Pathophysiological basis for compromised health beyond generations: role of maternal high-fat diet and low-grade chronic inflammation

Prenatal environmental adversity and child neurodevelopmental delay: the role of maternal low-grade systemic inflammation and maternal anti-inflammatory diet

Maternal inflammation has been proposed as a possible pathway connecting prenatal environmental adversity (PEA), which includes maternal overweightness or obesity, diabetes, hypertensive disorders, and mood or anxiety disorders, to child neurodevelopmental delay. However, effective preventive measures have not yet been reported. Herein, we aimed to investigate whether a maternal anti-inflammatory diet reduced the risk of PEA-induced neurodevelopmental delay, by inhibiting inflammation. This prospective study included 7438 mother-child pairs. Maternal overweightness or obesity, diabetes, and hypertensive disorders were diagnosed before 28 week gestation. Maternal depression disorders were identified using the Edinburgh postnatal depression survey (EPDS) during mid-pregnancy. During mid- and late pregnancy, maternal high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels were measured to evaluate systemic inflammation. The inflammatory potential of the diet was evaluated using the food-based empirical dietary inflammatory pattern (EDIP) score during mid-pregnancy. Pregnant women were classified into high- or low-score groups based on the median EDIP score. The outcomes of neurodevelopmental delay at 6-36 month postpartum were extracted from the Register of Child Healthcare. Among the 7438 mother-child pairs, 2937 (39.5%) were exposed to PEA, and neurodevelopmental delay occurred in 540 (7.3%). Children exposed to PEA had a higher risk of neurodevelopmental delay than those not exposed. PEA exposure was associated with increased hs-CRP during pregnancy in a PEA monotonic manner, an interquartile range increase in hs-CRP in mid- and late pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of child neurodevelopmental delay. Higher maternal persistent inflammation partially mediated the effect of PEA exposure on child neurodevelopmental delay by 17.19%. An increased risk of PEA-related neurodevelopmental delay was observed only in the children of mothers with high-EDIP rather than low-EDIP. These results suggest that increased systemic inflammation through mid- and late pregnancy mediates the association between PEA and child neurodevelopmental delay. A maternal anti-inflammatory diet may improve PEA-induced neurodevelopmental delay, by inhibiting inflammation.

Maternal Western diet programs cardiometabolic dysfunction and hypothalamic inflammation via epigenetic mechanisms predominantly in the male offspring

OBJECTIVE

Maternal exposure during pregnancy is a strong determinant of offspring health outcomes. Such exposure induces changes in the offspring epigenome resulting in gene expression and functional changes. In this study, we investigated the effect of maternal Western hypercaloric diet (HCD) programming during the perinatal period on neuronal plasticity and cardiometabolic health in adult offspring.

METHODS

C57BL/6J dams were fed HCD for 1 month prior to mating with regular diet (RD) sires and kept on the same diet throughout pregnancy and lactation. At weaning, offspring were maintained on either HCD or RD for 3 months resulting in 4 treatment groups that underwent cardiometabolic assessments. DNA and RNA were extracted from the hypothalamus to perform whole genome methylation, mRNA, and miRNA sequencing followed by bioinformatic analyses.

RESULTS

Maternal programming resulted in male-specific hypertension and hyperglycemia, with both males and females showing increased sympathetic tone to the vasculature. Surprisingly, programmed male offspring fed HCD in adulthood exhibited lower glucose levels, less insulin resistance, and leptin levels compared to non-programmed HCD-fed male mice. Hypothalamic genes involved in inflammation and type 2 diabetes were targeted by differentially expressed miRNA, while genes involved in glial and astrocytic differentiation were differentially methylated in programmed male offspring. These data were supported by our findings of astrogliosis, microgliosis and increased microglial activation in programmed males in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Programming induced a protective effect in male mice fed HCD in adulthood, resulting in lower protein levels of hypothalamic TGFβ2, NF-κB2, NF-κBp65, Ser-pIRS1, and GLP1R compared to non-programmed HCD-fed males. Although TGFβ2 was upregulated in male mice exposed to HCD pre- or post-natally, only blockade of the brain TGFβ receptor in RD-HCD mice improved glucose tolerance and a trend to weight loss.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that maternal HCD programs neuronal plasticity in the offspring and results in male-specific hypertension and hyperglycemia associated with hypothalamic inflammation in mechanisms and pathways distinct from post-natal HCD exposure. Together, our data unmask a compensatory role of HCD programming, likely via priming of metabolic pathways to handle excess nutrients in a more efficient way.

Severe gestational diabetes mellitus in lean dams is associated with low IL-1α levels and affects the growth of the juvenile mouse offspring

We investigated how maternal gestational diabetes (GDM) impacts the metabolic status of offspring. GDM was induced in CD1 mice consuming a fast-food diet (FFD) by repeated low-dose streptozotocin injections before mating. Offspring of normoglycemic standard chow or the FFD consuming dams served as controls. In 4-week-old offspring weaned to standard chow, plasma concentrations of extracellular DNA, inflammatory markers, and parameters of the cardiometabolic status (glycemia, liver lipid content; body, organ, and fat weight) were determined. Two-factor analysis of variance indicated that the male offspring of GDM dams manifest postnatal growth retardation and lower relative kidney weight. Regardless of sex, GDM offspring manifest the lowest IL-1α levels, and other inflammatory markers showed mild and inconsistent alterations. Offspring of dams consuming the FFD displayed higher liver triacylglycerols content. The three groups of offspring showed no significant differences in glycemia and extracellular DNA. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis indicated that male GDM offspring present lower kidney, body, and brown adipose tissue weights; lower IL-1α levels, and higher concentrations of GM-CSF and IL-10 compared with their FFD counterparts. The model failed to select discriminative variables in females. In conclusion, in mice, maternal GDM in the absence of obesity adversely affects the early growth of juvenile male offspring.

