The occurrence of steroidal estrogens in south-eastern Ontario wastewater treatment plants

Zooplankton-based adverse outcome pathways: A tool for assessing endocrine disrupting compounds in aquatic environments

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) pose a significant ecological risk, particularly in aquatic ecosystems. EDCs have become a focal point in ecotoxicology, and their identification and regulation have become a priority. Zooplankton have gained global recognition as bioindicators, benefiting from rigorous standardization and regulatory validation processes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of zooplankton-based adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) with a focus on EDCs as toxicants and the utilisation of freshwater zooplankton as bioindicators in ecotoxicological assessments. This review presents case studies in which zooplankton have been used in the development of AOPs, emphasizing the identification of molecular initiating events (MIEs) and key events (KEs) specific to zooplankton exposed to EDCs. Zooplankton-based AOPs may become an important resource for understanding the intricate processes by which EDCs impair the endocrine system. Furthermore, the data sources, experimental approaches, advantages, and challenges associated with zooplankton-based AOPs are discussed. Zooplankton-based AOPs framework can provide vital tools for consolidating toxicological knowledge into a structured toxicity pathway of EDCs, offering a transformative platform for facilitating enhanced risk assessment and chemical regulation.

Hydrodynamic cavitation-enhanced activation of sodium percarbonate for estrogen removal

The present paper investigated the potential of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) as an effective tool for activating sodium percarbonate (SPC). The method's efficiency was demonstrated by effectively removing estrogens, which are pollutants that have adverse impacts on aquatic ecosystems. The effects of the SPC concentration, temperature of solution, and cavitation time were evaluated. After SPC/HC treatment, the removal of estrogens was monitored by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC -MS/MS). Already after 4 s of treatment and 24 h of reaction time, more than 97% of estrogens (initial concentration of 300 ng/L) were removed. The effect of post-treatment time is not considered in several papers, even though it seems to be crucial and is discussed here. The results were supported by the values of degradation rate constants, which fit the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. We also verified that HC alone was not effective for estrogen removal under the selected conditions. The sustainability of the SPC/HC system was evaluated based on electric energy per order calculation. The combination of SPC and HC is a promising approach for rapidly degrading micropollutants such as estrogenic compounds without the need for additional technological steps, such as pH or temperature adjustment.

Prevalence of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in the urban wastewater treatment systems of Dehradun, India: Daunting presence of Estrone

We quantified the occurrences and seasonal variations of the target endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) at four (two major municipals, and two academic institutions) WWTPs in Dehradun city, Uttarakhand, India. The results showed estrone in higher concentrations at μgL-1 levels in influent among the WWTPs, compared to triclosan (TCS) at ngL-1 levels. An astounding concentration of 123.95 μgL-1 was recorded for the estrone in the influent, which is to date the highest ever recorded, globally. Statistical data treatment was performed to test the distribution of the data (Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests), and the significant difference between the mean of the wastewater sample population (ANOVA: F statistics, p values, Mann-Whitney test, Tukey's and Dunn's post hoc analysis). Statistical data treatment indicated EDCs concentration with a bi-modal distribution. The Shapiro-Wilk, Anderson-Darling, Lilliefors, and Jarque-Bera tests elucidate a non-normal distribution for the EDCs sample data. A statistically significant difference (F = 8.46; p < 0.0001) in the seasonal data for the abundance of the target EDCs at the WWTPs have been observed. Highest and significantly different mean EDCs concentrations were recorded during the monsoon, compared to the spring (p = 0.025) and summer (p = 0.0004) seasons in the influent waters. The mean influent concentrations of TCS and estrone in monsoon were 66.45 ngL-1 and 78.02 μgL-1, respectively. Maximum removals were recorded for TCS, while maximum negative removal of ∼293% was observed for estrone in the WWTPs. Particularly, the high levels of estrone in the wastewater pose a significant threat as estrone presence could be led to feminization, dysregulation of reproduction in organisms, and carcinogenesis processes in the environment. This study critically highlights the limitation of the WWTPs in the treatment, degradation, and assimilation of EDCs leading to their hyperaccumulation at WWTP effluents, thereby posing a substantial threat to nearby aquatic ecosystems, human health, and the ecological balance of the region.

Occurrence and risk evaluation of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in wastewater and surface water of Lahore, Pakistan

The current study highlights the occurrence, spatial distribution, and risk assessment of 16 endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) including their transformation products (TPs) in the wastewater and surface water of Lahore, Pakistan, using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The parent EDCs include bisphenol A (BPA), triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), ethinylestradiol (EE2), 4-n-octylphenol (4n-OP), and 4-n-nonylphenol (4n-NP). The TPs include two TPs each of BPA, TCC, and estrogens along with a TP of TCS. Most EDCs showed 100% detection frequency in the wastewater with highest median concentration of 1310 ng/L for E3. In the surface water, the highest median concentration was, however, observed for BPA (54.6 ng/L). Spatial variations in terms of sum of concentration due to all EDCs and their TPs were observed at different sampling points which suggest contamination due to industrial waste from nearby industrial estate. Risk evaluation in terms of risk quotient (RQ) and estradiol equivalent factor (EEQ) showed that most of EDCs and their TPs could pose high risk and estrogenicity to the surrounding environment. From the results of the current study, it is observed that the environment of Pakistan is deteriorating and is potential risk for endocrine disruption. It is, therefore, recommended to take stringent measures to make it sustainable for current as well as for future generations.

Investigation of the Incidence and Geographic Distribution of Bone and Soft Tissue Sarcomas in Canada: A National Population-Based Study

Sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of mesenchymal malignancies with various genetic and environmental risk factors. This study analyzed the epidemiology of sarcomas to gain insight into the incidence and mortality rates of these cancers in Canada, as well as to elucidate their potential environmental risk factors. Data for this study were obtained from le Registre Québécois du Cancer (LRQC) and from the Canadian Cancer Registry (CCR) for the period from 1992 to 2010. Mortality data were obtained from the Canadian Vital Statistics (CVS) database for the period from 1992 to 2010 using the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology, ICD-O-3, ICD-9, or ICD-10 codes, for all subtypes of sarcomas. We found that the overall sarcoma incidence in Canada decreased during the study period. However, there were select subtypes with increasing incidence. Peripherally located sarcomas were found to have lower mortality rates compared to axially located sarcomas, as expected. Clustering of Kaposi sarcoma cases in self-identified LGBTQ+ communities and in postal codes with a higher proportion of African-Canadian and Hispanic populations was observed. Forward Sortation Area (FSA) postal codes with a lower socioeconomic status also had higher Kaposi sarcoma incidence rates.

