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Levin R, Villanueva CM, Beene D, Cradock AL, Donat-Vargas C, Lewis J, Martinez-Morata I, Minovi D, Nigra AE, Olson ED, Schaider LA, Ward MH, Deziel NC. US drinking water quality: exposure risk profiles for seven legacy and emerging contaminants. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024; 34:3-22. [PMID: 37739995 PMCID: PMC10907308 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-023-00597-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Advances in drinking water infrastructure and treatment throughout the 20th and early 21st century dramatically improved water reliability and quality in the United States (US) and other parts of the world. However, numerous chemical contaminants from a range of anthropogenic and natural sources continue to pose chronic health concerns, even in countries with established drinking water regulations, such as the US. OBJECTIVE/METHODS In this review, we summarize exposure risk profiles and health effects for seven legacy and emerging drinking water contaminants or contaminant groups: arsenic, disinfection by-products, fracking-related substances, lead, nitrate, per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) and uranium. We begin with an overview of US public water systems, and US and global drinking water regulation. We end with a summary of cross-cutting challenges that burden US drinking water systems: aging and deteriorated water infrastructure, vulnerabilities for children in school and childcare facilities, climate change, disparities in access to safe and reliable drinking water, uneven enforcement of drinking water standards, inadequate health assessments, large numbers of chemicals within a class, a preponderance of small water systems, and issues facing US Indigenous communities. RESULTS Research and data on US drinking water contamination show that exposure profiles, health risks, and water quality reliability issues vary widely across populations, geographically and by contaminant. Factors include water source, local and regional features, aging water infrastructure, industrial or commercial activities, and social determinants. Understanding the risk profiles of different drinking water contaminants is necessary for anticipating local and general problems, ascertaining the state of drinking water resources, and developing mitigation strategies. IMPACT STATEMENT Drinking water contamination is widespread, even in the US. Exposure risk profiles vary by contaminant. Understanding the risk profiles of different drinking water contaminants is necessary for anticipating local and general public health problems, ascertaining the state of drinking water resources, and developing mitigation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronnie Levin
- Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER epidemiología y salud pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Beene
- Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
- University of New Mexico Department of Geography & Environmental Studies, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | - Carolina Donat-Vargas
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER epidemiología y salud pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Johnnye Lewis
- Community Environmental Health Program, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Irene Martinez-Morata
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Darya Minovi
- Center for Science and Democracy, Union of Concerned Scientists, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Anne E Nigra
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Erik D Olson
- Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Mary H Ward
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
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2
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Silver M, Phelps W, Masarik K, Burke K, Zhang C, Schwartz A, Wang M, Nitka AL, Schutz J, Trainor T, Washington JW, Rheineck BD. Prevalence and Source Tracing of PFAS in Shallow Groundwater Used for Drinking Water in Wisconsin, USA. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:17415-17426. [PMID: 37916814 PMCID: PMC10653221 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
Samples from 450 homes with shallow private wells throughout the state of Wisconsin (USA) were collected and analyzed for 44 individual per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), general water quality parameters, and indicators of human waste as well as agricultural influence. At least one PFAS was detected in 71% of the study samples, and 22 of the 44 PFAS analytes were detected in one or more samples. Levels of PFOA and/or PFOS exceeded the proposed Maximum Contaminant Levels of 4 ng/L, put forward by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in March 2023, in 17 of the 450 samples, with two additional samples containing PFHxS ≳ 9 ng/L (the EPA-proposed hazard index reference value). Those samples above the referenced PFAS levels tend to be associated with developed land and human waste indicators (artificial sweeteners and pharmaceuticals), which can be released to groundwater via septic systems. For a few samples with levels of PFOA, PFOS, and/or PFHxS > 40 ng/L, application of wastes to agricultural land is a possible source. Overall, the study suggests that human waste sources, septic systems in particular, are important sources of perfluoroalkyl acids, especially ones with ≤8 perfluorinated carbons, in shallow groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Silver
- Bureau