Fructooligosaccharide ameliorates high-fat induced intrauterine inflammation and improves lipid profile in the hamster offspring

Maternal high-fat diet (HFD) often results in intrauterine and feto-placental inflammation, and increases the risks of fetal programming of metabolic diseases. Intake of prebiotic is reported beneficial. However, its effects on HFD during pregnancy and lactation is not known. We evaluated the maternal intake of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) and its impact on placental inflammation, offspring's adiposity, glucose, and lipid metabolism in their later life. Female Golden Syrian hamsters were fed with a control diet (CD, 26.4 % energy from fat) or HFD (60.7% energy from fat) in the presence or absence of FOS from preconception until lactation. All pups were switched over to CD after lactation and continued until the end. Placental inflammation was upregulated in HFD-fed dam, as measured by a high concentration of hsCRP in the serum and amniotic fluid. Neutrophil infiltration was significantly increased in the decidua through the chorionic layer of the placenta. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as COX2, NFκβ, IL-8, TGFβ mRNA was increased in the chorioamniotic membrane (P <.05). The HFD/CD hamsters had more adiposity, higher triglyceride, and low HDL at 12 months of age compared to CD/CD (P <.05). However, HFD+FOS/CD-fed hamsters prevented adverse effects such as placental inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, glucose, and lipid profiles in the offspring (P <.05). Anti-inflammatory and lipid-lowering effects of FOS may reduce placental inflammation by lowering neutrophil infiltration and decreasing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Intake of FOS during pregnancy may be beneficial in maintaining lipid metabolism and preventing excess adiposity for mother and their offspring.

Maternal Nutrition and Neurodevelopment: A Scoping Review

In this scoping review, we examined the association between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and neurodevelopment in offspring. We searched the Pubmed and ScienceDirect databases for articles published from 2000 to 2020 on inadequate intake of vitamins (B12, folate, vitamin D, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K), micronutrients (cooper, iron, creatine, choline, zinc, iodine), macronutrients (fatty acids, proteins), high fat diets, ketogenic diets, hypercaloric diets, and maternal undernutrition. Some older relevant articles were included. The search produced a total of 3590 articles, and 84 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Data were extracted and analyzed using charts and the frequency of terms used. We concluded that inadequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was associated with brain defects (diminished cerebral volume, spina bifida, alteration of hypothalamic and hippocampal pathways), an increased risk of abnormal behavior, neuropsychiatric disorders (ASD, ADHD, schizophrenia, anxiety, depression), altered cognition, visual impairment, and motor deficits. Future studies should establish and quantify the benefits of maternal nutrition during pregnancy on neurodevelopment and recommend adequate supplementation.

The Impact of Maternal High-Fat Diet on Bone Microarchitecture in Offspring

The incidence of obesity in women of reproductive age has significantly increased over the past 100 years. There is a well-established connection between maternal obesity during pregnancy and an increased risk of developing non-communicable cardiometabolic diseases in her offspring. This mini-review focuses on evidence examining the effect of maternal high-fat diet (HFD) on skeletal development and bone health in later life in offspring. The majority of rodent studies indicate that maternal HFD generally negatively affects both embryonic bone development and bone volume in adult animals. Details surrounding the mechanisms of action that drive changes in the skeleton in offspring remain unclear, although numerous studies suggest that some effects are sex-specific. Human studies in this area are limited but also suggest that HFD during pregnancy may impair bone formation and increase fracture risk during childhood. Given the consequences of low bone mass and deranged bone microarchitecture for offspring, advances in our understanding of the developmental origins of bone health is critical in the battle against osteoporosis.

Maternally inherited hypercholesterolemia does not modify the cardiovascular phenotype in familial hypercholesterolemia

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a codominant autosomal disease characterized by a high risk of cardiovascular disease when not in lipid-lowering treatment. However, there is a large variability in the clinical presentation in heterozygous subjects (HeFH). Maternal hypercholesterolemia has been proposed as a cardiometabolic risk factor later in life. Whether this phenotype variability depends on the mother or father origin of hypercholesterolemia is unknown. The objective of this study was to analyze potential differences in anthropometry, superficial lipid deposits, comorbidities, and lipid concentrations depending on the parental origin of hypercholesterolemia within a large group of HeFH.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional observational, multicenter, nation-wide study in Spain. We recruited adults with HeFH to study clinical differences according to the parental origin. Data on HeFH patients were obtained from the Dyslipidemia Registry of the Spanish Atherosclerosis Society.

RESULTS

HeFH patients were grouped in 1231 HeFH-mother-offspring aged 45.7 (16.3) years and 1174 HeFH-father-offspring aged 44.8 (16.7) years. We did not find any difference in lipid parameters (total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDLc, HDLc, and Lp(a)), nor in the comorbidities studied (cardiovascular disease prevalence, age of onset of cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension) between groups. Lipid-lowering treatment did not differ between groups. The prevalence of comorbidities did not show differences when they were studied by age groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research with a large group of subjects with HeFH shows that a potential maternal effect is not relevant in FH. However, due to the size of our sample, potential differences between genders cannot be completely ruled out. This implies that severe maternal hypercholesterolemia during pregnancy is not associated with additional risk in the FH affected offspring.