Simultaneous trace determination of three natural estrogens and their sulfate and glucuronide conjugates in municipal waste and river water samples with UPLC-MS/MS

Analytical method for three natural estrogens (NEs) and their sulfate and glucuronide conjugates in waste and river waters using solid-phase extraction (SPE) coupled with ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) has been available, but problems including poor recovery exist. In order to solve these, some optimizations have been performed in this work. For sample preparation, both rinse and elution solutions were optimized, in which 6 mL of MeOH/water (1:9, v/v), MeOH/Ace/water (10:2:88, v/v/v), and MeOH/NH₄OH/water (10:2:88, v/v/v) were determined as the rinse solution, while 6 mL of 2.0% NH₄OH/MeOH was determined as the elution solution for conjugated NEs (C-NEs). For mobile phase, addition of NH₄F could obviously enhance the signal response of the nine target compounds, and the optimized addition concentration was 0.5 mmol/L. The developed efficient method was validated and showed excellent linearity for each target compound (R² > 0.998), low limit of quantifications (LOQs, 0.07-1.29 ng/L) in four different water matrices, and excellent recovery efficiencies of 81.0-116.1% in influent, effluent, ultra-pure, and river water samples with low relative standard deviations (RSDs, 0.6-13.6%). The optimized method was successfully applied to influent, effluent, and Pearl River water, among which three NEs were all detected, while five C-NEs were found in the influent, three C-NEs were detected in the effluent, and two C-NEs were found in the Pearl River water, indicating the wide distribution of NEs and C-NEs in different water environments. This work provided a reliable and efficient analytical method for simultaneous trace determination of NEs and C-NEs, which had satisfactory absolute recoveries with low RSDs, low LOQs, and time-saving for both analysis and nitrogen drying.

Trace determination of fifteen free amino acids in drinking source water via solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

Amino acids (AAs) are important nitrogen-containing organics in water, and a large number of reports have proven that they were the precursors of many nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products, some of which have cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity. However, little has been done on their occurrence in drinking source water. Therefore, a trace determination method via solid-phase extraction coupled with ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for 15 free AAs (FAAs) was developed, which was successfully applied for drinking source water samples. For sample preparation, strong cation-exchange stationary solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridge showed better extraction performance to that of reverse phase stationary oasis HLB SPE cartridge. The optimal water pH was determined to be 2.8 before extraction. Strong matrix effects for most FAAs were observed in this work; thus, sample extraction with SPE was recommended to eliminate the matrix effects. The developed method showed excellent linearity (R² > 0.991), low limits of detection (LODs, 0.01-0.27 nmol/L), and good recoveries of 69.8-117.9% in drinking source water with low relative standard deviations (RSDs, 0.3-13.2%). The developed method was finally applied to eight drinking source water samples, and the top five FAAs were found to be serine, glycine, leucine, alanine, and isoleucine.

The photodegradation of 17 alpha-ethinylestradiol in water containing iron and dissolved organic matter

17 alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in natural waters can seriously harm ecosystems and human health. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) and iron minerals are ubiquitous in natural waters, and they can shorten the half-life of EE2 in the natural environment. The interaction between dissolved organics and iron affects pollutants' transformation pathways. The mechanism of EE2's adsorption on hematite, magnetite and pyrite was studied. A photo-Fenton system was constructed in which humic acid (HA) and iron minerals degraded EE2 under simulated natural light conditions. Pyrite showed the best adsorption and degradation in acidic conditions (52%) for 5 h. Hydroxyl radical was found to be the main active substance in the photodegradation. The degradation products of EE2 were identified and possible degradation pathways were inferred. These results can contribute to the understanding of the transformation pathways of persistent organic pollutants in natural waters.

17α-ethynylestradiol and its two main conjugates in seven municipal wastewater treatment plants: Analytical method, their occurrence, removal and risk evaluation

This work shows the existence of both 17-ethinylestradiol-3-sulfate (EE2-3S) and 17-ethinylestradiol-3-glucuronide (EE2-3G) in seven municipal WWTPs with substantial concentrations (n.d-50.10 ng/L). The calculated removal efficiencies of 17-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in the seven municipal WWTPs ranged from 40.8%-100% with an average removal efficiency of 83.3%. However, upon the inclusion of EE2 concentration transformed from EE2-3S and EE2-3G, the corresponding removal efficiencies were increased to 91.4%-100% with an average removal efficiency of 97.3%. This work is the first to clearly illustrate that EE2 conjugates in raw wastewater could greatly underestimate the removal effectiveness of municipal WWTPs on EE2, indicating the importance of the EE2 conjugates in municipal wastewater having been hardly paid with attention. The EE2-derived estrogen equivalence (EEQ) values in the effluents of seven WWTPs ranged from 0 to 0.98 ng E2/L having an average level of 0.45 ng E2/L, which were relatively low. However, upon the inclusion of EE2 transformable from EE2-3S and EE2-3G in effluents, the EE2-derived EEQ values in effluents would be increased to 0.77-4.85 ng E2/L having an average level of 2.71 ng E2/L, which clearly suggested that ignorance of EE2 conjugates in effluent would largely underestimate EE2's environmental risk to receiving water bodies.

Open-air storage with and without composting as post-treatment methods to degrade pharmaceutical residues in anaerobically digested and dewatered sewage sludge

Over a period of 12 months, the fate of three hormones, 12 antibiotics and 30 pharmaceutically active substances (PhACs) was investigated during open-air storage without and with composting of anaerobically digested and dewatered sewage sludge. The effect of oxidation conditions during storage on degradation of hormones and PhACs in the sludge biomass was also examined. Under summer and winter conditions in Uppsala County, Sweden, two field-scale sludge windrows were constructed: open-air storage of sewage sludge windrow without composting (NO-COM)) and open-air storage windrow with composting (COM). NO-COM achieved effective removal of ∑Hormones (85%) and ∑Antibiotics (95%), but lower removal of ∑PhACs (34%), during the study year. The top layers of the sludge pile had significantly lower concentrations of ∑PhACs (3100-5100 ng/g ash) than deeper layers (8000-11,000 ng/g ash). After one year of composting, the degradation in the COM windrow resulted in concentrations of ∑Hormones (<LOD), ∑Antibiotics (<LOD), while the ∑PhCAs was 5% (730 ng/g ash) of initial (13,000 ng/g ash). The half-life of substances during composting in COM was within 7-100 days for all substances except ibuprofen (156 days). The first-order degradation constant (K) was the lowest for ibuprofen (0.0045 day^-1) and the highest for oxazepam (0.0805 day^-1). In conclusion, composting of sludge was effective in degrading the target hormones, antibiotics, and PhACs.

Ecological and human health risks of manure-borne steroid estrogens: A 20-year global synthesis study

Estrone (E1), 17α-estradiol (17α-E2), 17β-estradiol (17β-E2), and estriol (E3) are persistent in livestock manure and present serious pollution concerns because they can trigger endocrine disruption at part-per-trillion levels. This study conducted a global analysis of estrogen occurrence in manure using all literature data over the past 20 years. Besides, predicted environmental concentration (PEC) in soil and water was estimated using fate models, and risk/harm quotient (RQ/HQ) methods were applied to screen risks on children as well as on sensitive aquatic and soil species. The estradiol equivalent values ranged from 6.6 to 4.78 × 10⁴ ng/g and 12.4 to 9.46 × 10⁴ ng/L in the solid and liquid fraction. The estrogenic potency ranking in both fractions were 17β-E2> E1>17α-E2>E3. RQs of measured environmental concentration in the liquid fraction pose medium (E3) to high risk (E1, 17α-E2 & 17β-E2) to fish but are lower than risks posed by xenoestrogens. However, the RQ of PECs on both soil organisms and aquatic species were insignificant (RQ < 0.01), and HQs of contaminated water and soil ingestion were within acceptable limits. Nevertheless, meticulous toxicity studies are still required to confirm (or deny) the findings because endocrine disruption potency from mixtures of these classes of compounds cannot be ignored.