of Drinking Water and Groundwater—Groundwater Section, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - William Phelps
- Bureau
of Drinking Water and Groundwater—Groundwater Section, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Kevin Masarik
- Center
for Watershed Science and Education, College of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point, Stevens Point, Wisconsin 54481, United States
| | - Kyle Burke
- Environmental
Health Division—Organics, Wisconsin
State Laboratory of Hygiene, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Chen Zhang
- Environmental
Health Division—Organics, Wisconsin
State Laboratory of Hygiene, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Alex Schwartz
- Environmental
Health Division—Organics, Wisconsin
State Laboratory of Hygiene, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Miaoyan Wang
- Department
of Statistics, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Amy L. Nitka
- Center
for Watershed Science and Education, College of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point, Stevens Point, Wisconsin 54481, United States
| | - Jordan Schutz
- Bureau
of Drinking Water and Groundwater—Groundwater Section, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
| | - Tom Trainor
- Bureau
of Environmental Analysis and Sustainability − Laboratory Certification, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Green Bay, Wisconsin 54313, United States
| | - John W. Washington
- Center
for
Environmental Measurement and Modeling, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, United States
| | - Bruce D. Rheineck
- Bureau
of Drinking Water and Groundwater—Groundwater Section, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin 53707, United States
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3
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Bonatelli ML, Rohwerder T, Popp D, Liu Y, Akay C, Schultz C, Liao KP, Ding C, Reemtsma T, Adrian L, Kleinsteuber S. Recently evolved combination of unique sulfatase and amidase genes enables bacterial degradation of the wastewater micropollutant acesulfame worldwide. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1223838. [PMID: 37577448 PMCID: PMC10413263 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1223838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Xenobiotics often challenge the principle of microbial infallibility. One example is acesulfame introduced in the 1980s as zero-calorie sweetener, which was recalcitrant in wastewater treatment plants until the early 2010s. Then, efficient removal has been reported with increasing frequency. By studying acesulfame metabolism in alphaproteobacterial degraders of the genera Bosea and Chelatococcus, we experimentally confirmed the previously postulated route of two subsequent hydrolysis steps via acetoacetamide-N-sulfonate (ANSA) to acetoacetate and sulfamate. Genome comparison of wildtype Bosea sp. 100-5 and an acesulfame degradation-defective mutant revealed the involvement of two plasmid-borne gene clusters. The acesulfame-hydrolyzing sulfatase is strictly manganese-dependent and belongs to the metallo beta-lactamase family. In all degraders analyzed, it is encoded on a highly conserved gene cluster embedded in a composite transposon. The ANSA amidase, on the other hand, is an amidase signature domain enzyme encoded in another gene cluster showing variable length among degrading strains. Transposition of the sulfatase gene cluster between chromosome and plasmid explains how the two catabolic gene clusters recently combined for the degradation of acesulfame. Searching available genomes and metagenomes for the two hydrolases and associated genes indicates that the acesulfame plasmid evolved and spread worldwide in short time. While the sulfatase is unprecedented and unique for acesulfame degraders, the amidase occurs in different genetic environments and likely evolved for the degradation of other substrates. Evolution of the acesulfame degradation pathway might have been supported by the presence of structurally related natural and anthropogenic compounds, such as aminoacyl sulfamate ribonucleotide or sulfonamide antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L. Bonatelli
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thore Rohwerder
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Denny Popp
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Caglar Akay
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carolyn Schultz
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kuan-Po Liao
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Chang Ding
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thorsten Reemtsma
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lorenz Adrian
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- Chair for Geobiotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabine Kleinsteuber
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research—UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
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Bradley PM, Kolpin DW, Thompson DA, Romanok KM, Smalling KL, Breitmeyer SE, Cardon MC, Cwiertny DM, Evans N, Field RW, Focazio MJ, Beane Freeman LE, Givens CE, Gray JL, Hager GL, Hladik ML, Hofmann JN, Jones RR, Kanagy LK, Lane RF, McCleskey RB, Medgyesi D, Medlock-Kakaley EK, Meppelink SM, Meyer MT, Stavreva DA, Ward MH. Juxtaposition of intensive agriculture, vulnerable aquifers, and mixed chemical/microbial exposures in private-well tapwater in northeast Iowa. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161672. [PMID: 36657670 PMCID: PMC9976626 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
