoporosis treatment.q1.

A Versatile β-Glycosidase from Petroclostridium xylanilyticum Prefers the Conversion of Ginsenoside Rb3 over Rb1, Rb2, and Rc to Rd by Its Specific Cleavage Activity toward 1,6-Glycosidic Linkages

To convert ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, and Rc into Rd by a single enzyme, a putative β-glycosidase (Pxbgl) from the xylan-degrading bacterium Petroclostridium xylanilyticum was identified and used. The kcat/Km value of Pxbgl for Rb3 was 18.18 ± 0.07 mM-1/s, which was significantly higher than those of Pxbgl for other ginsenosides. Pxbgl converted almost all Rb3 to Rd with a productivity of 5884 μM/h, which was 346-fold higher than that of only β-xylosidase from Thermoascus aurantiacus. The productivity of Rd from the Panax ginseng root and Panax notoginseng leaf was 146 and 995 μM/h, respectively. Mutants N293 K and I447L from site-directed mutagenesis based on bioinformatics analysis showed an increase in specific activity of 29 and 7% toward Rb3, respectively. This is the first report of a β-glycosidase that can simultaneously remove four different glycosyls at the C-20 position of natural PPD-type ginsenosides and produce Rd as the sole product from P. notoginseng leaf extracts with the highest productivity.

Bacterial Degradation of Antinutrients in Foods: The Genomic Insight

Antinutrients, also known as anti-nutritional factors (ANFs), are compounds found in many plant-based foods that can limit the bioavailability of nutrients or can act as precursors to toxic substances. ANFs have controversial effects on human health, depending mainly on their concentration. While the positive effects of these compounds are well documented, the dangers they pose and the approaches to avoid them have not been discussed to the same extent. There is no dispute that many ANFs negatively alter the absorption of vitamins, minerals, and proteins in addition to inhibiting some enzyme activities, thus negatively affecting the bioavailability of nutrients in the human body. This review discusses the chemical properties, plant bioavailability, and deleterious effects of anti-minerals (phytates and oxalates), glycosides (cyanogenic glycosides and saponins), polyphenols (tannins), and proteinaceous ANFs (enzyme inhibitors and lectins). The focus of this study is on the possibility of controlling the amount of ANF in food through fermentation. An overview of the most common biochemical pathways for their microbial reduction is provided, showing the genetic basis of these phenomena, including the active enzymes, the optimal conditions of action, and some data on the regulation of their synthesis.

Acute Toxicity of Aqueous Extract from Bredemeyera floribunda Root Bark in an Animal Model

The medicinal plant Bredemeyera floribunda Willd. is used to treat cardiovascular disease, chronic fatigue, low libido, as well as increased diuresis. However, studies considering the toxicity of this plant are scarce. Develop an aqueous extract of B. floribunda considering traditional use and determine the average lethality (LD50), signs, and symptoms of toxicity. The B. floribunda extract was obtained by immersing the root bark in ultrapure water for 18 hours at 4°C, under constant stirring. The test extract was administered in a single dose of 2.000 mg/kg by gavage to rats. Signs and symptoms of toxicity were determined according to the Hippocratic screening test and compared with the control group. In addition, a necropsy was performed for macroscopic evaluation of the organs in the abdominal cavity. A powder was obtained from aqueous extracts that showed the same organoleptic characteristics and emulsification capacity as those presented by the fresh root when prepared according to popular tradition. The LD50 was greater than the test dose with three animals surviving. On the other hand, necropsy of dead rats showed necrosis and reduction in lung mass, in addition to the presence of foam and excessive distension of the stomach and intestines. The main symptoms of toxicity were anesthesia, ataxia, sedation, loss of muscle strength, and excessive drowsiness in the first 24 hours. There was no difference between the control and extract groups with regard to body mass, food, and water intake, as well as in macroscopy of the heart, liver, lungs, intestines, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys. The aqueous extract of the B. floribunda was considered nontoxic or of very low toxicity. However, it is capable of altering the activity of the central nervous system and causing disorders in the respiratory and digestive systems.

Rapid biotransformation of STW 5 constituents by human gut microbiome from IBS- and non-IBS donors

STW 5, a blend of nine medicinal plant extracts, exhibits promising efficacy in treating functional gastrointestinal disorders, notably irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Nonetheless, its effects on the gastrointestinal microbiome and the role of microbiota on the conversion of its constituents are still largely unexplored. This study employed an experimental ex vivo model to investigate STW 5's differential effects on fecal microbial communities and metabolite production in samples from individuals with and without IBS. Using 560 fecal microcosms (IBS patients, n = 6; healthy controls, n = 10), we evaluated the influence of pre-digested STW 5 and controls on microbial and metabolite composition at time points 0, 0.5, 4, and 24 h. Our findings demonstrate the potential of this ex vivo platform to analyze herbal medicine turnover within 4 h with minimal microbiome shifts due to abiotic factors. While only minor taxonomic disparities were noted between IBS- and non-IBS samples and upon treatment with STW 5, rapid metabolic turnover of STW 5 components into specific degradation products, such as 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, davidigenin, herniarin, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid, and 3-(2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)propanoic acid occurred. For davidigenin, 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid and 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, or spasmolytic activities have been previously described. Notably, the microbiome-driven metabolic transformation did not induce a global microbiome shift, and the detected metabolites were minimally linked to specific taxa. Observed biotransformations were independent of IBS diagnosis, suggesting potential benefits for IBS patients from biotransformation products of STW 5.

IMPORTANCE

STW 5 is an herbal medicinal product with proven clinical efficacy in the treatment of functional gastrointestinal disorders, like functional dyspepsia and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The effects of STW 5 on fecal microbial communities and metabolite production effects have been studied in an experimental model with fecal samples from individuals with and without IBS. While only minor taxonomic disparities were noted between IBS- and non-IBS samples and upon treatment with STW 5, rapid metabolic turnover of STW 5 components into specific degradation products with reported anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, or spasmolytic activities was observed, which may be relevant for the pharmacological activity of STW 5.

Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel Gypsogenin Derivatives as Potential Anticancer and Antimicrobial Agents

Natural compounds are important sources for the treatment of chronic disorders such as cancer and microbial infectious disorders. In this research, Gypsogenin and its derivatives (2 a-2 f) have been tested against different cancer cell lines (MCF-7, HeLa, Jurkat and K562 cell lines) and further analyzed for cell proliferation, cell death type, and for act of the mechanism. Cell proliferation was determined by the MTT method and cell death types were analyzed with HO/PI staining. Fibroblast Growth Factor 1 (FGF-1), Interleukin 1 (IL-1), Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α), key players in breast cancer development and progression, were determined by Elisa kits. Results showed that compound 2 e inhibited the MCF-7 cell line proliferation with an IC50 value of 0.66±0.17 μM with 93.38 % apoptosis rate. Compound 2 e also decreased FGF-1, IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α levels. Molecular docking studies performed in the binding site of FGFR-1 indicated that compound 2 e formed key hydrogen bonding with Arg627 and Asn568. Besides, compounds 2 a-2 f were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and C. albicans via the microdilution method. Overall, compound 2 e stands out as a potential anticancer agent for future studies.