Beta-Cyclodextrin-Decorated Magnetic Activated Carbon as a Sorbent for Extraction and Enrichment of Steroid Hormones (Estrone, β-Estradiol, Hydrocortisone and Progesterone) for Liquid Chromatographic Analysis

A β-cyclodextrin-decorated magnetic activated carbon adsorbent was prepared and characterized using various analytical techniques (X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy–electron diffraction spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)), and the adsorbent was used in the development of a magnetic solid-phase microextraction (MSPE) method for the preconcentration of estrone, β-estradiol, hydrocortisone and progesterone in wastewater and river water samples. This method was optimized using the central composite design in order to determine the experimental parameters affecting the extraction procedure. The quantification of hormones was achieved using high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode array detector (HPLC-DAD). Under optimum conditions, the linearity ranged from 0.04 to 300 µg L⁻¹ with a correlation of determinations of 0.9969–0.9991. The limits of detection and quantification were between 0.01–0.03 and 0.033–0.1 µg L⁻¹, with intraday and interday precisions at 1.1–3.4 and 3.2–4.2. The equilibrium data were best described by the Langmuir isotherm model, and high adsorption capacities (217–294 mg g⁻¹) were obtained. The developed procedure demonstrated high potential as an effective technique for use in wastewater samples without significant interferences, and the adsorbent could be reused up to eight times.

Reproductive and thyroid endocrine axis cross-talk in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) alevins

The goal of this study was to characterize morphological and molecular effects in rainbow trout alevins after waterborne exposures to 17β-estradiol (E2; 0.0008 to 0.5 μg/L), triiodothyronine (T3; 0.52 to 65 μg/L), and various co-treatments for 21 to 23 days. Interestingly, there was no consistent evidence that E2 alone influenced growth, development or deformity rates, however, 65 μg/L T3 alone expedited development, and both 13 μg/L and 65 μg/L alone caused a unique opercular deformity not previously reported. In addition, some potentiation between E2 and T3 at lower concentrations suggests some cross-talk between these two hormonal pathways may also contribute to the development of this opercular deformity. Gene expression changes were observed, including induction of vtg in rainbow trout alevins at 0.02 μg/L concentration of E2, which is the lowest concentration reported to induce vtg in rainbow trout alevins. These data suggest low-level E2 does not negate abnormal growth and development caused by hyperthyroidism, and examining more time points is likely required to demonstrate a stronger response profile for individual hormones and endocrine axes cross-talk.

Secondary treatment phase of tertiary wastewater treatment works significantly reduces estrogenic load

Estrogenic compounds enter waterways via effluents from wastewater treatment works (WWTW), thereby indicating a potential risk to organisms inhabiting adjacent receiving waters. However, little is known about the loads or concentrations of estrogenic compounds that enter Australian WWTWs, the efficiency of removing estrogenic compounds throughout the various stages of tertiary WWTW processes (which are common in Australia), nor the concentrations released into estuarine or marine receiving waters, and the associated risk for aquatic taxa residing in these environments. Therefore, seven estrogenic compounds, comprising the natural estrogens estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3), the synthetic estrogen (EE2), and the industrial chemicals bisphenol A (BPA), 4-t-octyl phenol (4-t-OP) and 4-nonyl phenol (4-NP), in wastewater samples were quantified via liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) after solid-phase extraction at different stages of wastewater treatment and associated receiving waters. The concentrations of the target compounds in wastewater ranged from < LOQ (limit of quantification) to 158 ng/L for Tanilba Bay WWTW and < LOQ to 162 ng/L for Belmont WWTW. Most target compounds significantly declined after the secondary treatment phase. Appreciable removal efficiency throughout the treatment process was observed with removal from 39.21 to 99.98% of influent values at both WWTWs. The reduction of the natural estrogens (E1, E2 and E3) and 4-t-OP were significantly greater than EE2, BPA, and 4-NP in both WWTWs. Risk quotients (RQs) were calculated to assess potential ecological risks from individual estrogenic compounds. In predicted diluted effluents, no targeted compounds showed any ecological risk (RQ ≤1.65 × 10^-2) at both WWTWs. Similarly, all RQs for shore samples at both WWTWs were below 1. Finally, the hazard index (HI), which represents combined estrogenic contaminants' ecological risk, indicated no mentionable risk for predicted diluted effluents (HI = 0.0097 to 0.0218) as well as shoreline samples (HI = 0.393 to 0.522) in the receiving estuarine or marine waters.

Emerging contaminants in the water bodies of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A critical review

Many emerging contaminants (ECs) are not currently removed by conventional water treatment methods and consequently, often reach the aquatic environment. In the absence of proper management strategies, ECs can accumulate in water bodies, which poses potential environmental and health risks. This paper critically reviews, for the first time, the reported occurrence and treatment of ECs in the Middle Eastern and North Africa (MENA) region. The paper also provides recommendations to properly manage EC risks. In the MENA region, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been detected in surface water, seawater, groundwater, and wastewater treatment plants. A focus on surface water in the published literature suggests that studies are skewed towards worldwide trends, whereas studies on ECs in seawater are of great importance in the study region. The types of PPCPs detected in the MENA region vary, but anti-inflammatories and antibiotics dominate. In comparison, microplastics have mainly been studied in surface waters and seawater with much less focus on drinking water. The majority of microplastics in the region are secondary types resulting from the degradation of larger plastic debris; polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) fibers are the most frequently detected polymers, which are indicative of local anthropogenic sources. Research progress on ECs varies between countries, having received more attention in Iran and Tunisia. Most MENA countries have now begun monitoring water bodies for ECs; however, studies are still lacking in some countries including Sudan, Djibouti, Syria, Ethiopia, and Bahrain. Based on this review, critical knowledge gaps and research needs are identified. Countries in the MENA region require further research on a broader range of EC types. Overall, water pollution due to the use and release of ECs can be tackled by improving public awareness, public campaigns, government intervention, and advanced monitoring and treatment methods.