In the United States and globally, contaminant exposure in unregulated private-well point-of-use tapwater (TW) is a recognized public-health data gap and an obstacle to both risk-management and homeowner decision making. To help address the lack of data on broad contaminant exposures in private-well TW from hydrologically-vulnerable (alluvial, karst) aquifers in agriculturally-intensive landscapes, samples were collected in 2018-2019 from 47 northeast Iowa farms and analyzed for 35 inorganics, 437 unique organics, 5 in vitro bioassays, and 11 microbial assays. Twenty-six inorganics and 51 organics, dominated by pesticides and related transformation products (35 herbicide-, 5 insecticide-, and 2 fungicide-related), were observed in TW. Heterotrophic bacteria detections were near ubiquitous (94 % of the samples), with detection of total coliform bacteria in 28 % of the samples and growth on at least one putative-pathogen selective media across all TW samples. Health-based hazard index screening levels were exceeded frequently in private-well TW and attributed primarily to inorganics (nitrate, uranium). Results support incorporation of residential treatment systems to protect against contaminant exposure and the need for increased monitoring of rural private-well homes. Continued assessment of unmonitored and unregulated private-supply TW is needed to model contaminant exposures and human-health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Mary C Cardon
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Nicola Evans
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rena R Jones
- National Cancer Institute/NIH, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mary H Ward
- National Cancer Institute/NIH, Rockville, MD, USA
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5
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Oleson KLL, Barnes MD, Fung A, Goodell W, Oliver TA, Whittier R, Babcock R. Trade-offs across values in cesspool management highlight challenges to policy making. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 330:116853. [PMID: 36603245 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
On-site Sewage Disposal Systems (OSDS) are globally common, and in Hawai'i they present a risk of contamination to drinking water sources and nearshore waters. State legislation has commanded that all cesspools are to be banned by 2050, thus requiring tens of thousands of systems to be converted in the coming decades. This project followed a participatory structured decision-making (SDM) approach to collaboratively design cost-effective and equitable solutions for thousands of cesspools in the high elevation areas of north Maui, Hawai'i. Participatory workshops with a diverse group of stakeholders set ten objectives and brainstormed 33 alternatives, for which the technical team then modeled groundwater nutrients, costs, and equity. All alternatives posed trade-offs, though composting toilets performed best across most objectives, albeit with high maintenance burden. Discounting innovative toilets, the multi-objective analysis suggests that the state should invest in cluster sewering of high-density communities, followed by incentivizing septic tank solutions in properties with the highest effluent flow first, then expanding across the area. The total project cost (installation and operation/maintenance) would be $183-258 million, depending upon the sewer-septic combination. An efficiency frontier reveals sub-par combinations, including aerobic treatment units and passive absorption systems, which cost much more and deliver lower mass flux reduction than more cost-effective alternatives. This study contributes a novel case of rural sanitation to the literature in which decision support tools are used to facilitate evidence-based, collaborative decision-making for sanitation planning. The state could use a similar participatory SDM process when approaching other communities to discuss their cesspool upgrade strategies. Broadening the use of decision analytic techniques can have wider ecological, economic, and social benefits for the state and contexts beyond Hawai'i, as SDM provides a transparent and rigorous, evidence-based decision-theoretic framework to explore multiple values and strategies to address difficult resource management problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten L L Oleson
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 1910 East West Road, Sherman 101, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA; Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
| | - Megan D Barnes
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 1910 East West Road, Sherman 101, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
| | - Adrienne Fung
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 240, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
| | - Whitney Goodell
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 1910 East West Road, Sherman 101, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Thomas A Oliver
- Department of Oceanography, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), 1000 Pope Road, Marine Sciences Building (MSB) Room 205, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
| | - Robert Whittier
- Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA; Safe Drinking Water Branch, Department of Health, 1250 Punchbowl Street, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.
| | - Roger Babcock
- Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 283, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole Street, Holmes Hall 240, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA.