Nutrition and Genetics in NAFLD: The Perfect Binomium

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a global healthcare burden since it is epidemiologically related to obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Metabolic Syndrome (MetS). It embraces a wide spectrum of hepatic injuries, which include simple steatosis, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The susceptibility to develop NAFLD is highly variable and it is influenced by several cues including environmental (i.e., dietary habits and physical activity) and inherited (i.e., genetic/epigenetic) risk factors. Nonetheless, even intestinal microbiota and its by-products play a crucial role in NAFLD pathophysiology. The interaction of dietary exposure with the genome is referred to as 'nutritional genomics,' which encompasses both 'nutrigenetics' and 'nutriepigenomics.' It is focused on revealing the biological mechanisms that entail both the acute and persistent genome-nutrient interactions that influence health and it may represent a promising field of study to improve both clinical and health nutrition practices. Thus, the premise of this review is to discuss the relevance of personalized nutritional advices as a novel therapeutic approach in NAFLD tailored management.

Paternal high-fat diet and exercise regulate sperm miRNA and histone methylation to modify placental inflammation, nutrient transporter mRNA expression and fetal weight in a sex-dependent manner

We previously have shown that male offspring (F1) of fathers (F0) fed a high-fat (HF) diet and that exercised had greater skeletal muscle insulin signaling and reduced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) risk compared to fathers fed HF diet and that remained sedentary. The current study extends this work by hypothesizing that F0 HF diet and exercise regulate F1 T2DM risk by alterations in placental tissue growth via changes in sperm miRNA expression. To test these hypotheses, 3-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were fed a normal-fat diet (16% fat) or an HF diet (45% fat) and assigned to either voluntary wheel running exercise or cage activity for 3 months. Results showed that F0 sperm miRNA 193b expression was decreased while miRNA 204 was increased by paternal exercise. Protein expression of dimethylated histone 3 lysine 9 was decreased with F0 HF diet. Placental and fetal tissue weights were decreased by F0 HF diet in F1 males. Placental interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNA expression was reduced by paternal exercise, while nutrient transporter mRNA expression was decreased by paternal HF diet only in the placentae of F1 females. Treatment of primary placental cell with miRNA 193b inhibited TNF-α mRNA expression, and treatment of TNF-α decreased SLC38a2 mRNA expression. Moreover, paternal exercise increased body weight at weaning in a female offspring. These results demonstrate that placental tissue weight, placental nutrient transporter gene expression and fetal weights are altered by paternal exercise, while placental inflammatory gene expression is influenced by paternal exercise in offspring in a sex-specific manner.

Maternal Overweight Downregulates MME (Neprilysin) in Feto-Placental Endothelial Cells and in Cord Blood

Maternal overweight in pregnancy alters the metabolic environment and generates chronic low-grade inflammation. This affects fetal development and programs the offspring’s health for developing cardiovascular and metabolic disease later in life. MME (membrane-metalloendopeptidase, neprilysin) cleaves various peptides regulating vascular tone. Endothelial cells express membrane-bound and soluble MME. In adults, the metabolic environment of overweight and obesity upregulates endothelial and circulating MME. We here hypothesized that maternal overweight increases MME in the feto-placental endothelium. We used primary feto-placental endothelial cells (fpEC) isolated from placentas after normal vs. overweight pregnancies and determined MME mRNA, protein, and release. Additionally, soluble cord blood MME was analyzed. The effect of oxygen and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) on MME protein in fpEC was investigated in vitro. Maternal overweight reduced MME mRNA (−39.9%, p < 0.05), protein (−42.5%, p = 0.02), and MME release from fpEC (−64.7%, p = 0.02). Both cellular and released MME protein negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI. Similarly, cord blood MME was negatively associated with pre-pregnancy BMI (r = −0.42, p = 0.02). However, hypoxia and TNFα, potential negative regulators of MME expression, did not affect MME protein. Reduction of MME protein in fpEC and in cord blood may alter the balance of vasoactive peptides. Our study highlights the fetal susceptibility to maternal metabolism and inflammatory state.

Physical activity and dietary intake among Chinese pregnant women: an observational study

Background

Physical activity (PA) and dietary intake are important modifiable factors associated with health outcomes. However, Chinese pregnant women’s PA and dietary intake are only vaguely understood. The aim of this study was to reveal the characteristics of PA and dietary intake of Chinese women in different trimesters as well as the associations between PA and dietary intake.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional observational study. PA, dietary intake, and demographics of 1077 Chinese pregnant women were measured. The Chi-square test, Kruskal-Wallis test, multiple logistic regression, and multiple linear regression were used for data analysis.

Results

About 57.1% of the participants met the international guideline for PA. Household activity and occupational activity contributed the most to the total PA, while sports/exercise contributed little. The mean energy intake of the participants was 2008 ± 748.0 kcal. Most participants had normal energy intake, but they obtained excessive energy from fat (mean = 41.7 ± 8.7%). PA was not found to be significantly associated with dietary intake. Further, the participants who were unemployed during pregnancy (OR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.55–0.95; p < 0.05) or had no exercise habits before pregnancy (OR = 0.62, 95% CI: 0.47–0.80; p < 0.01) were less likely to meet the PA guideline. The participants in the third trimester (OR = 1.43, 95% CI: 1.03–1.99; p < 0.05) were more likely to meet the PA guideline compared to those in the first trimester. The older participants (> 30 years) showed higher dietary intake than the younger (< 25 years) participants (p < 0.01).

Conclusions

The total PA of Chinese women during pregnancy mostly consists of household and occupational activities, but little sports/exercise. Starting exercise before pregnancy may help women achieve adequate PA during pregnancy. Moreover, these women consumed an excessive amount of fat and their diet intake varies by age.