A review of the biotransformations of priority pharmaceuticals in biological wastewater treatment processes

Wastewater effluent discharges have been considered as one of the main sources of synthetic chemicals entering into the aquatic environment. Even though they occur at low concentrations, pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) can have an impact on ecological toxicity that affects aquatic organisms. Moreover, new regulations in development toward preserving water quality reinforces the increasing need to monitor and abate some PhACs in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where they are typically only partially eliminated. Unlike most previous reviews, we have focussed on how the main biological and chemical molecular factors impact the biotransformations of key PhACs in biological WWTP processes. Biotransformations have been found to be an important contributor towards the removal of PhACs from WWTP effluents. This review paper critically assesses these aspects and the recent advances that have been achieved in wastewater treatment processes for biodegradation of 7 PhACs; namely the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac (DCF); the macrolide antibiotics azithromycin (AZM), erythromycin (ERY) and clarithromycin (CLR); the two natural estrogens estrone (E1) and 17β-estradiol (E2), and the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethinylesradiol (EE2). These represent the micropollutants of the EU Watch list in Decision 2015/495/EU that are most relevant to WWTPs due to their frequent detection. The metabolic pathways, transformation products and impact of relevant factors to biological WWTP processes is addressed in this review. The biokinetics of PhAC biodegradation in different engineered bioprocesses is also discussed. Promising technologies and operational strategies that are likely to have a high impact on controlling PhAC releases are highlighted and future research needs are also proposed.

Trace determination of eleven natural estrogens and insights from their occurrence in a municipal wastewater treatment plant and river water

As endocrine disruptors, natural estrogens including estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) in wastewaters of municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) as well as other environmental matrix have been widely studied. However, the far-less studied natural estrogens such as 2-hydroxyestrone (2OHE1), 16α-hydroxyestrone (16α-OHE1), 4-hydroxyestrone (4OHE1), etc., found in human urine have been almost ignored. Therefore, it is important to investigate the occurrence of these far-less studied natural estrogens in municipal WWTP and other environment. In this study, a GC-MS analytical method was firstly established and validated for trace determination of eleven natural estrogens in waste and surface waters, including E1, E2, E3, 2OHE1, 16α-OHE1, 4OHE1, 2-hydroxyestradiol (2OHE2), 4-hydroxyestradiol (4OHE2), 17-epiestriol (17epiE3), 16-epiestriol (16epiE3), and 16keto-estradiol (16ketoE2). All the eleven natural estrogens were detected in the influent of one municipal WWTP, which ranged from 7.9 to 62.9 ng/L. The top five natural estrogens in the influent were E1, E3, 16α-OHE1, 16ketoE2, and 2OHE1 with respective concentrations of 62.9, 62.6, 46.9, 32.7, and 28.8 ng/L. Most of them were detected in both the effluent and river water, in which their detected concentrations were n.d-14.7 and n.d-51.7 ng/L, respectively. This work is the first to indicate that the so far less commonly studied natural estrogens in the environment likely pose adverse health effect on humans and wildlife due to their relative strong estrogenic potencies and high levels in wastewater and river water. More work should be done to understand their removals in municipal WWTPs and their occurrence in surface waters.

Determination of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water and Wastewater Samples by Liquid Chromatography-Negative Ion Electrospray Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

A liquid chromatography-negative ion electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for the simultaneous analysis of bisphenol A, 4-octylphenol, 4-nonylphenol, diethylstilbestrol, 17β-estradiol, estriol, estrone, 17α-ethinylestradiol, prednisone, and prednisolone. This method used solid-phase extraction with an elution solvent of acetonitrile to improve the stability of the analytes. To maintain the stability of analytes analyses were completed within five days. The recoveries ranged from 84 to 112% and the relative standard deviation of analysis of duplicate samples was <10%. The limits of quantitation were 1–10 ng/L. Surface water and wastewater were obtained from five wastewater treatment plants in Saskatchewan. Matrix effects were moderate to severe. Using standard addition calibration, all analytes except diethylstilbestrol and 17α-ethinyl estradiol were detected. There was a low frequency of detection of the target analytes in upstream and downstream water, indicating good removal efficiency during the wastewater treatment process. Bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol were the only analytes detected downstream. Bisphenol A was the most frequently detected in raw wastewater (133 to 403 ng/L). Estriol was detected more often in raw wastewater than estrone or 17β-estradiol. This is the first Canadian study with the detection of prednisone and prednisolone with concentrations at 198–350 ng/L in raw wastewater at 60% of the wastewater treatment plants.

Simultaneous extraction of antibiotic and estrogen from animal blood serum using aqueous two-phase systems as predictor of environmental impact

Efficient analytical methods are required for optimizing dosage of veterinary antibiotics and hormones in order to reduce toxicity and antimicrobial resistance in the environment. Thus, the objective of this work was to develop a rapid and low-cost method for determination of hormone estradiol and antibiotic chlortetracycline in bovine and porcine blood serum by aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) extraction and capillary electrophoresis quantification. ATPS based on ionic liquid cholinium alaninate and citrate salt along with mixtures of protic and aprotic polar solvents were evaluated in terms of recovery of extraction (%R). The liquid-liquid equilibrium, phase diagrams, and tie lines are discussed. Antibiotic migrated to solvent-rich phase (R ≈ 89.0%) to all systems. Estradiol migrates to ionic liquid-rich phase; however, addition of 10% methanol changed partition to solvent-rich phase (R ≈ 89.7%). The method has high recovery and cleanliness, is cost-efficient, scalable, and hence is adequate for screening of antibiotics and hormones tested in animal blood serum for dosage optimization and to predict their environment.

Quantification of selected steroid hormones (17β-Estradiol and 17α-Ethynylestradiol) in wastewater treatment plants in Klang Valley (Malaysia)

Steroid estrogens, such as 17β-estradiol (E₂) and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE₂) are potent and were categorized as "Watch List" in Directive 2013/39/EU because of their potential risks to aquatic environment. Commercialized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits have been used to quantify steroid estrogens in wastewater samples due to their simplicity, rapid, cost-effectiveness, and validated assays. Hence, this study aims to determine the occurrence and removal of steroid hormones in Malaysian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) by ELISA, to identify the association of removal efficiency (E₂ and EE₂) with respect to WWTPs operating conditions, and to assess the potential risks of steroid estrogens to aquatic environment and human. Results showed E₂ concentration ranged from 88.2 ± 7.0 ng/L to 93.9 ± 6.9 ng/L in influent and 35.1 ± 17.3 ng/L to 85.2 ± 7.6 ng/L in effluent, with removal of 6.4%-63.0%. The EE₂ concentration ranged from 0.2 ± 0.2 ng/L to 4.9 ± 6.3 ng/L in influent and 0.02 ± 0.03 ng/L to 1.0 ± 0.8 ng/L in effluent, with removal of 28.3-99.3%. There is a correlation between EE₂ removal with total suspended solid (TSS) and oxidation reduction potential (ORP), and was statistically significant. Despite the calculated estrogenic activity for E₂ and EE₂ was relatively high, dilution effects could lower estrogenic response to aquatic environment. Besides, these six selected WWTPs have cumulative RQ values below the allowable limit, except WWTP 1. Relatively high precipitation (129-218 mm) could further dilute estrogens concentration in the receiving river. These outputs can be used as quantitative information for evaluating the occurrence and removal of steroid estrogens in Malaysian WWTPs.