Assessing the potential of phytogenic feed additives: A comprehensive review on their effectiveness as a potent dietary enhancement for nonruminant in swine and poultry

Phytogenic feed additives (PFAs) often referred to as phytobiotics or botanical feed additives, are natural compounds derived from various plants, herbs, spices and other botanical sources. These feed additives are intended to serve a variety of purposes, including an immune system regulator, an antimicrobial, an antimutagenic, an antioxidant and a growth promoter. They are composed of bioactive compounds extracted from plants, including essential oils, polyphenols, terpenoids and flavonoids. They are mostly utilized as substitute antibiotic growth promoters in nonruminant (swine and poultry) livestock production, owing to the prohibition of antibiotic usage in the feed industry. It has been thoroughly examined to ascertain their impact on intestinal health and activity, correlation with animals' effective health and well-being, productivity, food security and environmental impact. The potential uses of these feed additives depend on the properties of herbs, the comprehension of their principal and secondary components, knowledge of their mechanisms of action, the safety of animals and the products they produce. They are gaining recognition as effective and sustainable tools for promoting animal health and performance while reducing the reliance on antibiotics in nonruminant nutrition. Their natural origins, multifaceted benefits and alignment with consumer preferences make them a valuable addition to modern animal farming process. However, because of their inconsistent effects and inadequate knowledge of the mechanisms of action, their usage as a feed additive has been limited. This review offers a comprehensive assessment of the applications of PFAs as an effective feed supplement in swine and poultry nutrition. In summary, this comprehensive review provides current knowledge, identifies gaps in research and emphasizes the potential of phytogenic additives to foster sustainable and healthier livestock production systems while addressing the global concerns associated with antibiotic use in livestock farming.

Machine Learning-Based Analysis Reveals Triterpene Saponins and Their Aglycones in Cimicifuga racemosa as Critical Mediators of AMPK Activation

Cimicifuga racemosa (CR) extracts contain diverse constituents such as saponins. These saponins, which act as a defense against herbivores and pathogens also show promise in treating human conditions such as heart failure, pain, hypercholesterolemia, cancer, and inflammation. Some of these effects are mediated by activating AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK). Therefore, comprehensive screening for activating constituents in a CR extract is highly desirable. Employing machine learning (ML) techniques such as Deep Neural Networks (DNN), Logistic Regression Classification (LRC), and Random Forest Classification (RFC) with molecular fingerprint MACCS descriptors, 95 CR constituents were classified. Calibration involved 50 randomly chosen positive and negative controls. LRC achieved the highest overall test accuracy (90.2%), but DNN and RFC surpassed it in precision, sensitivity, specificity, and ROC AUC. All CR constituents were predicted as activators, except for three non-triterpene compounds. The validity of these classifications was supported by good calibration, with misclassifications ranging from 3% to 17% across the various models. High sensitivity (84.5-87.2%) and specificity (84.1-91.4%) suggest suitability for screening. The results demonstrate the potential of triterpene saponins and aglycones in activating AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), providing the rationale for further clinical exploration of CR extracts in metabolic pathway-related conditions.

An outlook on the versatility of plant saponins: A review

The abundance of saponin-rich plants across different ecosystems indicates their great potential as a replacement for harmful synthetic surfactants in modern commercial products. These organic saponins have remarkable biological and surface-active properties and align with sustainable and eco-friendly practices. This article examines and discusses the structure and properties of plant saponins with high yield of saponin concentrations and their exploitable applications. This highlights the potential of saponins as ethical substitutes for traditional synthetic surfactants and pharmacological agents, with favorable effects on the economy and environment. For this purpose, studies on the relevant capabilities, structure, and yield of selected plants were thoroughly examined. Studies on the possible uses of the selected saponins have also been conducted. This in-depth analysis highlights the potential of saponins as workable and ethical replacements for traditional synthetic medications and surfactants, thus emphasizing their favorable effects on human health and the environment.

Advances in Separation, Biological Properties, and Structure-Activity Relationship of Triterpenoids Derived from Camellia oleifera Abel

Extensive research has been conducted on Camellia oleifera Abel., a cultivar predominantly distributed in China, to investigate its phytochemical composition, owning to its potential as an edible oil crop. Pentacyclic triterpene saponins, as essential active constituents, play a significant role in contributing to the pharmacological effects of this cultivar. The saponins derived from C. oleifera (CoS) offer a diverse array of bioactivity benefits, including antineoplastic/bactericidal/inflammatory properties, cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, as well as hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of the isolation and pharmacological properties of CoS. Specially, we attempt to reveal the antitumor structure-activity relationship (SAR) of CoS-derived triterpenoids. The active substitution sites of CoS, namely, C-3, C-15, C-16, C-21, C-22, C-23, and C-28 pentacyclic triterpenoids, make it a unique and highly valuable substance with significant medicinal and culinary applications. As such, CoS can play a critical role in transforming people's lives, providing unique medicinal benefits, and contributing to the advancement of both medicine and cuisine.

L-carnitine modified nanoparticles target the OCTN2 transporter to improve the oral absorption of jujuboside B

As a bioactive saponin derived from the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H. F. Chow, jujuboside B (JuB) shows great potential in anti-anxiety, anti-depression and improving learning and memory function. However, its oral bioavailability is very poor. In this study, a novel drug-loading nanoparticles system was prepared with polyethylene glycol and polylactic-co-glycolic acid copolymer (PEG-PLGA), and further modified with L-carnitine (LC) to target intestinal organic cation/carnitine transporter 2 (OCTN2) to improve the oral absorption of JuB. Under the optimized preparation conditions, the particle sizes of obtained JuB-PEG-PLGA nanoparticles (B-NPs) and LC modified B-NPs (LC-B-NPs) were 110.67 ± 11.37 nm and 134.00 ± 2.00 nm with the entrapment efficiency (EE%) 73.46 ± 1.26 % and 76.01 ± 2.10 %, respectively. The pharmacokinetics in SD rats showed that B-NPs and LC-B-NPs increased the bioavailability of JuB to 134.33 % and 159.04 % respectively. In Caco-2 cell model, the prepared nanoparticles significantly increased cell uptake of JuB, which verified the pharmacokinetic results. The absorption of LC-B-NPs mainly depended on OCTN2 transporter, and Na+ played an important role. Caveolin and clathrin were involved in the endocytosis of the two nanoparticles. In conclusion, both B-NPs and LC-B-NPs can improve the oral absorption of JuB, and the modification of LC can effectively target the OCTN2 transporter.