Maternal exercise before and during pregnancy alleviates metabolic dysfunction associated with high-fat diet in pregnant mice, without significant changes in gut microbiota

Although maternal exercise before and during pregnancy is beneficial, the effects of exercise on microbiota changes during pregnancy are unknown. Here we tested the hypothesis that maternal exercise before and during pregnancy would positively affect glucose homeostasis, pancreatic cell function, and gut microbiota dysbiosis in high-fat diet (HFD) fed dams. Female C57BL/6 mice were fed either a HFD or a low-fat diet (LFD) for 12 weeks. The HFD mice were split into two groups for 4 weeks prior to pregnancy initiation and throughout the pregnancy: sedentary (HFD) or exercised (HFD + Ex). Food intake, body weight, body composition, and glucose and insulin tolerance were measured. At gestation day 19, blood, pancreas, gonadal visceral and subcutaneous fat, plantaris muscle, and cecum were collected for analysis. Both HFD and HFD + Ex mice had impaired glucose clearance compared to LFD mice at 15 days of gestation. No changes were found in pancreatic α- or β-cell health. HFD + Ex mice had significantly reduced visceral fat mass, serum insulin, and leptin levels and increased high-density lipoprotein levels, compared to HFD-fed mice. In contrast to our hypothesis, microbiota diversity and composition were not different among groups. The relative abundance of five bacterial phyla, such as Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Deferribacteres, and Actinobacteria, were not significantly altered with diet or exercise during pregnancy. Our findings suggest that maternal exercise prevents excess visceral fat accumulation, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperleptinemia associated with a HFD, but not through the alterations of gut microbiota composition or diversity during pregnancy.

Chronic inflammation is a key to inducing liver injury in blunt snout bream (Megalobrama amblycephala) fed with high-fat diet

The aim of this article is to investigate the mechanism of lipotoxicity induced by high-fat diets (HFD) in Megalobrama amblycephala. In the present study, fish (average initial weight 40.0 ± 0.35 g) were fed with two fat levels (6% and 11%) diets with four replicates for 60 days. At the end of the feeding trial, fish were challenged by thioacetamide (TAA) and survival rate was recorded for the next 96 h. The result showed that long-term HFD feeding induced a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (GOT) and alanine aminotransferase (GPT) in plasma. In addition, liver histopathological analysis showed an increased dilation of the blood vessels, erythrocytes outside of the blood vessels and vacuolization in fish fed with high-fat diet. After TAA challenge, compared with group fed with normal-fat diets (NFD), fish fed with HFD showed a significantly (P < 0.05) low survival rate. After feeding Megalobrama amblycephala with HFD for 60 days, the protein content and gene expression of pro-inflammatory factors were significantly elevated (P < 0.05). The protein and gene relative expressions of a Caspase-3, Caspase-9 and CD68 were significantly increased (P < 0.05), while antioxidant-related enzyme activities were significantly reduced (P < 0.05) in the liver of fish fed with HFD. In addition, HFD feeding also induced genotoxicity. Comet assay showed a significantly (P < 0.05) elevated DNA damage in blunt snout bream fed with HFD. Compared with normal-fat diets (NFD) group, the protein expression of γH2AX and gene expressions involved in cell cycle arrest were significantly increased (P < 0.05) in fish fed with HFD. Data in this research showed that lipotoxicity induced by HFD was likely mediated by chronic inflammation regulating macrophage recruitment, apoptosis and DNA damage. The study was valuable to understand the mechanism by which liver injury is induced in fish fed with HFD.

Sex modifies placental gene expression in response to metabolic and inflammatory stress

INTRODUCTION

Metabolic stress (e.g., gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and obesity) and infections are common during pregnancy, impacting fetal development and the health of offspring. Such antenatal stresses can differentially impact male and female offspring. We sought to determine how metabolic stress and maternal immune activation (MIA), either alone or in combination, alters inflammatory gene expression within the placenta and whether the effects exhibited sexual dimorphism.

METHODS

Female C57BL/6 J mice were fed a normal diet or a high fat diet for 6 weeks prior to mating, with the latter diet inducing a GDM phenotype during pregnancy. Dams within each diet group at gestational day (GD) 12.5 received either an intraperitoneal injection of the viral mimic, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) or saline. Three hours post injection; placentae were collected and analyzed for changes in the expression of 248 unique immune genes.

RESULTS

Placental immune gene expression was significantly altered by GDM, MIA and the combination of the two (GDM+MIA). mRNA expression was generally lower in placentae of mice exposed to GDM alone compared with the other experimental groups, while mice exposed to MIA exhibited the highest transcript levels. Notably, fetal/placental sex influenced the responses of many immune genes to both metabolic and inflammatory stress.

DISCUSSION

GDM and MIA provoke inflammatory responses within the placenta and such effects exhibit sexual dimorphism. The combination of these stressors impacts the placenta differently than either condition alone. These findings may help explain sexual dimorphism observed in adverse pregnancy outcomes in human offspring exposed to similar stressors.

Maternal High Fat Diet Alters Gut Microbiota of Offspring and Exacerbates DSS-Induced Colitis in Adulthood

Background: Accumulating evidence shows that high fat diet is closely associated with inflammatory bowel disease. However, the effects and underlying mechanisms of maternal high fat diet (MHFD) on the susceptibility of offspring to colitis in adulthood lacks confirmation.

Methods: C57BL/6 pregnant mice were given either a high fat (60 E% fat, MHFD group) or control diet [10 E% fat, maternal control diet (MCD) group] during gestation and lactation. The intestinal development, mucosal barrier function, microbiota, and mucosal inflammation of 3-week old offspring were assessed. After weaning all mice were fed a control diet until 8 weeks of age when the microbiota was analyzed. Offspring were also treated with 2% DSS solution for 5 days and the severity of colitis was assessed.