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6
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Mao R, Lu Y, Zhang M, Wang C, Sun B, Shi Y, Song S, Wang P, Yuan J, Zhao J. Distribution of legacy and novel per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in surface and groundwater affected by irrigation in an arid region. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 858:159693. [PMID: 36302407 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Frequent exchange of surface water and groundwater occurs in arid/semi-arid areas due to high evaporation and intensive irrigation activities, affecting the migration and transformation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and threatening drinking water safety. This study analyzed legacy PFASs and potential precursors in surface water, groundwater, soil, and aquifer solid samples collected from a typical arid area, the Hetao Irrigation District of Northern China, to explore PFASs distribution and transformation between surface and ground. Total PFASs (ΣPFASs) in surface water was 29-232 ng/L, higher than 2-77 ng/L in groundwater. ΣPFASs in soil were 0.29-0.59 ng/g, higher than 0.09-0.27 in the aquifer solids. Regarding horizontal distribution, the concentration of PFASs in groundwater increased in downtowns and the areas recharged with lake water. In terms of vertical distribution, ΣPFASs decreased with the increase of depth, and more PFASs adsorbed on clay particles in the aquifer. The total oxidable precursor analysis showed that 8:2 FT and 4:2 FT were the dominant precursors of PFASs, resulting in an increment of 0.1-4 ng/L PFASs. Hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope compositions suggest similar sources between surface water and groundwater in the study area, while principal component analysis and Bayesian inference also indicate that surface water is an important source of groundwater PFASs. The annual infiltration PFASs to groundwater from Ulansuhai was estimated by the water balance approach to be 9.39 kg. Results highlight the influence of agricultural irrigation activities and lake infiltration on groundwater PFASs in the arid region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoyu Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yonglong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Fujian 361102, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Meng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Cong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Bin Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Sino-Danish College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yajuan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shuai Song
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Pei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Jingjing Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Jixin Zhao
- Bayannur Institute of Environmental Science, Bayannur 015000, China
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7
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Gardiner C, Robuck A, Becanova J, Cantwell M, Kaserzon S, Katz D, Mueller J, Lohmann R. Field Validation of a Novel Passive Sampler for Dissolved PFAS in Surface Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:2375-2385. [PMID: 35833595 PMCID: PMC9558079 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Numerous per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of growing concern worldwide due to their ubiquitous presence, bioaccumulation and adverse effects. Surface waters in the United States have displayed elevated concentrations of PFAS, but so far discrete water sampling has been the commonly applied sampling approach. In the present study we field-tested a novel integrative passive sampler, a microporous polyethylene tube, and derived sampling rates (Rs ) for nine PFAS in surface waters. Three sampling campaigns were conducted, deploying polyethylene tube passive samplers in the effluent of two wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and across Narragansett Bay (Rhode Island, USA) for 1 month each in 2017 and 2018. Passive samplers exhibited linear uptake of PFAS in the WWTP effluents over 16-29 days, with in situ Rs for nine PFAS ranging from 10 ml day-1 (perfluoropentanoic acid) to 29 ml day-1 (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid). Similar sampling rates of 19 ± 4.8 ml day-1 were observed in estuarine field deployments. Applying these Rs values in a different WWTP effluent predicted dissolved PFAS concentrations mostly within 50% of their observations in daily composite water samples, except for perfluorobutanoic acid (where predictions from passive samplers were 3 times greater than measured values), perfluorononanoic acid (1.9 times), perfluorodecanoic acid (1.7 times), and perfluoropentanesulfonic acid (0.1 times). These results highlight the potential use of passive samplers as measurement and assessment tools of PFAS in dynamic aquatic environments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2375-2385. © 2022 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Gardiner
- Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, 215 South Ferry Rd, Narragansett, 02882 RI, USA
| | - Anna Robuck
- Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, 215 South Ferry Rd, Narragansett, 02882 RI, USA
| | - Jitka Becanova
- Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, 215 South Ferry Rd, Narragansett, 02882 RI, USA
| | - Mark Cantwell
- Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Sarit Kaserzon
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - David Katz
- Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Jochen Mueller
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Rainer Lohmann
- Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, 215 South Ferry Rd, Narragansett, 02882 RI, USA
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8
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Gerrity D, Papp K, Dickenson E, Ejjada M, Marti E, Quinones O, Sarria M, Thompson K, Trenholm RA. Characterizing the chemical and microbial fingerprint of unsheltered homelessness in an urban watershed. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 840:156714. [PMID: 35709998 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Unsheltered homelessness is rapidly becoming a critical issue in many cities worldwide. The worsening situation not only highlights the socioeconomic plight, but it also raises awareness of ancillary issues such as the potential implications for urban water quality. The objective of this study was to simultaneously leverage diverse source tracking tools to develop a chemical and microbial fingerprint describing the relative contribution of direct human inputs into Las Vegas' tributary washes. By evaluating a wide range of urban water matrices using general water quality parameters, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), human-associated microbial markers [e.g., HF183, crAssphage, and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV)], 16S rRNA gene sequencing data, and concentrations of 52 anthropogenic trace organic compounds (TOrCs), this study was able to differentiate principal sources of these constituents, including contributions from unsheltered homelessness. For example, HF183 (31% vs. 0%), crAssphage (61% vs. 5%), and PMMoV (72% vs. 55%) were more frequently detected in tributary washes with higher homeless census counts vs. 