Combination of Fenugreek and Quinoa Husk as Sources of Steroidal and Triterpenoid Saponins: Bioactivity of Their Co-Extracts and Hydrolysates

Saponins, both steroidal and triterpenoid, exhibit distinct bioactivities. However, they are not commonly found together in natural sources; instead, sources tend to be rich in one type or another and mainly in the form of saponins rather than the sapogenin aglycones. Developing co-extracts containing both saponin or sapogenin types would be a strategy to harness their respective bioactivities, yielding multibioactive extracts. Therefore, this study evaluates the bioactivity (hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities) of co-extracts from fenugreek seeds (steroidal-rich saponins) and quinoa husk (triterpenoid-rich saponins), co-extracted at varying proportions, alongside their respective sapogenin-rich hydrolysates. Pancreatic lipase inhibition increased with fenugreek content in co-extracts, especially in sapogenin-rich variants. The latter substantially interfered with cholesterol bioaccessibility (90% vs. 15% in sapogenin-rich extracts). Saponin-rich co-extracts exhibited reduced cytokine release with increased fenugreek content, while sapogenin-rich counterparts showed greater reductions with higher quinoa husk content. Limited cellular antioxidant activities were observed in all extracts, with improved post-hydrolysis bioactivity. Therefore, simultaneous co-extraction of steroidal and triterpenoid sources, such as fenugreek and quinoa husk, as well as their subsequent hydrolysis, are innovative strategies for obtaining multibioactive natural extracts.

Supplementation of complex natural feed additive containing (C. militaris, probiotics and red ginseng by-product) on rumen-fermentation, growth performance and carcass characteristics in Korean native steers

This study evaluated the effects of a complex natural feed additive on rumen fermentation, carcass characteristics and growth performance in Korean-native steers. In this study, in vitro and in vivo experiment were conducted. Seven different levels of complex natural feed additive (CA) were added to the buffered rumen fluid using AnkomRF gas production system for 12, 24 and 48 h. All experimental data were analyzed by mixed procedure of SAS. Total gas production increased in the CA groups, with the highest response observed in the 0.06% group at 48 h of incubation (linear, p = 0.02; quadratic, p < 0.01). Regarding rumen fermentation parameters, the total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) tended to increase in all the CA groups (p = 0.07). The concentrations of butyrate, iso-butyrate, and iso-valerate significantly increased in all treatment groups (p < 0.05). In the in vivo experiment, 23 Korean-native steers were allocated to two groups: (1) Control and (2) Treatment; control +0.07% CA (DM basis), in a randomized complete-block design and blocked by body weight (ave. body weight = 641.96 kg ± 62.51 kg, p = 0.80) and feed intake (ave. feed intake = 13.96 kg ± 0.74 kg, p = 0.08) lasted for 252 days. Average daily gain decreased in the treatment group (p < 0.01). Backfat thickness significantly decreased in the CA group (p = 0.03), whereas meat color tended to increase (p = 0.07). In conclusion, in the in vitro experiment, the inclusion of complex natural feed additive decreased methane proportion and tended to increase TVFA production, but supplementation to Korean native steers decreased average daily gain and backfat thickness.

Impact of Sprouting Process on the Protein Quality of Yellow and Red Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

The demand for plant-based proteins has increased remarkably over the last decade. Expanding the availability and variety of plant-based protein options has shown positive potential. This study aimed to investigate the qualitative and quantitative changes in amino acids of yellow and red quinoa seeds (YQ and RQ) during a 9-day germination period. The results showed that the germination process led to an increase in the total amino acids by 7.43% and 14.36% in the YQ and RQ, respectively. Both varieties exhibited significant (p < 0.05) increases in non-essential and essential amino acids, including lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, and tyrosine. The content of non-essential amino acids nearly reached the standard values found in chicken eggs. These results were likely attributed to the impact of the germination process in increasing enzymes activity and decreasing anti-nutrient content (e.g., saponins). A linear relationship between increased seeds' hydration and decreased saponins content was observed, indicating the effect of water absorption in changing the chemical composition of the plant. Both sprouts showed positive germination progression; however, the sprouted RQ showed a higher germination rate than the YQ (57.67% vs. 43.33%, respectively). Overall, this study demonstrates that germination is a promising technique for enhancing the nutritional value of quinoa seeds, delivering sprouted quinoa seeds as a highly recommended source of high-protein grains with notable functional properties.

An Efficient Integrated Strategy for Comprehensive Metabolite Profiling of Sakurasosaponin from Aegiceras corniculatum in Rats

OBJECTIVE

Sakurasosaponin, a primary bioactive saponin from Aegiceras corniculatum, shows potential as an anti-cancer agent. However, there is a lack of information on its in vivo metabolism. This study aims to profile the in vivo metabolites of sakurasosaponin in rat feces, urine, and plasma after oral administration. An efficient strategy using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was developed, which combined metabolic prediction, multiple mass defects filtering, and highresolution extracted ion chromatograms for rapid and systematic analysis.

METHODS

Firstly, a theoretical list of metabolites for sakurasosaponin was developed. This was done by considering the metabolic pathways of saponins. Next, the multiple mass defects filtering method was employed to identify potential metabolites in feces and urine, using the unique metabolites of sakurasosaponin as multiple mass defects filtering templates. Subsequently, a high-resolution extracted ion chromatogram was used to quickly determine the metabolites in rat plasma post-identification in feces and urine. Lastly, the analysis of accurate mass, typical neutral loss, and diagnostic ion of the candidate metabolites was carried out to confirm their structural elucidation, and metabolic pathways of sakurasosaponin in vivo were also proposed.

RESULTS

In total, 30 metabolites were provisionally identified in feces, urine, and plasma. Analysis of metabolic pathways revealed isomerization, deglycosylation, oxidation, hydroxylation, sulfate conjugation, glucuronide conjugation, and other related reactions as the primary biotransformation reactions of sakurasosaponin in vivo.

CONCLUSION

The findings demonstrate that the designed research strategy effectively minimizes matrix interference, prevents the omission of low-concentration metabolites, and serves as a foundation for the discovery of active metabolites of sakurasosaponin.

Tomato root-associated Sphingobium harbors genes for catabolizing toxic steroidal glycoalkaloids

IMPORTANCE

Saponins are a group of plant specialized metabolites with various bioactive properties, both for human health and soil microorganisms. Our previous works demonstrated that Sphingobium is enriched in both soils treated with a steroid-type saponin, such as tomatine, and in the tomato rhizosphere. Despite the importance of saponins in plant-microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, the genes involved in the catabolism of saponins and their aglycones (sapogenins) remain largely unknown. Here we identified several enzymes that catalyzed the degradation of steroid-type saponins in a Sphingobium isolate from tomato roots, RC1. A comparative genomic analysis of Sphingobium revealed the limited distribution of genes for saponin degradation in our saponin-degrading isolates and several other isolates, suggesting the possible involvement of the saponin degradation pathway in the root colonization of Sphingobium spp. The genes that participate in the catabolism of sapogenins could be applied to the development of new industrially valuable sapogenin molecules.