Results: The offspring in MHFD group were significantly heavier than those in MCD group only at 2–4 weeks of age, while no differences were found in the body weight between two groups at other measured time points. Compared with MCD group, MHFD significantly inhibited intestinal development and disrupted barrier function in 3-week old offspring. Although H&E staining showed no obvious microscopic inflammation in both groups of 3-week old offspring, increased production of inflammatory cytokines indicated low-grade inflammation was induced in MHFD group. Moreover, fecal analysis of the 3-week old offspring indicated that the microbiota compositions and diversity were significantly changed in MHFD group. Interestingly after 5 weeks consumption of control diet in both groups, the microbiota composition of offspring in MHFD group was still different from that in MCD group, although the bacterial diversity was partly recovered at 8 weeks of age. Finally, after DSS treatment in 8-week old offspring, MHFD significantly exacerbated the severity of colitis and increased the production of proinflammatory cytokine.

Conclusions: Our data reveal that MHFD in early life can inhibit intestinal development, induce dysbiosis and low-grade inflammation and lead to the disruption of intestinal mucosal barrier in offspring, and enhance DSS-induced colitis in adulthood.

Establishment and Comparison of Juvenile Female Mouse Models of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Experimental research has successfully established an adult offspring animal model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but the female offspring model of NAFLD in young age has not been well characterized yet. The aim of this study was to present a direct comparison of the maternal versus postweaning female juvenile NAFLD and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) animal models. Four different female mouse models were established and compared using different high-fat diet feeding (HF) strategies in maternal mice and their offspring. The models were non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with high-high fat (C/HHF), non-HF maternal mice and HF offspring with low-high fat (C/LHF), HF maternal mice and offspring both with high-high fat (HHF/HHF), and HF maternal mice and offspring both with low-high fat (LHF/LHF). A female control group (C/C) was also established. The offspring mice were raised to the age of 8 weeks and then euthanized. Blood glucose levels, lipid profiles, liver function, and triglycerides/total cholesterol contents were examined. Hepatic morphology and superoxide anion levels were evaluated. The nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate activity and related regulatory subunits protein expression in the liver tissue were also determined. Our data demonstrated that offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NAFLD and maternal-offspring fat intake contributed to the successful establishment of NASH in juvenile female mice. Offspring high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NAFLD and maternal high-fat exposure might be associated with the development of NASH in juvenile female offspring. Higher calories from a fat diet program (both in maternal and offspring) are more prone to inducing liver injury in offspring. In addition, the combination of the aforementioned two factors could aggravate this process. Moreover, oxidative stress was prominent in the juvenile female mouse model of NAFLD/NASH, and the mechanism might be related to the activation of liver NADPH oxidase.

Psoralea corylifolia L. Attenuates Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis in Juvenile Mouse

Psoralea corylifolia L. (PC) is a traditional Chinese herb used to treat yang deficiency of the spleen and kidney in pediatric disease. Recent studies have shown its liver protection and anti-oxidative effects. The aim of this study was to explore the effect and mechanism of PC on nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in juvenile mice. The juvenile mouse model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD/NASH) was established by being fed a high-fat diet in maternal-offspring manner. PC granules were prepared and the quality was assessed. The main components were identified by high performance liquid chromatography. Then, different dosages of PC were administered for 6 weeks. Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, plasma liver enzymes, hepatic morphology, hepatic superoxide anion, and triglyceride/total cholesterol levels were examined. The changes of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) and protein kinase C-α (PKC-α)/nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase signaling pathways in hepatic tissues were also determined. Our data demonstrated that PC significantly improved liver dysfunction, liver triglyceride/total cholesterol accumulation and insulin resistance in juvenile NAFLD/NASH mice. PC also alleviated hepatic steatosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, and fibroplasia in the portal area. Additionally, PC inhibited the activation of NF-κB and the mRNA expression of inflammatory factors while enhancing PI3K/Akt signaling in hepatic tissues. PC could also reduce hepatic superoxide anion levels, and NADPH oxidase activity as well as p47^phox protein expression and PKCα activation in hepatic tissues. The results suggest that PC is effective in the treatment of NASH in juvenile mice. The mechanism may be related to the attenuation of hepatic oxidative stress through the PKC-α/NADPH oxidase signaling pathway.

Epigenetic Regulation of Centromere Chromatin Stability by Dietary and Environmental Factors

The centromere is a genomic locus required for the segregation of the chromosomes during cell division. This chromosomal region together with pericentromeres has been found to be susceptible to damage, and thus the perturbation of the centromere could lead to the development of aneuploidic events. Metabolic abnormalities that underlie the generation of cancer include inflammation, oxidative stress, cell cycle deregulation, and numerous others. The micronucleus assay, an early clinical marker of cancer, has been shown to provide a reliable measure of genotoxic damage that may signal cancer initiation. In the current review, we will discuss the events that lead to micronucleus formation and centromeric and pericentromeric chromatin instability, as well transcripts emanating from these regions, which were previously thought to be inactive. Studies were selected in PubMed if they reported the effects of nutritional status (macro- and micronutrients) or environmental toxicant exposure on micronucleus frequency or any other chromosomal abnormality in humans, animals, or cell models. Mounting evidence from epidemiologic, environmental, and nutritional studies provides a novel perspective on the origination of aneuploidic events. Although substantial evidence exists describing the role that nutritional status and environmental toxicants have on the generation of micronuclei and other nuclear aberrations, limited information is available to describe the importance of macro- and micronutrients on centromeric and pericentromeric chromatin stability. Moving forward, studies that specifically address the direct link between nutritional status, excess, or deficiency and the epigenetic regulation of the centromere will provide much needed insight into the nutritional and environmental regulation of this chromosomal region and the initiation of aneuploidy.