The Presence of 17 Beta-Estradiol in the Environment: Health Effects and Increasing Environmental Concerns

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) as active biological compounds can pose a threat to the environment through acute and chronic toxicity in organisms, accumulation in the ecosystem, and loss of habitats and biodiversity. They also have a range of possible adverse effects on environmental and ecological health. Estradiol, as one of the natural estrogenic hormones released by the humans and livestock, may exert endocrine-disrupting effects on the nanogram-per-liter range and cause serious problems for the aquatic organisms and animals in many aquatic systems. Various studies have reported the presence of synthetic estrogens such as 17 alpha-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) and natural estrogens including 17 beta-estradiol (E2) in wastewater sludge, surface water, river bed sediment, and also digested and activated sludge. The aim of the present study was to review and evaluate the endocrine disrupting compounds especially 17 beta-estradiol, as a representative of estrogen hormones present in the environment and their disturbing effects on humans and wildlife.

Occurrence, removal and risk assessment of steroid hormones in two wastewater stabilization pond systems in Morogoro, Tanzania

The present study investigated the occurrence and removal of 10 steroid hormones (4 androgens, 3 progestagens and 3 estrogens) in two WSP systems, Mafisa and Mzumbe in Morogoro, Tanzania. All 10 steroid hormones were detected in the influent of both WSP systems in the dry as well as in the rainy season. The concentrations of steroids in influent wastewater ranged from 0.1 ng/L for 17-OH-pregnenolone to 445 ng/L for estrone and from below limit of detection for 17-OH-pregnenolone to 45 ng/L for estrone in effluent. During dry season, the overall mean ± standard deviation removal efficiency for the 10 steroids were 70 ± 21% for Mzumbe WSP and 97 ± 3% for Mafisa WSP. During the rainy season the overall mean removal efficiency for all the steroid hormones were 52 ± 32% for Mzumbe WSP and 94 ± 8% for Mafisa WSP. Risk was characterized by calculating the risk quotients (RQs) for fish and humans. 46% of the total RQs calculated were above one, indicating high risk. Low RQs were estimated for androgens and progestagens but the estrogen concentrations measured in the WSP systems and Morogoro River indicated a high risk for fish. However, estrogens appeared not to pose an appreciable risk to human health from water intake and fish consumption. The results indicated that WSP systems are quite effective in removing steroid hormones from wastewater. Thus, low technology systems such as WSP systems are suitable techniques in low income counties due to relatively low costs of building, operating and maintaining these systems.

Effects of the synthetic estrogen 17-α-ethinylestradiol on Drosophila melanogaster: Dose and gender dependence

17-a-ethinylestradiol (EE2) belongs to the increasing list of Endocrine Disruptors Chemicals (EDCs), able to interfere with the endocrine system in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Regardless of its great dispersion in the environment, to date there is still little knowledge about its action mechanisms and harmful effects in invertebrates. To better evaluate its potential role in invertebrates, we used the model system Drosophila melanogaster, an insect in which the hormonal response has been widely described. The effects of EE2 in D.melanogaster adults have been evaluated by using life traits as well as molecular endpoints. It was found that EE2 significantly decreases survival and fertility in both sexes, with a higher effect in female flies, as well as affects the expression of the Ecdysone Receptor (EcR), Estrogen Related Receptor (ERR), Yolk protein2 (Yp2) and yolkless (yl) genes. In conclusion, our results suggest that EE2 treatment may have potential toxic and endocrine effects on Drosophila melanogaster adults of both sexes. In particular, our data provide an indication that, after EE2 treatment, two of the genes involved in the vitellogenesis process (yl and Yp2) are transcribed in adult males where are mostly silent, and suggest future studies forward their use as potential molecular markers to EDCs exposure in Drosophila male.

Seasonal variations of steroid hormones released by wastewater treatment plants to river water and sediments: Distribution between particulate and dissolved phases

Extensive environmental monitoring was conducted in an urban river impacted by multiple combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) discharge points. Temporal and spatial distributions of dissolved and particulate steroids (progesterone (Prog), testosterone (Testo), medroxyprogesterone (MDRXY-Prog), levonorgestrel (Levo), norethindrone (Nore), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2)) were investigated in sewage, WWTP effluents, receiving river water and sediments, and in drinking water plant (DWP) intakes. Steroids were detected in both dissolved and particulate phases with mean concentrations from 21ngL^-1 to 389ngL^-1 in raw sewage and from 10ngL^-1 to 296ngL^-1 in treated wastewater. The particle-associated steroids represented 0-82% of their total concentration as some steroids like E1 and E3 were detected only in the dissolved phase while MDRXY-Prog (81%), Nore (71%), and EE2 (>75%) were primarily detected in the particulate phase. Particle-associated steroids were detected in spring samples from river water with mean concentrations ranging from 5.4ngL^-1 to 35.7ngL^-1 compare to 3ngL^-1 to 6.8ngL^-1 in summer samples. Levels of particle-associated Testo, Nore, E2 and Levo in DWP intakes (406.2-13,149.1ngg^-1) were similar to those found in raw sewage (336.6-7628.8ngg^-1), indicating their persistence in the suspended phase from discharge points. Total steroids measured in sediments were in the range of 7-1213ngg^-1, 5-25ngg^-1, and 22-226ngg^-1 in autumn, spring, and summer, respectively. Our findings confirm the presence and seasonal variation of a mixture of particle-associated steroids in drinking water sources. The presence of high concentrations of a mixture of particle-associated steroids in DWP intakes highlight the need for highly effective particle-removal processes to eliminate these recalcitrant compounds during drinking water production. Finally, the detected concentrations raise concerns about their potential environmental effects.

Monitoring and mass balance analysis of endocrine disrupting compounds and their transformation products in an anaerobic-anoxic-oxic wastewater treatment system in Xiamen, China

We investigated the occurrence, removal and mass balance of 8 endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), including estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), ethinylestradiol (EE2), triclosan (TCS), triclocarbon (TCC), 4-n-nonyl phenol (NP) and 4-n-octyl phenol (OP), along with 5 of their transformation products (TPs), including 4-hydroxy estrone (4-OH E1), 4-hydroxy estradiol (4-OH E2), methyl triclosan (MeTCS), carbanilide (NCC), dichlorocarbanilide (DCC) in a wastewater treatment plant. Generally, E3 showed the highest concentrations in wastewater with median value of 514 ng/L in influent, while TCS and TCC showed highest level in sludge and suspended solids (SS) with median value of 960 and 724 μg/kg, respectively. Spatial variations were observed along each unit of the wastewater treatment processes for dissolved analytes in wastewater and adsorbed analytes in suspended solids and sludge. Special emphasis was placed to understand the mass load of EDCs and their TPs to the wastewater treatment unit and mass loss during the wastewater treatment processes. Mass loss based on both aqueous and suspended phase concentration revealed that majority of these chemicals were significantly removed during the treatment process except for TCS, TCC, and three of their TPs (MeTCS, NCC, DCC), which were released or generated during the treatment process. Mass load results showed that 42.4 g of these EDCs and their TPs entered this wastewater treatment system daily via influent, whereas 6.15 g and 7.60 g were discharged through effluent and sludge.