'control' tributary washes. Illicit drugs or their metabolites (e.g., heroin, acetylmorphine, amphetamine, and cocaine) and select TOrCs (e.g., acetaminophen, caffeine, ibuprofen, and naproxen) were also detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in the more anthropogenically-impacted washes. These data can be used to raise awareness of the shared interests between the broader community and those who are experiencing homelessness, notably the importance of protecting environmental health and water quality. Ultimately, this may lead to more rapid adoption of proven strategies for achieving functional zero homelessness, or at least additional resources for unsheltered individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gerrity
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, P.O. Box 454015, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, United States.
| | - Katerina Papp
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States
| | - Eric Dickenson
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States
| | - Meena Ejjada
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, P.O. Box 454015, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, United States
| | - Erica Marti
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, P.O. Box 454015, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, United States
| | - Oscar Quinones
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States
| | - Mayra Sarria
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Construction, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, P.O. Box 454015, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4015, United States
| | - Kyle Thompson
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States; Carollo Engineers, 8911 N. Capital of Texas Hwy, Austin, TX 78759, United States
| | - Rebecca A Trenholm
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, P.O. Box 99954, Las Vegas, NV 89193, United States
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Wells EC, Vidmar AM, Webb WA, Ferguson AC, Verbyla ME, de Los Reyes FL, Zhang Q, Mihelcic JR. Meeting the Water and Sanitation Challenges of Underbounded Communities in the U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:11180-11188. [PMID: 35930490 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c03076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Water and sanitation (wastewater) infrastructure in the United States is aging and deteriorating, with massive underinvestment over the past several decades. For many years, lack of attention to water and sanitation infrastructure has combined with racial segregation and discrimination to produce uneven access to water and wastewater services resulting in growing threats to human and environmental health. In many metropolitan areas in the U.S., those that often suffer disproportionately are residents of low-income, minority communities located in urban disadvantaged unincorporated areas on the margins of major cities. Through the process of underbounding (the selective expansion of city boundaries to exclude certain neighborhoods often based on racial demographics or economics), residents of these communities are disallowed municipal citizenship and live without piped water, sewage lines, and adequate drainage or flood control. This Perspective identifies the range of water and sanitation challenges faced by residents in these communities. We argue that future investment in water and sanitation should prioritize these communities and that interventions need to be culturally context sensitive. As such, approaches to address these problems must not only be technical but also social and give attention to the unique geographic and political setting of local infrastructures.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Christian Wells
- Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Abby M Vidmar
- Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - W Alex Webb
- Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Alesia C Ferguson
- Department of Built Environment, North Carolina Agriculture and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Matthew E Verbyla
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182, United States
| | - Francis L de Los Reyes
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Qiong Zhang
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - James R Mihelcic
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
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Zhao Z, Li J, Zhang X, Wang L, Wang J, Lin T. Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in groundwater: current understandings and challenges to overcome. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:49513-49533. [PMID: 35593984 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-20755-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been frequently detected in groundwater globally. With the phase-out of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanate (PFOA) due to their risk to the ecosystem and human population, various novel PFASs have been used as replacements and detected in groundwater. In order to summarize the current understanding and knowledge gaps on PFASs in groundwater, we reviewed the studies about environmental occurrence, transport, and risk of legacy and novel PFASs in groundwater published from 1999 to 2021. Our review suggests that PFOS and PFOA could still be detected in groundwater due to the long residence time and the retention in the soil-groundwater system. Firefighting training sites, industrial parks, and landfills were commonly hotspots of PFASs in groundwater. More novel PFASs have been detected via nontarget analysis using high-resolution mass spectrometry. Some novel PFASs had concentrations comparable to that of PFOS and PFOA. Both legacy and novel PFASs can pose a risk to human population who rely on contaminated groundwater as drinking water. Transport of PFASs to groundwater is influenced by various factors, i.e., the compound structure, the hydrochemical condition, and terrain. The exchange of PFASs between groundwater and surface water needs to be better characterized. Field monitoring, isotope tracing, nontarget screening, and modeling are useful approaches and should be integrated to get a comprehensive understanding of PFASs sources and behaviors in groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Zhao
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China.