Different combinations of maternal and postnatal diet are reflected in changes of hepatic parenchyma and hepatic TNF-alpha expression in male rat offspring

Obesity is related to increased TNF-alpha production in different tissues. TNF-alpha is connected to mitochondrial dysfunction in the liver and also development of fatty infiltration of the liver. Also, postnatal change from normal to high-fat diet causes a significant increase in TNF-alpha serum levels. The aim of this research was to determine how maternal diet and switching male offspring to a different dietary regime after lactation influences rat liver. Ten female Sprague Dawley rats at nine weeks of age were randomly divided in two groups and fed either standard laboratory chow or high-fat diet during six weeks, and then mated with the same male subject. After birth and lactation male offspring from both groups were further divided into four subgroups depending on their subsequent diet. At 22 weeks of age, the animals were weighted, sacrificed and major organs were collected and weighted. Immunohistochemistry for TNF-alpha was performed on liver, and liver samples were analyzed for pathohistological changes. The group in which mothers were fed standard chow and offspring high-fat diet had the most pronounced changes: heaviest liver, poorest histopathological findings and strongest TNF-alpha immunohistochemical staining of liver parenchyma. High-fat diet during pregnancy and lactation and switching to high-fat diet postnatally affects liver weight, histological structure and TNF-alpha expression in male offspring.

Programming of infant neurodevelopment by maternal obesity: potential role of maternal inflammation and insulin resistance

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Recent studies show that maternal obesity is associated with impaired offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes. The mechanism underlying the association is unclear. However, there is evidence to suggest a role for intra-uterine exposure to inflammation and insulin resistance (IR). We aimed to determine if maternal IR and inflammation were associated to fetal neurodevelopment as indicated by fetal heart rate variability (HRV), an index of fetal cardiac autonomic nervous system development.

METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN

A total of 44 healthy maternal-fetal pairs (maternal pre-pregnancy BMI distribution: n=20 normal weight, 8 overweight, 16 obese) were analyzed. We assessed maternal inflammation (plasma IL-6 and TNF-α) and IR (HOMA index). Fetal HRV, a proxy for fetal neurodevelopment, was assessed using fetal magnetocardiogram at the 36th week of pregnancy. The relationships between maternal inflammation and IR with fetal HRV (SD1 and SD2) were estimated individually by Pearson bivariate correlations.

RESULTS

No correlations were observed between the fetal HRV components with maternal HOMA-IR and maternal plasma levels of IL-6 and TNF-α (all p<0.05). However, the negative association between maternal TNF-α level and fetal SD2 approached significance (correlation coefficient=-0.29, 95% confidence interval=-0.62,-0.03, p=0.07).

CONCLUSION

Maternal IR and inflammation during pregnancy were not associated with fetal cardiac autonomic nervous system development. Further studies with a larger sample size and more maternal inflammatory indicators are needed to explore these relationships.

Sonographic measurement of the fetal thymus: Relationship with maternal obesity

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of maternal obesity on the size of the fetal thymus.

METHODS

The study population consisted of 138 pregnant women who were divided into two groups based on their body mass index (BMI): Normal-weight group (n = 97; BMI: 18-25 kg/m² ) and obese group (n = 41; BMI: ≥ 30 kg/m² ). All participants underwent routine second-trimester prenatal ultrasound (US) screening at 20-25 weeks of gestation. Differences in US measurement of fetal thymus, fetal anthropometric measurements, subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness, fetal weight, gestational age, white blood cell count, and C-reactive protein (CRP) values between groups were compared.

RESULTS

The mean thymus size was 18.7 ± 2.9 mm for normal-weight group, and 21.6 ± 3.7 mm for the obese group (p < 0.001). CRP values were also significantly different between groups (6.8 ± 4.4 mg/dl for normal-weight group, 14.8 ± 1.8 mg/dl for obese group, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Fetal thymus size was increased in obese women, and this increase may indicate immunologic abnormalities in fetuses. However, future large-scale studies are necessary to support this association. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound 45:277-281, 2017.

High Fat Diets Sex-Specifically Affect the Renal Transcriptome and Program Obesity, Kidney Injury, and Hypertension in the Offspring

Obesity and related disorders have increased concurrently with an increased consumption of saturated fatty acids. We examined whether post-weaning high fat (HF) diet would exacerbate offspring vulnerability to maternal HF-induced programmed hypertension and kidney disease sex-specifically, with a focus on the kidney. Next, we aimed to elucidate the gene–diet interactions that contribute to maternal HF-induced renal programming using the next generation RNA sequencing (NGS) technology. Female Sprague-Dawley rats received either a normal diet (ND) or HF diet (D12331, Research Diets) for five weeks before the delivery. The offspring of both sexes were put on either the ND or HF diet from weaning to six months of age, resulting in four groups of each sex (maternal diet/post-weaning diet; n = 5–7/group): ND/ND, ND/HF, HF/ND, and HF/HF. Post-weaning HF diet increased bodyweights of both ND/HF and HF/HF animals from three to six months only in males. Post-weaning HF diet increased systolic blood pressure in male and female offspring, irrespective of whether they were exposed to maternal HF or not. Male HF/HF offspring showed greater degrees of glomerular and tubular injury compared to the ND/ND group. Our NGS data showed that maternal HF diet significantly altered renal transcriptome with female offspring being more HF-sensitive. HF diet induced hypertension and renal injury are associated with oxidative stress, activation of renin-angiotensin system, and dysregulated sodium transporters and circadian clock. Post-weaning HF diet sex-specifically exacerbates the development of obesity, kidney injury, but not hypertension programmed by maternal HF intake. Better understanding of the sex-dependent mechanisms that underlie HF-induced renal programming will help develop a novel personalized dietary intervention to prevent obesity and related disorders.