Inhibitory Effects of Saponin-Rich Extracts from Pouteria cambodiana against Digestive Enzymes α-Glucosidase and Pancreatic Lipase

Pouteria cambodiana is a perennial plant that has a wide distribution in tropical regions. It is commonly referred to as 'Nom-nang' in the northern region of Thailand. The bark of this plant has been used for the purpose of promoting lactation among breastfeeding mothers. Moreover, P. cambodiana bark has a high nutraceutical potential due to the presence of saponins, which are secondary metabolites. The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of saponins from the bark of P. cambodiana and to assess the in vitro inhibitory activities of saponin-rich extracts. The most effective extraction conditions involved a temperature of 50 °C and a 50% concentration level of ethanol as the solvent, which allowed the extraction of saponin at a concentration of 36.04 mg/g. Saponin-rich extracts and their hydrolysates from P. cambodiana bark were evaluated for their ability to inhibit α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase. The IC50 values for saponin- and sapogenin-rich extracts inhibiting α-glucosidase were 0.10 and 2.98 mg/mL, respectively. Non-hydrolysed extracts also had a stronger inhibitory effect than acarbose. In the case of pancreatic lipase, only the hydrolysed extracts exhibited inhibitory effects on pancreatic lipase (IC50 of 7.60 mg/mL). Thus, P. cambodiana bark may be an applicable natural resource for preparing ingredients for functional products with inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase and pancreatic lipase. The phenolic contents, saponin contents, and antioxidant activities of the dried extract stored at a low temperature of 25 °C for 2 months showed the best stability, with more than 90% retention.

Possible role of the gut microbiome in mediating the beneficial effects of the six-herbal formulation STW 5-II on digestive health

BACKGROUND

STW 5-II is a combination of six herbal extracts with clinically proven efficacy in functional dyspepsia (FD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). STW 5-II contains a wide variety of secondary plant constituents that may interact with the human gut microbiome. In addition to complex carbohydrates, secondary plant metabolites, such as polyphenols, are known to exert prebiotic-like effects.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to assess the bidirectional interactions between STW 5-II and the human gut microbiome.

METHODS

STW 5-II was incubated with human fecal microbiota in a short-term colonic model. In the samples, the impact of STW 5-II on microbial fermentation capacity (pH, gas production), short chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, and microbial composition (Illumina 16S rRNA gene sequencing) was analyzed. In addition, the biotransformation of STW 5-II constituents by the fecal microbiota was assessed by UHPLCHRMS-based metabolite profiling. Furthermore, Caco-2/THP1 co-culture assay was used to explore the effect on gut barrier integrity and inflammatory markers.

RESULTS

Fermentation of STW 5-II by fecal microbiota led to consistent changes in pH and gas production and increased production of SCFAs (acetate, propionate, and butyrate). STW 5-II promoted the enrichment of Bifidobacteriaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Eggerthellaceae and suppressed the growth of pathogenic species from the Enterobacteriaceae family. In Caco2/THP1 culture, treatment with STW 5-II-incubated samples resulted in significantly increased transepithelial electrical resistance, indicating enhanced barrier function. Among inflammatory markers, STW 5-II-incubated samples increased LPS-induced secretion of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, as well as NF-κB activity, and significantly decreased the secretion of the pro-inflammatory chemokine MCP-1. UHPLCHRMS analysis identified 110 constituents of STW 5-II with changed levels during incubation with fecal microbiota: 63 constituents that were metabolized, 22 intermittently increased metabolites, and 25 final metabolites, including compounds with established anti-inflammatory activity, such as 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate a microbiome-mediated digestive health-promoting effect of STW 5-II via three different routes, namely enhanced microbial SCFA production, microbial production of potentially bioactive metabolites from STW 5-II constituents, and prebiotic-like action by promoting the proliferation/growth of beneficial bacteria.

Health benefits of saponins and its mechanisms: perspectives from absorption, metabolism, and interaction with gut

Saponins, consisting of sapogenins as their aglycones and carbohydrate chains, are widely found in plants and some marine organisms. Due to the complexity of the structure of saponins, involving different types of sapogenins and sugar moieties, investigation of their absorption and metabolism is limited, which further hinders the explanation of their bioactivities. Large molecular weight and complex structures limit the direct absorption of saponins rendering their low bioavailability. As such, their major modes of action may be due to interaction with the gastrointestinal environment, such as enzymes and nutrients, and interaction with the gut microbiota. Many studies have reported the interaction between saponins and gut microbiota, that is, the effects of saponins on changing the composition of gut microbiota, and gut microbiota playing an indispensable role in the biotransformation of saponins into sapogenins. However, the metabolic routes of saponins by gut microbiota and their mutual interactions are still sparse. Thus, this review summarizes the chemistry, absorption, and metabolic pathways of saponins, as well as their interactions with gut microbiota and impacts on gut health, to better understand how saponins exert their health-promoting functions.

Optimization of Extraction and Separation Process of Notoginsenoside Fc from Panax notoginseng Leaves

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the optimal conditions for ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of Notoginsenoside Fc (Fc) from panax notoginseng leaves. The experiment utilized a Box-Behnken design (BBD) and separation conditions were optimized. The optimum extraction conditions were as follows: extraction time = 1.5 h, ethanol concentration = 86%, liquid-to-solid ratio = 19:1. The experimentally obtained values were in accordance with the values predicted by the RSM model. We determined that the RSM model was able to successfully simulate the optimal extraction of Fc from the leaves. Further, Fc was enriched from Panax notoginseng through nine macroporous resins, and HPD-100 macroporous resins were selected for preliminary enrichment of Fc due to its economic costs and benefits. Subsequently, octadecyl silane (ODS) column chromatography was used to improve the purity of Fc to over 90% after separation by ODS column chromatography. Fc with a purity greater than 95% can be obtained by recrystallization. This is the first study that has focused on the extraction and enrichment of Fc from Panax notoginseng leaves using macroporous resin combined with ODS column chromatography, which provides the possibility for further application of Fc.

Effects of saponins from Chinese herbal medicines on signal transduction pathways in cancer: A review

Cancer poses a serious threat to human health, and the search for safe and effective drugs for its treatment has aroused interest and become a long-term goal. Traditional Chinese herbal medicine (TCM), an ancient science with unique anti-cancer advantages, has achieved outstanding results in long-term clinical practice. Accumulating evidence shows that saponins are key bioactive components in TCM and have great research and development applications for their significant role in the treatment of cancer. Saponins are a class of glycosides comprising nonpolar triterpenes or sterols attached to hydrophilic oligosaccharide groups that exert antitumor effects by targeting the NF-κB, PI3Ks-Akt-mTOR, MAPK, Wnt-β-catenin, JAK-STAT3, APMK, p53, and EGFR signaling pathways. Presently, few advances have been made in physiological and pathological studies on the effect of saponins on signal transduction pathways involved in cancer treatment. This paper reviews the phytochemistry and extraction methods of saponins of TCM and their effects on signal transduction pathways in cancer. It aims to provide theoretical support for in-depth studies on the anticancer effects of saponins.