Environmental risk assessment of the emerging EDCs contaminants from rural soil and aqueous sources: Analytical and modelling approaches

The emerging endocrine disrupting chemicals posed high risk and much uncertainty to eco-environment and human health. An analytical method, developed for the simultaneous determination of five steroid estrogens in groundwater and soil based upon solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, was applied to investigate the distribution of estrone and 17β-estradiol around Shenyang City with particular focus on penetrating from surface to groundwater in this study. Mean concentrations of the estrone and 17β-estradiol were 55.1 ng L^-1 and 56.1 ng L^-1 in groundwater, 32.5 ng g^-1 and 23.1 ng g^-1 in soil, respectively. The distribution of estrone and 17β-estradiol were similar in groundwater, the concentration in the west of the site center was relatively low, and the surroundings were relatively high. The concentration of estrone was changed less, but 17β-estradiol was significantly increased in silt and silty sand layers in vadose zone profiles. Both estrone and 17β-estradiol concentrations changed abruptly at the interface of layers. Incorporating the temporal and spatial evolution of physical-chemical-biological environmental parameters at the sites, sorption and biodegradation were suggested the controlling roles in the fate and transport of SEs in the soil-groundwater system. The Ecological risk quotients values of both soil and groundwater indicated a very high ecological risk associated with SEs, but the non-carcinogenic harm quotients did not exceed the acceptable level of non-carcinogenic human health risk.

A methodology for estimating concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in wastewater treatment plants and in freshwaters

Despite an increasing number of studies on pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), data on their concentrations in the environment are still scant. This is due to many factors, including great variability in usage and physicochemical properties of these compounds, which contribute to their widespread presence and complex behaviour, particularly in the aquatic environment. The main pathway for their discharge into the waterways is through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which are inefficient in removing many of PPCP compounds. Therefore, aiming to contribute to a better understanding of the role that WWTPs play in the presence of PPCPs in the environment, this paper proposes a new method for estimating the expected concentrations of these compounds in WWTP influents, effluents and sludge, as well as their expected discharge and related concentrations in freshwaters. The proposed method can assist with future eco-toxicological and environmental risk assessments as well as the development of policies and regulation related to PPCP compounds.

Mathematical modeling for estrogenic activity prediction of 17β-estradiol and 17α-ethynylestradiol mixtures in wastewater treatment plants effluent

Steroid estrogens such as 17β-Estradiol (E₂) and 17α-Ethynylestradiol (EE₂) are highly potent estrogens that widely detected in environmental samples. Mathematical modelling such as concentration addition (CA) and estradiol equivalent concentration (EEQ) models are usually associated with measuring techniques to assess risk, predict the mixture response and evaluate the estrogenic activity of mixture. Wastewater has played a crucial role because wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is the major sources of estrogenic activity in aquatic environment. The aims of this is to determine E₂ and EE₂ concentrations in six WWTPs effluent, to predict the estrogenic activity of the WWTPs effluent using CA and EEQ models where lastly the effectiveness of two models is evaluated. Results showed that all the six WWTPs effluent had relative high E₂ concentration (35.1-85.2 ng/L) compared to EE₂ (0.02-1.0 ng/L). The estrogenic activity predicted by CA model was similar among the six WWTPs (105.4 ng/L), due to the similarity of individual dose potency ratio calculated by respective WWTPs. The predicted total EEQ was ranged from 35.1 EEQ-ng/L to 85.3 EEQ-ng/L, explained by high E₂ concentration in WWTPs effluent and E₂ EEF value that standardized to 1.0 μg/L. The CA model is more effective than EEQ model in estrogenic activity prediction because EEQ model used less data and causes disassociation from the predicted behavior. Although both models predicted relative high estrogenic activity in WWTPs effluent, dilution effects in receiving river may lower the estrogenic response to aquatic inhabitants.

Modeling the fate and transport of 17β-estradiol in the South River watershed in Virginia

Hormones excreted by livestock metabolisms often enter surface water through feces and urine and can potentially cause adverse impacts to aquatic biota. This study involved a modeling analysis of 17β-estradiol (E2), a prevalent estrogen, in the South River watershed located in Augusta County, Virginia from 2013 to 2015. Cattle manure, poultry litter, biosolids, septic systems, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were considered as sources of E2 in this study. The EPA's BASINS modeling framework was configured to track the fate and transport of E2. The first-order kinetics and the wash-off model were adopted to characterize the attenuation and the transport of E2. The modeling results indicated that the flow rate was a major input affecting the simulated E2 levels in the water. During storm events, E2 on the land surface was transported into the rivers by the surface runoff and the E2 released into streams was diluted by the high water flow. Variations of the simulated E2 concentrations in the South River depended on the relative magnitudes of the loads from point and nonpoint sources. Modeling results showed that E2 levels in the South River were below the lowest observable effect level (LOEL) for fish. However, the practices of storing manure before land application and fencing off rivers to keep cattle out of the water are encouraged to prevent the potential for high E2 levels in streams receiving feedlot runoff.

How consistent are we? Interlaboratory comparison study in fathead minnows using the model estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol to develop recommendations for environmental transcriptomics

Fundamental questions remain about the application of omics in environmental risk assessments, such as the consistency of data across laboratories. The objective of the present study was to determine the congruence of transcript data across 6 independent laboratories. Male fathead minnows were exposed to a measured concentration of 15.8 ng/L 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) for 96 h. Livers were divided equally and sent to the participating laboratories for transcriptomic analysis using the same fathead minnow microarray. Each laboratory was free to apply bioinformatics pipelines of its choice. There were 12 491 transcripts that were identified by one or more of the laboratories as responsive to EE2. Of these, 587 transcripts (4.7%) were detected by all laboratories. Mean overlap for differentially expressed genes among laboratories was approximately 50%, which improved to approximately 59.0% using a standardized analysis pipeline. The dynamic range of fold change estimates was variable between laboratories, but ranking transcripts by their relative fold difference resulted in a positive relationship for comparisons between any 2 laboratories (mean R²  > 0.9, p < 0.001). Ten estrogen-responsive genes encompassing a fold change range from dramatic (>20-fold; e.g., vitellogenin) to subtle (∼2-fold; i.e., block of proliferation 1) were identified as differentially expressed, suggesting that laboratories can consistently identify transcripts that are known a priori to be perturbed by a chemical stressor. Thus, attention should turn toward identifying core transcriptional networks using focused arrays for specific chemicals. In addition, agreed-on bioinformatics pipelines and the ranking of genes based on fold change (as opposed to p value) should be considered in environmental risk assessment. These recommendations are expected to improve comparisons across laboratories and advance the use of omics in regulations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2593-2601. © 2017 SETAC.