| | - Jie Li
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Xianming Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Leien Wang
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Jamin Wang
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
| | - Tian Lin
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China
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McMahon PB, Tokranov AK, Bexfield LM, Lindsey BD, Johnson TD, Lombard MA, Watson E. Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:2279-2288. [PMID: 35113548 PMCID: PMC8970425 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In 2019, 254 samples were collected from five aquifer systems to evaluate perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) occurrence in groundwater used as a source of drinking water in the eastern United States. The samples were analyzed for 24 PFAS, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pharmaceuticals, and tritium. Fourteen of the 24 PFAS were detected in groundwater, with 60 and 20% of public-supply and domestic wells, respectively, containing at least one PFAS detection. Concentrations of tritium, chloride, sulfate, DOC, and manganese + iron; percent urban land use within 500 m of the wells; and VOC and pharmaceutical detection frequencies were significantly higher in samples containing PFAS detections than in samples with no detections. Boosted regression tree models that consider 57 chemical and land-use variables show that tritium concentration, distance to the nearest fire-training area, percentage of urban land use, and DOC and VOC concentrations are the top five predictors of PFAS detections, consistent with the hydrologic position, geochemistry, and land use being important controls on PFAS occurrence in groundwater. Model results indicate that it may be possible to predict PFAS detections in groundwater using existing data sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B. McMahon
- U.S.
Geological Survey, Bldg. 53, MS 415, Lakewood, Colorado, 80225, United States
- .
Tel.: 303-236-6899
| | - Andrea K. Tokranov
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 10 Bearfoot Rd., Northborough, Massachusetts 01532, United States
| | - Laura M. Bexfield
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 6700 Edith Blvd NE, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87113, United States
| | - Bruce D. Lindsey
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 215 Limekiln Road, New Cumberland, Pennsylvania 17070, United States
| | - Tyler D. Johnson
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 4165 Spruance Road, San Diego, California 92101, United States
| | - Melissa A. Lombard
- U.S. Geological
Survey, 331 Commerce Way, Pembroke, New Hampshire 03275, United States
| | - Elise Watson
- U.S.
Geological Survey, 4165 Spruance Road, San Diego, California 92101, United States
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12
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Odetoyin B, Ogundipe O, Onanuga A. Prevalence, diversity of diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli and associated risk factors in well water in Ile-Ife, Southwestern Nigeria. ONE HEALTH OUTLOOK 2022; 4:3. [PMID: 35130987 PMCID: PMC8822758 DOI: 10.1186/s42522-021-00057-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) strains are common causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Waterborne DEC could pose a health risk to humans through domestic use of contaminated water. However, epidemiological studies on DEC in well water are scarce in Nigeria. This study determined the prevalence, diversity and factors associated with the presence of DEC in well water in Ile-Ife, southwestern Nigeria. METHODS We assessed 143 wells for safety and a questionnaire was administered. Contaminating isolates were identified as E. coli by amplifying their 16S rRNA gene. Five diarrhoeagenic E. coli pathotypes were sought using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). (GTG)5 repetitive PCR and Shannon diversity index were used to determine isolates diversity. Multivariate analysis was used to reveal the factors associated with the presence of DEC in well water. RESULTS Fifty-six (39.2%) wells were contaminated by diarrhoeagenic E. coli. Wells with dirty platforms, undercut by erosion and sited near septic tanks significantly harboured DEC (p < 0.05). There was a preponderance of Shiga-toxin producing E. coli among the isolates with 10 (17.9%) wells contaminated by multiple DEC. The DEC isolates showed 45 unique fingerprints and were divided into six clades, with an overall diversity index of 18.87. DISCUSSION The presence of DEC in well water highlights the risk to human health associated with the use of untreated water. There was a high degree of genetic diversity among the isolates implying multiple sources of contamination. There is a need for periodic sanitation and inspection of wells for cracks to prevent seepages and possible outbreaks of waterborne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babatunde Odetoyin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Health Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | - Olawumi Ogundipe