Saponins: Research Progress and Their Potential Role in the Post-COVID-19 Pandemic Era

In the post-COVID-19 pandemic era, the new global situation and the limited therapeutic management of the disease make it necessary to take urgent measures in more effective therapies and drug development in order to counteract the negative global impacts caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its new infectious variants. In this context, plant-derived saponins-glycoside-type compounds constituted from a triterpene or steroidal aglycone and one or more sugar residues-may offer fewer side effects and promising beneficial pharmacological activities. This can then be used for the development of potential therapeutic agents against COVID-19, either as a therapy or as a complement to conventional pharmacological strategies for the treatment of the disease and its prevention. The main objective of this review was to examine the primary and current evidence in regard to the therapeutic potential of plant-derived saponins against the COVID-19 disease. Further, the aim was to also focus on those studies that highlight the potential use of saponins as a treatment against SARS-CoV-2. Saponins are antiviral agents that inhibit different pharmacological targets of the virus, as well as exhibit anti-inflammatory and antithrombotic activity in relieving symptoms and clinical complications related to the disease. In addition, saponins also possess immunostimulatory effects, which improve the efficacy and safety of vaccines for prolonging immunogenicity against SARS-CoV-2 and its infectious variants.

Fat-soluble vitamin and phytochemical metabolites: Production, gastrointestinal absorption, and health effects

Consumption of diets rich in fruits and vegetables, which provide some fat-soluble vitamins and many phytochemicals, is associated with a lower risk of developing certain degenerative diseases. It is well accepted that not only the parent compounds, but also their derivatives formed upon enzymatic or nonenzymatic transformations, can produce protective biological effects. These derivatives can be formed during food storage, processing, or cooking. They can also be formed in the lumen of the upper digestive tract during digestion, or via metabolism by microbiota in the colon. This review compiles the known metabolites of fat-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble phytochemicals (FSV and FSP) that have been identified in food and in the human digestive tract, or could potentially be present based on the known reactivity of the parent compounds in normal or pathological conditions, or following surgical interventions of the digestive tract or consumption of xenobiotics known to impair lipid absorption. It also covers the very limited data available on the bioavailability (absorption, intestinal mucosa metabolism) and summarizes their effects on health. Notably, despite great interest in identifying bioactive derivatives of FSV and FSP, studying their absorption, and probing their putative health effects, much research remains to be conducted to understand and capitalize on the potential of these molecules to preserve health.

The Fate and Intermediary Metabolism of Soyasapogenol in the Rat

Research suggests that soyasaponins are poorly absorbed in the GI tract and that soyasaponin aglycones or soyasapogenols are absorbed faster and in greater amounts than the corresponding soyasaponins. Therefore, it is important to understand the bioavailability of these compounds for the potential development of functional foods containing their components. In this paper, to investigate the metabolic characteristics of soyasapogenols A and B, the pharmacokinetic parameters in rats were determined via oral and intravenous administration. The liver metabolites of soyasapogenols were identified using UPLC-/Q-TOF-MS/MS, and their metabolic pathways were also speculated. The results show that, after oral administration, there was a bimodal phenomenon in the absorption process. T_max was about 2 h, and soyasapogenol was completely metabolized 24 h later. The bioavailability of soyasapogenol was superior, reaching more than 60%. There were sixteen metabolites of soyasapogenol A and fifteen metabolites of soyasapogenol B detected in rat bile. Both phase I and II metabolic transformation types of soyasapogenols, including oxidation, dehydrogenation, hydrolysis, dehydration, deoxidization, phosphorylation, sulfation, glucoaldehyde acidification, and conjugation with cysteine, were identified. In addition, soyasapogenol A could be converted into soyasapogenols B and E in the metabolic process. These results suggest that it is feasible to use soyasapogenols as functional ingredients in nutraceuticals or food formulations.

Effect of dietary soybean saponin Bb on the growth performance, intestinal nutrient absorption, morphology, microbiota, and immune response in juvenile Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis)

Soybean meal is widely applied in the aquafeeds due to the limitation of fish meal resources. Numerous studies have manifested that dietary soybean saponin, an anti-nutrient factor in soybean meal, may slow growth and induce intestinal inflammation in aquatic animals, but the possible causes are unclear. The juvenile Pelodiscus sinensis (mean initial body weight: 6.92 ± 0.03 g) were fed basal diet (CON group) and 2.46% soybean saponin Bb-supplemented diet (SAP group) for 35 days to further explore the effects of dietary soybean saponin Bb on the growth performance, apparent digestibility coefficients, intestinal morphology, the gut microbiota, intestinal transporters/channels, and immune-related gene expression. The results indicated that dietary soybean saponin Bb significantly decreased final body weight, specific growth rate, protein deposition ratio, and apparent digestibility coefficients (dry matter, crude protein, and crude lipid) of nutrients in Pelodiscus sinensis, which may be closely correlated with markedly atrophic villus height and increased lamina propria width in the small intestine. In addition, plasma contents of cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, lysozyme, and C3 were significantly decreased in the SAP group compared with the control group. Soybean saponin Bb significantly downregulated the mRNA levels of glucose transporter 2, fatty acid binding protein 1 and fatty acid binding protein 2, amino acid transporter 2, b^0,+-type amino acid transporter 1, and sodium-dependent phosphate transport protein 2b in the small intestine. At the same time, the expressions of key transcription factors (STAT1, TBX21, FOS), chemokines (CCL3), cytokines (TNF-α, IL-8), and aquaporins (AQP3, AQP6) in the inflammatory response were increased by soybean saponin Bb in the large intestine of a turtle. Additionally, dietary supplementation of SAP significantly reduced the generic abundance of beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Bacillus) and harmful bacteria (Helicobacter and Bacteroides). In a nutshell, dietary supplementation of 2.46% soybean saponin not only hindered the growth performance by negatively affecting the macronutrients absorption in the small intestine but also induced an inflammatory response in the large intestine possibly by damaging the intestinal morphology, disturbing the intestinal microbiota and decreasing intestinal epithelial cell membrane permeability.

Edible pentacyclic triterpenes: A review of their sources, bioactivities, bioavailability, self-assembly behavior, and emerging applications as functional delivery vehicles

Edible pentacyclic triterpenes (PTs) are a group of nutraceutical ingredients commonly distributed in human diets. Existing evidence has proven that they have various biological functions, including anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hypoglycemic activities, making them as "functional factor" for a long time. However, their properties of strong hydrophobicity, poor permeability, poor absorption, and rapid metabolism result in low oral bioavailability, which dramatically hinders their efficacy for use. Recently, free PTs have successively been found to self-assemble or co-assemble into self-contained nanostructures with enhanced water dispersibility and oral bioavailability, which seems to be an efficient processing method for increased oral efficacy. Of particular interest, formulating them into nanostructures can also be introduced as functional delivery carriers for bioactive compounds or drugs with various advantages, such as improved stability, controlled release, enhanced oral bioavailability, synergistic bioactivity, and targeted delivery. This review systematically summarized the chemical structures, plant sources, bioactivities, absorption, metabolism, and oral bioavailability of PTs. Notably, we emphasized their self-assembly properties and emerging role as functional delivery carriers for nutrients, suggesting that PT nanostructures are not only efficient oral forms when introduced into foods but also functional delivery materials for nutrients to expand their commercial food applications.