Reproductive effects of oestrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals in Astyanax rivularis inhabiting headwaters of the Velhas River, Brazil

The Velhas River is the most polluted river in the state of Minas Gerais, south-eastern Brazil. Due to its historical and environmental relevance, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of oestrogenic endocrine disruptors on the reproduction of the lambari Astyanax rivularis, a small-sized species found in headwaters of the São Francisco River basin. Quarterly field samplings were carried out during a reproductive cycle in three streams of the upper Velhas River: S1 (reference site) and S2 and S3 (sites contaminated by untreated sewage). The main oestrogenic compounds were evaluated in water using HPLC/MS. Molecular, histological and reproductive biomarkers were assessed in liver and gonad. The results showed higher average concentrations of oestradiol (>200ng/l) in S2 and S3, oestrone (>250ng/l) in S2 as well as oestriol (>200ng/l), bisphenol A (>190ng/l), and nonylphenol (>600ng/l) in S3 compared to S1 (<70ng/l for all compounds). In S2 and S3, there was an increase in the proportion of females, higher ELISA levels of vitellogenin (Vtg) and proteins of the zona radiata (Zrp) in liver males. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) levels were lower in S2 males, which also had a smaller body size, a smaller seminiferous tubule diameter, a higher proportion of spermatogonia, and lower proportion of spermatozoa in relation to S1. Histopathological analyses detected an increase in yolk deficient oocytes and over-ripening in the contaminated sites, and these alterations were associated to a reduction of hepatic Vtg levels and a delay in spawning, respectively. Intersex specimens with perinucleolar follicles in a multifocal distribution in the testis were detected in S2 and S3. These results indicate that chronic exposure to oestrogenic compounds induced endocrine disruption that may affect wild populations of A. rivularis in the Velhas River.

Sources, mechanisms, and fate of steroid estrogens in wastewater treatment plants: a mini review

Steroid estrogens, such as estrone (E₁), 17β-estradiol (E₂), estriol (E₃), and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE₂), are natural and synthetic hormones released into the environment through incomplete sewage discharge. This review focuses on the sources of steroid estrogens in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The mechanisms and fate of steroid estrogens throughout the entire wastewater treatment system are also discussed, and relevant information on regulatory aspects is given. Municipal, pharmaceutical industry, and hospitals are the main sources of steroid estrogens that enter WWTPs. A typical WWTP comprises primary, secondary, and tertiary treatment units. Sorption and biodegradation are the main mechanisms for removal of steroid estrogens from WWTPs. The fate of steroid estrogens in WWTPs depends on the types of wastewater treatment systems. Steroid estrogens in the primary treatment unit are removed by sorption onto primary sludge, followed by sorption onto micro-flocs and biodegradation by microbes in the secondary treatment unit. Tertiary treatment employs nitrification, chlorination, or UV disinfection to improve the quality of the secondary effluent. Activated sludge treatment systems for steroid estrogens exhibit a removal efficiency of up to 100%, which is higher than that of the trickling filter treatment system (up to 75%). Moreover, the removal efficiency of advance treatment systems exceeds 90%. Regulatory aspects related to steroid estrogens are established, especially in the European Union. Japan is the only Asian country that implements a screening program and is actively involved in endocrine disruptor testing and assessment. This review improves our understanding of steroid estrogens in WWTPs, proposes main areas to be improved, and provides current knowledge on steroid estrogens in WWTPs for sustainable development.

Analysis of emerging contaminants in water and solid samples using high resolution mass spectrometry with a Q Exactive orbital ion trap and estrogenic activity with YES-assay

Trace emerging contaminants (ECs) occur in both waste and surface waters that are rich in particulates that have been found to sorb several organic contaminants. An analytical method based on off-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis was developed for the detection and quantification of 31 ECs from surface water, wastewater, suspended particulate matter (SPM) as well as sediments. Lyophilized sediments and air-dried SPM were subjected to ultrasonic extraction. Water samples and extracts were then concentrated and cleaned-up by off-line SPE. Quantification was realized using a Q Exactive mass spectrometer in both full scan (FS) and MS² modes. These two modes were optimized and compared to determine which one was the most suitable for each matrix studied. Yeast estrogen screen assay (YES-assay) adapted from the direct measurement of estrogenic activity without sample extraction was tested on filtered wastewater samples. An endocrine disrupting effect was detected in all effluent samples analyzed with estradiol equivalent concentrations ranging from 4.4 to 720 ng eq E2 L^-1 for the WWTP-1 and 6.5-42 ng eq E2 L^-1 for the WWTP-2. The analytical methods were also applied on six samples of surface water, the corresponding SPM, the sediments and thirty-nine effluent samples from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) sampled over a period of five months (February to June 2014).

Analytical techniques for steroid estrogens in water samples - A review

In recent years, environmental concerns over ultra-trace levels of steroid estrogens concentrations in water samples have increased because of their adverse effects on human and animal life. Special attention to the analytical techniques used to quantify steroid estrogens in water samples is therefore increasingly important. The objective of this review was to present an overview of both instrumental and non-instrumental analytical techniques available for the determination of steroid estrogens in water samples, evidencing their respective potential advantages and limitations using the Need, Approach, Benefit, and Competition (NABC) approach. The analytical techniques highlighted in this review were instrumental and non-instrumental analytical techniques namely gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS), enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA), radio immuno assay (RIA), yeast estrogen screen (YES) assay, and human breast cancer cell line proliferation (E-screen) assay. The complexity of water samples and their low estrogenic concentrations necessitates the use of highly sensitive instrumental analytical techniques (GC-MS and LC-MS) and non-instrumental analytical techniques (ELISA, RIA, YES assay and E-screen assay) to quantify steroid estrogens. Both instrumental and non-instrumental analytical techniques have their own advantages and limitations. However, the non-instrumental ELISA analytical techniques, thanks to its lower detection limit and simplicity, its rapidity and cost-effectiveness, currently appears to be the most reliable for determining steroid estrogens in water samples.

Stress-related phenomena and detoxification mechanisms induced by common pharmaceuticals in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) plants

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have been recently shown to exert phytotoxic effects. The present study explores the uptake, systemic translocation, and abiotic stress responses and detoxification mechanisms induced by the exposure of alfalfa plants grown in sand under greenhouse conditions to four common, individually applied PhACs (10μgL(-1)) (diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, 17a-ethinylestradiol) and their mixture. Stress physiology markers (lipid peroxidation, proline, H2O2 and NO content, antioxidant activity assays) and gene expression levels of key plant detoxification components (including glutathione S-transferases, GST7, GST17; superoxide dismutases, CuZnSOD, FeSOD; proton pump, H(+)-ATP, and cytochrome c oxidase, CytcOx), were evaluated. PhACs were detected in significantly higher concentrations in roots compared with leaves. Stress related effects, manifested via membrane lipid peroxidation and oxidative burst, were local (roots) rather than systemic (leaves), and exacerbated when the tested PhACs were applied in mixture. Systemic accumulation of H2O2 in leaves suggests its involvement in signal transduction and detoxification responses. Increased antioxidant enzymatic activities, as well as upregulated transcript levels of GST7, GST17, H(+)-ATPase and CytcOx, propose their role in the detoxification of the selected PhACs in plants. The current findings provide novel biochemical and molecular evidence highlighting the studied PhACs as an emerging abiotic stress factor, and point the need for further research on wastewater flows under natural agricultural environments.