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Health Sciences, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | - Adebola Onanuga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Borno State Nigeria
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Do QTT, Otaki M, Otaki Y, Tushara C, Sanjeewa IW. Pharmaceutical Contaminants in Shallow Groundwater and Their Implication for Poor Sanitation Facilities in Low-Income Countries. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:266-274. [PMID: 33978268 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Rudimentary on-site sanitation systems (OSSs) are extensively used in low-income countries despite the risk of groundwater contamination. The present study investigated the potential impact of community soak pits on sandy shallow aquifers in a rural area in Sri Lanka. Thirty-two groundwater samples were collected and measured for the traditional indicators fecal bacteria Escherichia coli, total coliforms, nitrate, and chloride; 7 pharmaceuticals were added as wastewater indicators. Analysis showed that the local groundwater is infected by fecal bacteria, but it was unable to determine whether the source of fecal bacteria is the OSSs. Similarly, nitrate and chloride provided unclear evidence. Conversely, detection of 3 pharmaceuticals at trace levels in groundwater evidenced wastewater impact from OSSs. Caffeine was detected in 89% of the sample at a maximum concentration 7.9 ng/L, indicating fecal pollution. Carbamazepine was detected in 42% of the samples with a concentration of up to 6.9 ng/L, whereas sulfamethoxazole was detected in only 2 samples. The presence of carbamazepine and sulfamethoxazole was also consistent with recorded drug use of the residents. Escherichia coli showed a moderate positive correlation with caffeine concentration (Kendall's τ = 0.38, p = 0.017), indicating concurring short-lifetime fecal bacteria and labile wastewater organic compounds. Nitrate showed a significant correlation with carbamazepine concentration (τ = 0.39, p = 0.016). Fecal bacteria and nitrate can be used in screening for micropollutants in domestic wells impacted by OSSs. The present case study emphasizes the potential impact of poor sanitation on groundwater resources and the necessity of sanitation improvement in achieving Sustainable Development Goals in developing countries. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:266-274. © 2021 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quyen Thi Thuy Do
- Department of Human Centered Engineering, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Otaki
- Faculty of Core Research, Natural Science Division, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yurina Otaki
- Graduate School of Social Sciences, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chaminda Tushara
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Hapugala, Galle, Sri Lanka
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14
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Glover CM, Liu Y, Liu J. Assessing the risk from trace organic contaminants released via greywater irrigation to the aquatic environment. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 205:117664. [PMID: 34583205 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Onsite non-potable reuse of greywater reduces the energy costs associated with the transport of wastewater and the stress on traditional source waters. However, greywater contains trace organic contaminants (TOrCs) that can be harmful to the aquatic environment when released via irrigation. In this work, the risk associated with TOrCs was evaluated for two potential irrigation scenarios, the use of untreated greywater and the use of greywater treated via conventional activated sludge. Risk quotient (RQ) ratios were calculated using the maximum concentration of each compound in the untreated or treated greywater divided by the relevant aquatic predicted no effect concentration. The TOrCs with RQs > 0.1 or 1 were classified as moderate and high priority, respectively. A review of greywater literature showed that a total of 350 compounds have been detected, with 132 classified as moderate or high priority in untreated greywater. Post-treatment 44 TOrCs remained as high priority due to high concentrations in greywater and/or poor removal during treatment, but only 14 of them were detected in multiple geographic locations. The final list of 14 TOrCs includes plasticizers/flame retardants (di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, bisphenol A, and triphenyl phosphate), surfactants/preservatives/fragrances (4-nonylphenol, benzyldimethyl dodecylammonium chloride, tonalide, methylparaben, and 2-6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), UV-filters (benzophenone-3 and octocrylene), and pharmaceuticals/antibiotics (acetaminophen, trimethoprim, caffeine, and triclosan). This subset of TOrCs would be useful surrogates to monitor during greywater treatment for irrigation as potential hazards for nearby aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin M Glover
- Department of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0C3, Canada.