Advances in the Bioactivities of Phytochemical Saponins in the Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by hardening and narrowing of arteries. AS leads to a number of arteriosclerotic vascular diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular disease and peripheral artery disease, which pose a big threat to human health. Phytochemicals are a variety of intermediate or terminal low molecular weight secondary metabolites produced during plant energy metabolism. Phytochemicals from plant foods (vegetables, fruits, whole grains) and traditional herb plants have been shown to exhibit multiple bioactivities which are beneficial for prevention and treatment against AS. Many types of phytochemicals including polyphenols, saponins, carotenoids, terpenoids, organic sulfur compounds, phytoestrogens, phytic acids and plant sterols have already been identified, among which saponins are a family of glycosidic compounds consisting of a hydrophobic aglycone (sapogenin) linked to hydrophilic sugar moieties. In recent years, studies have shown that saponins exhibit a number of biological activities such as anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, cholesterol-lowering, immunomodulation, anti-platelet aggregation, etc., which are helpful in the prevention and treatment of AS. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in the anti-atherosclerotic bioactivities of saponins such as ginsenoside, soyasaponin, astra-galoside, glycyrrhizin, gypenoside, dioscin, saikosaponin, etc.

Chemical Characterization and Atherosclerosis Alleviation Effects of Gypenosides from Gynostemma pentaphyllum through Ameliorating Endothelial Dysfunction via the PCSK9/LOX-1 Pathway

Dietary saponins have the potential to ameliorate atherosclerosis (AS). Gypenosides of Gynostemma pentaphyllum (GPs) have been used as functional foods to exhibit antiatherosclerotic activity. The present study aimed to explore the protective effect, underlying mechanism and active substances of GPs on AS in vivo and in vitro. Results demonstrated GPs administration reduced the serum concentrations of TC and LDL-C, upregulated the plasma HDL-C content, inhibited the secretion of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and MCP-1, and alleviated vascular lesions in VitD₃ plus high cholesterol diet-induced AS rats as well as reduced adhesion factors levels in ox-LDL-stimulated HUVECs, which was potentially associated with suppressing PCSK9/LOX-1 pathway. Further activity-guided phytochemical investigation of GPs led to the identification of five new dammarane-type glycosides (1-5) and ten known analogs (6-15). Bioassay evaluation showed compounds 1, 6, 7, 12, 13, and 14 observably reduced the expressions of PCSK9 and LOX-1, as well as the secretion of adhesion factors in injured HUVECs. Molecular docking experiments suggested that the active saponins of GPs might bind to the allosteric pocket of PCSK9 located at the catalytic and C-terminal domains, and 2α-OH-protopanaxadiol-type gypenosides might exert a higher affinity for an allosteric binding site on PCSK9 by hydrogen-bond interaction with ARG-458. These findings provide new insights into the potential nutraceutical application of GPs and their bioactive compounds in the prevention and discovery of novel therapeutic strategies for AS.

Effects of Polymeric Media-Coated Gynosaponin on Microbial Abundance, Rumen Fermentation Properties and Methanogenesis in Xinjiang Goats

Gynosaponin is known to modulate rumen methanogenesis and microbial fermentation characteristics in ruminants. The current experiment aimed to determine the time-dependent effects of intraruminal polymeric media-coated gynosaponin (PMCG) supplementation on the methanogenesis, rumen fermentation properties and microbial abundance in Xinjiang goats. Eight goats were used in a 2 × 2 crossover arrangement with a PMCG group (8 g/kg DMI) and a control group (0 g/kg DMI). The experiment was divided into four phases, each lasted 21 d. Ruminal contents were obtained for analysis of rumen fermentation properties and microbial abundance. Protozoa numbers were counted by microscope and the abundance of methanogens, rumen fungi and cellulolytic bacteria were quantified by real-time PCR. The results indicated that PMCG significantly reduced methane production (p < 0.05) during the first two phases but this increased to baseline again during the last two phases. Meanwhile, the concentration of acetate decreased remarkably, which resulted in a significant reduction in the acetate to propionate ratio and total VFA concentration (p < 0.05). However, other rumen properties and dry matter intake were not affected (p > 0.05). During the first and second phases, the protozoa numbers and gene copies of methanogens, total bacteria and F. succinogens relative to the 16 s rDNA were all slightly decreased, but the statistical results were not significant. However, the ruminal supplementation of PMCG had little effect on other tested microbes. Accordingly, it was concluded that the addition of PMCG had an inhibitory effect on methane production probably due to a decline in methanogen numbers.

Metabolic Profiling of Soyasaponin Bb in Rat Plasma, Urine, Bile and Feces after Intragastric Administration

Soyasaponin Bb is one of the bioactive oleanolic acid type triterpenoid saponin mainly isolated from soybean. It possessed significant antithrombosis, hypolipidemic, anticancer and antioxidant activities. However, the metabolic profiles of soyasaponin Bb remains unknown. In the present study, the metabolites of soyasaponin Bb in plasma, bile, urine, and feces samples after intragastric (i.g.) administration were investigated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS), and its possible metabolic pathways were subsequently proposed. With the metabolite profiling strategy, a total of 11 metabolites were first recognized from urine, plasma, bile and feces of rats after i.g. administration of soyasaponin Bb. The hydroxylation and hydrolysis were the major metabolic pathway of soyasaponins Bb in rat. The results expand our knowledge about the metabolism of soyasaponins Bb, which could provide valuable information for better comprehension of the future pharmacological research.

Uncovering the pharmacological mechanism of Wei-Tong-Xin against gastric ulcer based on network pharmacology combined with in vivo experiment validation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The prescription of Wei-Tong-Xin (WTX) is improved based on the prescription "Wanyingyuan", a famous decoction documented in the book of Huatuozhongzangjing in the Han dynasty. Many years of clinical verification have demonstrated that WTX can be used to treat gastrointestinal diseases, especially gastric ulcer (GU). However, the potential pharmacological mechanism is undefined.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This research was conducted to explore the pharmacological mechanisms under the consideration of the therapeutical effect of WTX against GU by combining the network pharmacology strategy and in-vivo verified experiments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prediction network describing the relationship between WTX and GU was established based on information collected from multiple databases. Then, the intersecting protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of the drug-disease overlapping gene targets was constructed, and several key targets related to both WTX and GU were obtained. Besides, the Gene Ontology (GO) biological enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis were performed to investigate the key target genes and pathways of WTX against GU. Then, the candidate targets and signaling pathways of network pharmacology were validated in a rat model of GU induced by indomethacin following the results and available proof.

RESULTS

There are 243 targets obtained from the 65 active ingredients in WTX, and 1362 disease targets related to GU were identified. Then, 6 key targets were determined with the PPI interaction network, which was structured from 126 overlapping gene targets. GO and KEGG analyses revealed that the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway might play a crucial role in the therapeutic mechanism of GU. In vivo verified experiments, WTX significantly reduced the ulcer area and improved the histopathological appearance of gastric tissues. Moreover, down-regulated the protein levels of IL6, TNF-α, and Caspase 3 in the gastric tissues while up-regulating the expression of p-PI3K, p-AKT, p-P53, and VEGFA compared to the model group.