Maternal Low-Protein Diet Modulates Glucose Metabolism and Hepatic MicroRNAs Expression in the Early Life of Offspring †

Emerging studies revealed that maternal protein restriction was associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adulthood. However, the mechanisms of its effects on offspring, especially during early life of offspring, are poorly understood. Here, it is hypothesized that impaired metabolic health in offspring from maternal low-protein diet (LPD) is associated with perturbed miRNAs expression in offspring as early as the weaning age. We examined the metabolic effects on the C57BL/6J mice male offspring at weaning from dams fed with LPD or normal chow diet (NCD) throughout pregnancy and lactation. Maternal LPD feeding impaired metabolic health in offspring. Microarray profiling indicated that mmu-miR-615, mmu-miR-124, mmu-miR-376b, and mmu-let-7e were significantly downregulated, while, mmu-miR-708 and mmu-miR-879 were upregulated in LPD offspring. Bioinformatic analysis showed target genes were mapped to inflammatory-related pathways. Serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were higher and interleukin 6 (IL-6) had a tendency to be elevated in the LPD group. Finally, both mRNA and protein levels of IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly increased in the LPD group. Our findings provide novel evidence that maternal LPD can regulate miRNAs expression, which may be associated with chronic inflammation status and metabolic health in offspring as early as the weaning age.

Obesity: epigenetic aspects

Epigenetics, defined as inheritable and reversible phenomena that affect gene expression without altering the underlying base pair sequence has been shown to play an important role in the etiopathogenesis of obesity. Obesity is associated with extensive gene expression changes in tissues throughout the body. Epigenetics is emerging as perhaps the most important mechanism through which the lifestyle-choices we make can directly influence the genome. Considerable epidemiological, experimental and clinical data have been amassed showing that the risk of developing disease in later life is dependent on early life conditions, mainly operating within the normative range of developmental exposures. In addition to the 'maternal' interactions, there has been increasing interest in the epigenetic mechanisms through which 'paternal' influences on offspring development can be achieved. Nutrition, among many other environmental factors, is a key player that can induce epigenetic changes not only in the directly exposed organisms but also in subsequent generations through the transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic traits. Overall, significant progress has been made in the field of epigenetics and obesity and the first potential epigenetic markers for obesity that could be detected at birth have been identified. Fortunately, epigenetic phenomena are dynamic and rather quickly reversible with intensive lifestyle changes. This is a very promising and sustainable resolution to the obesity pandemic.

Maternal high-calorie diet is associated with altered hepatic microRNA expression and impaired metabolic health in offspring at weaning age

High-calorie diet (HCD) feeding in mice predisposes offspring for impaired glucose homeostasis and obesity. However, the mechanisms underlying these detrimental effects of maternal nutrition, especially during early life of offspring, are incompletely understood. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that can regulate target gene expression. Here we hypothesized that impaired metabolic health in offspring from HCD-fed dams at weaning is associated with dysregulated expression of hepatic miRNAs. Dams were fed a chow diet (CD; 11.4 % kcal fat, 62.8 % from carbohydrate, 25.8 % from protein) or HCD (58 % kcal from fat; 25.6 % from carbohydrate, 16.4 % from protein) during gestation and lactation, and metabolic health was assessed in male offspring at weaning. Hepatic levels of miRNAs and target genes were investigated in offspring from CD- or HCD-fed dams using gene and protein expression. Maternal HCD feeding impaired metabolic health in offspring compared to offspring from CD-fed dams. Microarray analysis indicated that expressions of miR-615-5p, miR-3079-5p, miR-124*, and miR-101b* were downregulated, whereas miR-143* was upregulated, in livers from offspring from HCD-fed dams. Our functional enrichment analysis indicated that the target genes of these differentially expressed miRNAs, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (MAPK1), were mapped to inflammatory pathways. Finally, we verified that both mRNA and protein levels of the pro-inflammatory modulators TNF-α and MAPK1 were significantly increased in livers of offspring from HCD-fed dams at weaning. Maternal HCD feeding predisposes offspring to a higher body weight and impaired glucose metabolism at weaning. To the best of knowledge, our study is the first to show that maternal HCD consumption impairs metabolic health, modulates hepatic miRNA expression, and increases markers of hepatic inflammation in offspring as early as at weaning age.

Obesity indices are predictive of elevated C-reactive protein in long-haul truck drivers

BACKGROUND

Obesity rates in long-haul truck drivers have been shown to be significantly higher than the general population. We hypothesized that commercial drivers with the highest levels of general obesity and abdominal adiposity would have higher concentrations of high sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation.

METHODS

Survey and anthropometric data were collected from 262 commercial drivers. Weight, circumference measures, and blood analysis for CRP (N = 115) were conducted and compared to National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data. CRP values were non-normally distributed and logarithmically transformed for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

BMI, waist circumference, sagittal abdominal diameter, and CRP were significantly higher than in the general population. Anthropometric indices that included height (BMI, waist-to-height ratio, and sagittal diameter-to-height ratio), were most predictive of CRP values.

CONCLUSIONS

Abdominal obesity is prevalent in commercial vehicle drivers and is an important indicator of the presence of inflammation in this population. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:665-675, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Maternal exposure to a Western-style diet causes differences in intestinal microbiota composition and gene expression of suckling mouse pups

Scope

The long‐lasting consequences of nutritional programming during the early phase of life have become increasingly evident. The effects of maternal nutrition on the developing intestine are still underexplored.

Methods and results

In this study, we observed (1) altered microbiota composition of the colonic luminal content, and (2) differential gene expression in the intestinal wall in 2‐week‐old mouse pups born from dams exposed to a Western‐style (WS) diet during the perinatal period. A sexually dimorphic effect was found for the differentially expressed genes in the offspring of WS diet‐exposed dams but no differences between male and female pups were found for the microbiota composition.