Occurrence and removal of estrogens, progesterone and testosterone in three constructed wetlands treating municipal sewage in the Czech Republic

Estrogenic hormones, progesterone and testosterone are endocrine-disrupting chemicals and their presence in aquatic environments represents a potentially adverse environmental and public health impact. There is a considerable amount of information about removal of estrogens, progesterone and testosterone in conventional wastewater treatment plants, namely activated sludge systems. However, the information about removal of these compounds in constructed wetlands is very limited. Three constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow in the Czech Republic have been selected to evaluate removal of estrogens (estrone, estriol, 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethinylestradiol), testosterone and progesterone. Monitored constructed wetlands for 100, 150 and 200 PE have been in operation for more than 10 years and all systems exhibit very high treatment efficiency for organics and suspended solids. The results indicate that removal of all estrogens, progesterone and testosterone was high and only estrone was found in the outflow from one constructed wetland in concentrations above the limit of quantification 1 ng l(-1). The limits of quantification for other estrogens, i.e., 10 ng l(-1) for estriol, 1 ng l(-1) for 17β-estradiol and 2 ng l(-1) for 17α-ethinylestradiol were not exceeded in the outflow of all monitored constructed wetlands. Also, for progesterone and testosterone, all outflow concentrations were below the LOQ of 0.5 ng l(-1). The results indicated that constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow are a promising technology for elimination of estrogens, progesterone and testosterone from municipal sewage but more information is needed to confirm this finding.

Estimated human excretion rates of natural estrogens calculated from their concentrations in raw municipal wastewater and its application

Natural estrogens are important endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), which may pose adverse effects on our environment. To avoid time-consuming sample preparation and chemical analysis, estimation of their concentrations in municipal wastewater based on their human urine/feces excretion rates has been generally adopted. However, the data of excretion rates available are very limited and show significant difference among countries. In the context of increasing reporting on the concentrations of natural estrogens in municipal wastewater around the world, this study presented a simple method to estimate their human excretion rates based on the concentrations of natural estrogens in raw sewage. The estimated human excretion rates of natural estrogens among ten countries were obtained, which totally covered over 33 million population. Among these, Brazilians had the largest excretion rates with estrone (E1) and 17β-estradiol (E2) as 236.9 and 60 μg/day/P, respectively, while Iran had the lowest value of 2 μg/day/P for E1 and 0.5 μg/day/P for E2. The average estimated human excretion rates of E1, E2, and estriol (E3) are 17.3, 6.4, and 39.7 μg/day/P, respectively. When the estimated human excretion rates obtained were applied for prediction, the predicted results showed better accuracies than those based on human urinary/feces excretion rates. The method in this study is simple, cost-effective and time-saving, which may be widely applied.

Removal of natural estrogens and their conjugates in municipal wastewater treatment plants: a critical review

This article reviews studies focusing on the removal performance of natural estrogens in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Key factors influencing removal include: sludge retention time (SRT), aeration, temperature, mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), and substrate concentration. Batch studies show that natural estrogens should biodegrade well; however, batch observations do not always agree with observations from full-scale municipal WWTPs. To explain this discrepancy, deconjugation kinetics of estrogen conjugates in lab-scale studies were examined and compared. Most estrogen conjugates with slow deconjugation rates are unlikely to be easily removed; others could be cleaved in WWTP settings. Nevertheless, some estrogens cleaved from their conjugates may be found in treated effluent, because deconjugation requires several hours or longer, and there is insufficient rest time for the biodegradation of the cleaved natural estrogens in the WWTP. Therefore, WWTP removals of natural estrogens are likely to be underestimated when estrogen conjugates are present in raw wastewater. This review suggests that biodeconjugation of estrogen conjugates should be enhanced to more effectively remove natural estrogens in WWTPs.

An ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensor for determination of estradiol using coralloid Cu2S nanostructures as labels

Ultrasensitive electrochemical immunoassay based on coralloid Cu₂S nanostructure for determination of estradiol.

Annual fluctuations of endocrine-disrupting compounds at the lower end of the Lima River, Portugal, and in adjacent coastal waters

The Lima River is a Spanish–Portuguese water body. Notwithstanding the fact that the river incorporates protected natural areas, levels of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) within its waters have never been measured; such EDCs include the following: natural and pharmaceutical oestrogens (17β-estradiol, E1, and 17α-ethynylestradiol), industrial and household pollutants (4-octylphenol, 4-nonylphenol, and their monoethoxylates and diethoxylates, and bisphenol A), phytoestrogens (formononetin, biochanin A, daidzein, genistein), and phytosterols (namely, sitosterol). To obtain an understanding of levels of EDCs, water samples were taken from eight sampling sites along the river every 2 months during a 1-year period (2011). The water samples were preconcentrated (Oasis HLB cartridges), cleaned (silica cartridges), and analysed using gas chromatography. Results showed that levels of oestrogens and industrial and household pollutants were higher in summer than in other seasons. Although oestrogens were more abundant (approximately 40 ng/L) on the southern margin of the river, levels of other pollutants were higher (approximately 124 ng/L) in the north. Phytoestrogens and sitosterol showed clear seasonal fluctuations with higher amounts of formononetin (approximately 389 ng/L), biochanin A (approximately 160 ng/L), and sitosterol (≥5 µg/L) measured in summer. The overall oestrogenic load, expressed in ethynylestradiol equivalents, was 18 ng/L for oestrogens, 0.5 ng/L for industrial and household pollutants, and 13 ng/L for phytoestrogens. Water physicochemical parameters indicate anthropogenic pollution because Σnitrites,nitrates (>1 mg/L) and phosphates (approximately 0.4 mg/L) were high. The study showed that the waters of the Lima River are subject to impacts and that levels of EDCs pose risks to the river’s biota.

Occurrence and removal of estrogens in Brazilian wastewater treatment plants

This paper evaluated the occurrence and removal efficiency of four estrogenic hormones in five biological wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), located in the State of Ceará, Brazil. The five WWTPs comprised: two systems consisted of one facultative pond followed by two maturation ponds, one facultative pond, one activated sludge (AS) system followed by a chlorination step, and one upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor followed by a chlorination step. Estrogen occurrence showed a wide variation among the analyzed influent and effluent samples. Estrone (E1) showed the highest occurrence in the influent (76%), whereas both 17β-estradiol (E2) and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) presented a 52% occurrence, and the compound 17β-estradiol 17-acetate (E2-17A), a 32% one. The occurrence in the effluent samples was 48% for E1, 28% for E2, 12% for E2-17A, and 40% for EE2. The highest concentrations of E1 and EE2 hormones in the influent were 3050 and 3180 ng L(-1), respectively, whereas E2 and E2-17A had maximum concentrations of 776 and 2300 ng L(-1), respectively. The lowest efficiencies for the removal of estrogenic hormones were found in WWTP consisted of waste stabilization ponds, ranging from 54 to 79.9%. The high-rate systems (AS and UASB), which have chlorination as post-treatment, presented removal efficiencies of approximately 95%.