CONCLUSION

WTX, an ancient traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) compound prescription, may affect the inflammatory response and apoptosis process by regulating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and related gene targets. Therefore, it is an effective drug candidate for the modern treatment of GU.

Microwave-Assisted Acid Hydrolysis vs. Conventional Hydrolysis to Produce Sapogenin-Rich Products from Fenugreek Extracts

The acid hydrolysis of saponins is commonly performed by conventional heating to produce sapogenin-rich products of bioactive interest, but alternative hydrolysis methods and their impact on bioactivity have been unexplored. We compared the conventional method with microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis (MAAH) of a commercial saponin-rich extract from a typical saponin source, fenugreek, focusing on the study of temperature (100, 120, 130, 140, 150 °C) and time (10, 20, 30, 40 min) of hydrolysis. The impact of these factors was assayed on both the sapogenin yield and the bioactivity of the hydrolyzed products, specifically their antioxidant and lipase inhibitory activities. The highest sapogenin content (34 g/100 g extract) was achieved by MAAH at 140 °C and 30 min, which was higher than conventional hydrolysis at both reference conditions (100 °C, 60 min, 24.6 g/100 g extract) and comparative conditions (140 °C, 30 min, 17 g/100 g extract) (p < 0.001). Typical steroid artifacts from sapogenins were observed in very small amounts, regardless of the method of hydrolysis. Antioxidant activity of MAAH hydrolyzed extracts (around 80% DPPH inhibition) was barely affected by time and temperature, but pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity was higher (>65%) at lower MAAH temperature (<130 °C) and time (<30 min) of hydrolysis. MAAH is shown as a valid alternative to produce selective sapogenin-rich extracts from fenugreek with minor impact on their bioactivities, and whose magnitude can be modulated by the hydrolysis conditions.

Health Beneficial Phytochemicals in Dioscorea caucasica Lipsky Leaves and Tubers and Their Inhibitory Effects on Physiologically Important Enzymes

Dioscorea caucasica Lipsky is a tertiary relict endemic plant naturally growing in the western part of the trans-Caucasus regions; it has adapted and successfully grows in the temperate region of the Baltic countries. Information about its phytochemical composition and bioactivities is rather scarce. This study reports the results of the identification of 41 compounds in D. caucasica leaf and tuber hydroethanolic extracts using UPLC-QTOF/MS. Organic acids were found in both extracts; hydroxycinnamates and flavonoids were the main phytochemicals in the leaves, while steroidal glycosides, fatty acids (mainly hydroxylated) and carbohydrates were found in the tubers. Leaf extracts inhibited enzymes in a dose-dependent manner and were remarkably stronger inhibitors of physiologically important enzymes, namely α-amylase (48.6% at 480 µg/mL), α-glucosidase (IC50 = 41.99 and 47.95 µg/mL with and without 0.1 M Na2CO3), acetylcholinesterase (45.85% at 100 µg/mL) and angiotensin-converting enzyme (IC50 = 829.7 µg/mL), most likely due to the presence of some quantified polyphenolic antioxidants. The mode of inhibition of α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase was assessed via kinetic studies based on Lineweaver–Burk inhibition plots. Leaf and tuber extracts acted as mixed-type and competitive inhibitors of α-glucosidase, respectively; the leaf extract demonstrated an uncompetitive inhibition mode of acetylcholinesterase. It is expected that this new knowledge of D. caucasica will serve for its valorization in developing new health beneficial ingredients for functional foods and nutraceuticals.

Anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic specialised metabolites from the leaves of Glandularia × hybrida

In our ongoing effort to investigate active specialised metabolites from genus Glandularia, phytochemical studies on the ethanolic extract of Glandularia × hybrida (Groenl. & Rümpler) G.L. Nesom & Pruski leaves resulted in the isolation of three undescribed compounds, a dibenzylbutyrolactolic lignan and two echinocystic acid based triterpenoid saponins, in addition to two known compounds. Interestingly, this study reports isolation of chemo-systematically valuable specialised metabolites for the first time from the genus under investigation. Additionally, the isolated metabolites were evaluated for their iNOS inhibition and cytotoxic activities using a combination of in silico and in vitro studies. The pharmacokinetics properties (ADMET) of some of the isolated compounds were determined using pkCSM-pharmacokinetics server. Molecular docking analysis showed that saponin compound possesses higher negative score (-9.59 kcal/mol) than the lignan compound (-6.56 kcal/mol). The isolated compounds also showed iNOS inhibition activity with IC₅₀ values ranging between 6.6 and 49.7 μM and significant cytotoxic activity against a series of cell lines including SK-MEL, KB, BT-549, SK-OV-3, LLC-PK1 and VERO cells. Hence, this study reveals that specialised metabolites from G. hybrida plant are of significant anti-inflammatory and cytotoxicity potentials.

Prebiotic properties of jiaogulan in the context of gut microbiome

Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum) is a traditional Chinese medicinal herb that has been widely used in food and supplemental products. In the last 20 years, extensive research has been conducted to investigate the medicinal prospects of jiaogulan, and in this regard, more than 200 compounds have been isolated with various medicinal properties such as anticancer, anti-obesity, anti-inflammation, and antioxidation. In respect of potential benefits, jiaogulan market is likely growing, and various food items comprised of jiaogulan (beverage, sport drinks, cola, beer, tea, bread, and noodles) have been commercialized in the United States of America, China, and other Asian countries. More recently, there has been growing interest in the prebiotic potential of jiaogulan, especially at the interface of the gut microbiota. This review focuses on the prebiotic and therapeutic aspects of saponins and polysaccharides of jiaogulan tea by summarizing the literature on cancer, obesity, antioxidant activity, and immune-modulatory properties.

Characterization of Saponins from Differently Colored Quinoa Cultivars and Their In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion and Fermentation Properties

Quinoa contains rich saponins, which are removed during processing and cause ecological waste. We extracted saponins from quinoa (SEQ) in black, white, and red cultivars and compared their composition by spectrophotometric assay and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis combined with acid hydrolysis. The digestion and fermentation properties of SEQ were investigated using an in vitro model. Our results showed that acid hydrolysis released sapogenins, mainly phytolaccagenin (PA), hederagenin (HD), and oleanolic acid from SEQ. Varying from SEQ in red, SEQ in black and white had a similar composition and content of sapogenins. Gastrointestinal digestion did not release sapogenins from SEQ but reduced the antioxidant activity of SEQ. Gut microbiota from human feces released PA and HD from SEQ. Reciprocally, SEQ in black significantly increased the growth of Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp., while reducing the growth of Shigella spp. The present study provides guidance for further investigation about the bioactivities of saponins from quinoa.