Integrative analysis of the microbiota and gene expression data revealed that the maternal WS diet independently affected gene expression and microbiota composition. However, the abundance of bacterial families not affected by the WS diet (Bacteroidaceae, Porphyromonadaceae, and Lachnospiraceae) correlated with the expression of genes playing a key role in intestinal development and functioning (e.g. Pitx2 and Ace2).

Conclusion

Our data reveal that maternal consumption of a WS diet during the perinatal period alters both gene expression and microbiota composition in the intestinal tract of 2‐week‐old offspring.

Coenzyme Q10 prevents hepatic fibrosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress in a male rat model of poor maternal nutrition and accelerated postnatal growth

BACKGROUND

It is well established that low birth weight and accelerated postnatal growth increase the risk of liver dysfunction in later life. However, molecular mechanisms underlying such developmental programming are not well characterized, and potential intervention strategies are poorly defined.

OBJECTIVES

We tested the hypotheses that poor maternal nutrition and accelerated postnatal growth would lead to increased hepatic fibrosis (a pathological marker of liver dysfunction) and that postnatal supplementation with the antioxidant coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) would prevent this programmed phenotype.

DESIGN

A rat model of maternal protein restriction was used to generate low-birth-weight offspring that underwent accelerated postnatal growth (termed "recuperated"). These were compared with control rats. Offspring were weaned onto standard feed pellets with or without dietary CoQ10 (1 mg/kg body weight per day) supplementation. At 12 mo, hepatic fibrosis, indexes of inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin signaling were measured by histology, Western blot, ELISA, and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Hepatic collagen deposition (diameter of deposit) was greater in recuperated offspring (mean ± SEM: 12 ± 2 μm) than in controls (5 ± 0.5 μm) (P < 0.001). This was associated with greater inflammation (interleukin 6: 38% ± 24% increase; P < 0.05; tumor necrosis factor α: 64% ± 24% increase; P < 0.05), lipid peroxidation (4-hydroxynonenal, measured by ELISA: 0.30 ± 0.02 compared with 0.19 ± 0.05 μg/mL per μg protein; P < 0.05), and hyperinsulinemia (P < 0.05). CoQ10 supplementation increased (P < 0.01) hepatic CoQ10 concentrations and ameliorated liver fibrosis (P < 0.001), inflammation (P < 0.001), some measures of oxidative stress (P < 0.001), and hyperinsulinemia (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Suboptimal in utero nutrition combined with accelerated postnatal catch-up growth caused more hepatic fibrosis in adulthood, which was associated with higher indexes of oxidative stress and inflammation and hyperinsulinemia. CoQ10 supplementation prevented liver fibrosis accompanied by downregulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, and hyperinsulinemia.

High maternal sodium intake alters sex-specific renal renin-angiotensin system components in newborn Wistar offspring

This study aimed to evaluate the systemic and renal renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) at birth in male and female offspring and in mothers fed a high sodium diet (HSD) before and during gestation. Female Wistar rats were fed a HSD (8.0% NaCl) or a normal sodium diet (1.3% NaCl) from 8 weeks of age until delivery of their first litter. Maternal body weight, tail blood pressure, and food and water intake were evaluated. The litter sizes were assessed, and the body and kidney weights of the offspring were measured. Both mothers and offspring were euthanized immediately following the birth of the pups to evaluate plasma renin activity (PRA), renal renin content (RRC), renal angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity, renal angiotensin (Ang) II content, serum aldosterone (ALDO) levels, and renal cortical and medullary renin messenger RNA expression. In mothers in the HSD group, water intake and kidney mass were higher, whereas renal ACE activity, Ang II, PRA, ALDO and RRC were decreased. In the offspring of HSD-fed dams, the body and kidney mass were lower in both genders, renal ACE activity was lower in females and renal Ang II was lower in males. PRA, RRC, renin gene expression and ALDO levels did not differ between the groups of offspring. The data presented herein showed that a maternal HSD during pregnancy induces low birth weight and a sex-specific response in the RAAS in offspring.

Neurological and Epigenetic Implications of Nutritional Deficiencies on Psychopathology: Conceptualization and Review of Evidence

In recent years, a role for epigenetic modifications in the pathophysiology of disease has received significant attention. Many studies are now beginning to explore the gene-environment interactions, which may mediate early-life exposure to risk factors, such as nutritional deficiencies and later development of behavioral problems in children and adults. In this paper, we review the current literature on the role of epigenetics in the development of psychopathology, with a specific focus on the potential for epigenetic modifications to link nutrition and brain development. We propose a conceptual framework whereby epigenetic modifications (e.g., DNA methylation) mediate the link between micro- and macro-nutrient deficiency early in life and brain dysfunction (e.g., structural aberration, neurotransmitter perturbation), which has been linked to development of behavior problems later on in life.

A perspective on the developmental toxicity of inhaled nanoparticles

This paper aimed to clarify whether maternal inhalation of engineered nanoparticles (NP) may constitute a hazard to pregnancy and fetal development, primarily based on experimental animal studies of NP and air pollution particles. Overall, it is plausible that NP may translocate from the respiratory tract to the placenta and fetus, but also that adverse effects may occur secondarily to maternal inflammatory responses. The limited database describes several organ systems in the offspring to be potentially sensitive to maternal inhalation of particles, but large uncertainties exist about the implications for embryo-fetal development and health later in life. Clearly, the potential for hazard remains to be characterized. Considering the increased production and application of nanomaterials and related consumer products a testing strategy for NP should be established. Due to large gaps in data, significant amounts of groundwork are warranted for a testing strategy to be established on a sound scientific basis.