Solanum Fruits: Phytochemicals, Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability, and Their Relationship With Their Health-Promoting Effects

The Solanum genus is the largest in the Solanaceae family containing around 2,000 species. There is a great number of edibles obtained from this genus, and globally, the most common are tomato (S. lycopersicum), potato (S. tuberosum), and eggplant (S. melongena). Other fruits are common in specific regions and countries, for instance, S. nigrum, S. torvum, S. betaceum, and S. stramonifolium. Various reports have shown that flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, saponins, and other molecules can be found in these plants. These molecules are associated with various health-promoting properties against many non-communicable diseases, the main causes of death globally. Nonetheless, the transformations of the structure of antioxidants caused by cooking methods and gastrointestinal digestion impact their potential benefits and must be considered. This review provides information about antioxidant compounds, their bioaccessibility and bioavailability, and their health-promoting effects. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability studies must be considered when evaluating the bioactive properties of health-promoting molecules like those from the Solanum genus.

Effects of Quillaja saponin supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal microbiota, and fecal gas emission in growing pigs

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of Quillaja saponin (QS) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal microbiota, and fecal gas emission in growing pigs. A total of 50 crossbred growing pigs [(Yorkshire × Landrace) × Duroc] with an initial body weight of 23.83 ± 1.95 kg were randomly assigned to one of two treatments for a 56 d trial with five replicate pens per treatment and five pigs (two barrows and three gilts) per pen. Dietary treatments including control diet and control diet supplemented with 200 mg·kg−1 QS. The average daily gain was significantly increased during days 0–56, whereas the fecal ammonia emission on day 56 and fecal coliform bacteria counts on day 28 were significantly decreased in pigs fed with QS-containing diet. However, dietary supplementation of QS had no significant effects on apparent total tract digestibility. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of 200 mg·kg−1 QS had beneficial effects on growth performance, fecal microbiota, and fecal gas emission in growing pigs. Considering the carry-over effects, the adaption period should be at least 28 d when supplementing 200 mg·kg−1 QS to the diet of growing pigs for improving the growth performance.

Anti-Obesity Effects of Matoa (Pometia pinnata) Fruit Peel Powder in High-Fat Diet-Fed Rats

Fruit peels, pericarps, or rinds are rich in phenolic/polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant properties and potentially beneficial effects against obesity and obesity-related non-communicable diseases. This study investigated the anti-obesity effects of matoa (Pometia pinnata) and salak (Salacca zalacca) fruit peel. Neither matoa peel powder (MPP) nor salak peel powder (SPP) affected the body weight, visceral fat weight, or serum glucose or lipid levels of Sprague-Dawley rats when included as 1% (w/w) of a high-fat diet (HFD). However, MPP significantly decreased the hepatic lipid level. MPP at a dose of 3% (w/w) of the HFD decreased body weight, visceral fat, and serum triglyceride levels as well as the hepatic lipid content. The inhibitory effect of MPP on hepatic lipid accumulation was not enhanced when its concentration was increased from 1% to 3% of the HFD. The anti-obesity effect of matoa was partly explained by the inhibitory effect of the matoa peel extract on fatty acid-induced secretion of ApoB-48 protein, a marker of intestinal chylomicrons, in differentiated Caco-2 cell monolayers. We identified hederagenin saponins that are abundant in MPP as potential anti-obesity substances. These results will contribute towards the development of functional foods with anti-obesity effects using the matoa fruit peel.

Physicochemical and Functional Characterization of Newly Designed Biopolymeric-Based Encapsulates with Probiotic Culture and Charantin

The identification of novel sources of synbiotic agents with desirable functionality is an emerging concept. In the present study, novel encapsulates containing probiotic L. acidophilus LA-05^® (LA) and Charantin (CT) were produced by freeze-drying technique using pure Whey Protein Isolate (WPI), pure Maltodextrin (MD), and their combination (WPI + MD) in 1:1 core ratio, respectively. The obtained microparticles, namely WPI + LA + CT, MD + LA + CT, and WPI + MD + LA + CT were tested for their physicochemical properties. Among all formulations, combined carriers (WPI + MD) exhibited the highest encapsulation yields for LA (98%) and CT (75%). Microparticles showed a mean d (4, 3) ranging from 50.393 ± 1.26 to 68.412 ± 3.22 μm. The Scanning Electron Microscopy revealed uniformly amorphous and glass-like structures, with a noticeably reduced porosity when materials were combined. In addition, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy highlighted the formation of strong hydrogen bonds supporting the interactions between the carrier materials (WPI and MD) and CT. In addition, the thermal stability of the combined WPI + MD was superior to that of pure WPI and pure MD, as depicted by the Thermogravimetric and Differential Scanning Calorimetry analysis. More interestingly, co-encapsulation with CT enhanced LA viability (8.91 ± 0.3 log CFU/g) and Cells Surface Hydrophobicity (82%) in vitro, in a prebiotic-like manner. Correspondingly, CT content was heightened when co-encapsulated with LA. Besides, WPI + MD + LA + CT microparticles exhibited higher antioxidant activity (79%), α-amylase inhibitory activity (83%), and lipase inhibitory activity (68%) than single carrier ones. Furthermore, LA viable count (7.95 ± 0.1 log CFU/g) and CT content (78%) were the highest in the blended carrier materials after 30 days of storage at 4 °C. Synbiotic microparticle WPI + MD + LA + CT represents an effective and promising approach for the co-delivery of probiotic culture and bioactive compounds in the digestive tract, with enhanced functionality and storage properties.

Flavonoids and saponins in plant rhizospheres: roles, dynamics, and the potential for agriculture

Plants are in constant interaction with a myriad of soil microorganisms in the rhizosphere, an area of soil in close contact with plant roots. Recent research has highlighted the importance of plant-specialized metabolites (PSMs) in shaping and modulating the rhizosphere microbiota; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and function of the microbiota mostly remain unaddressed. Flavonoids and saponins are a group of PSMs whose biosynthetic pathways have largely been revealed. Although these PSMs are abundantly secreted into the rhizosphere and exert various functions, the secretion mechanisms have not been clarified. This review summarizes the roles of flavonoids and saponins in the rhizosphere with a special focus on interactions between plants and the rhizosphere microbiota. Furthermore, this review introduces recent advancements in the dynamics of these metabolites in the rhizosphere and indicates potential applications of PSMs for crop production and discusses perspectives in this emerging research field.

Water-in-oil Pickering emulsions stabilized solely by a naturally occurring steroidal sapogenin: Diosgenin

In this study, stable water-in-oil emulsions stabilized solely by a naturally occurring steroidal sapogenin was reported for the first time. The results show that a concentrated emulsion with an internal water ratio of up to 60% can be obtained with only 3% of diosgenin concentration. The concentration of diosgenin had a significant effect on the microstructure and rheological properties of the emulsions. More importantly, the emulsion has excellent freeze/thaw stability and thermal stability. The results of polarized light microscopy, CLSM, and XRD indicate that the great structural properties and high stability of the emulsion can be attributed to the combined action of the diosgenin crystal shells on the droplet surface and needle-crystals in the continuous phase. That is, Pickering stabilization and network stabilization acting synergistically on stabilization of the emulsions. This novel food grade water-in-oil emulsions demonstrated great potential for application in food and biomedical-related fields.