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Jinxia Liu
- Department of Civil Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 0C3, Canada.
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15
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Hunter B, Walker I, Lassiter R, Lassiter V, Gibson JM, Ferguson PL, Deshusses MA. Evaluation of private well contaminants in an underserved North Carolina community. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 789:147823. [PMID: 34082211 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
On-site sewage treatment systems can be an important source of antibiotic resistant bacteria and organic micropollutants into adjacent groundwater. Due to the frequent proximity of private wells to septic systems, this contamination is a concern to communities that do not have access to public municipal services. In both rural and urban environments, low-income communities, indigenous communities and those of color are disproportionately affected by well contamination. The objective of this study was to assess well water quality in an underserved North Carolina community by performing a comprehensive evaluation of microbial and organic micropollutant occurrence and determining possible sources of contamination. Well water, septic tanks, and adjacent municipal water were sampled. Culture- and molecular biology-based microbial analysis and non-targeted, high resolution mass spectrometry chemical analysis were conducted to assess water quality in comparison to nearby municipal water. Three of thirteen homes had between 1 and 6.3 CFUs/100 mL of E. coli and two homes had fecal bacteria resistant to antibiotics in their well water. The water of four homes showed concentrations of the artificial sweetener sucralose, a wastewater tracer, higher than the municipal water (range ~ 60-1500 ng L-1). The human-specific HF183 fecal marker was detected in 79% of the wells tested. The presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in four home wells, along with the presence of pesticides and insecticides in two homes, suggest possible contamination from septic tanks and lawn care runoff. The implications of this work highlight the necessity of wider scale contaminant evaluation of well water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Hunter
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Imari Walker
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | - P Lee Ferguson
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Marc A Deshusses
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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16
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Bradley PM, LeBlanc DR, Romanok KM, Smalling KL, Focazio MJ, Cardon MC, Clark JM, Conley JM, Evans N, Givens CE, Gray JL, Earl Gray L, Hartig PC, Higgins CP, Hladik ML, Iwanowicz LR, Loftin KA, Blaine McCleskey R, McDonough CA, Medlock-Kakaley EK, Weis CP, Wilson VS. Public and private tapwater: Comparative analysis of contaminant exposure and potential risk, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2021; 152:106487. [PMID: 33752165 PMCID: PMC8268049 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Humans are primary drivers of environmental contamination worldwide, including in drinking-water resources. In the United States (US), federal and state agencies regulate and monitor public-supply drinking water while private-supply monitoring is rare; the current lack of directly comparable information on contaminant-mixture exposures and risks between private- and public-supplies undermines tapwater (TW) consumer decision-making. METHODS We compared private- and public-supply residential point-of-use TW at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, where both supplies share the same groundwater source. TW from 10 private- and 10 public-supply homes was analyzed for 487 organic, 38 inorganic, 8 microbial indicators, and 3 in vitro bioactivities. Concentrations were compared to existing protective health-based benchmarks, and aggregated Hazard Indices (HI) of regulated and unregulated TW contaminants were calculated along with ratios of in vitro exposure-activity cutoffs. RESULTS Seventy organic and 28 inorganic constituents were detected in TW. Median detections were comparable, but median cumulative concentrations were substantially higher in public supply due to 6 chlorine-disinfected samples characterized by disinfection byproducts and corresponding lower heterotrophic plate counts. Public-supply applicable maximum contaminant (nitrate) and treatment action (lead and copper) levels were exceeded in private-supply TW samples only. Exceedances of health-based HI screening levels of concern were common to both TW supplies. DISCUSSION These Cape Cod results indicate comparable cumulative human-health concerns from contaminant exposures in private- and public-supply TW in a shared source-water setting. Importantly, although this study's analytical coverage exceeds that currently feasible for water purveyors or homeowners, it nevertheless is a substantial underestimation of the full breadth of contaminant mixtures documented in the environment and potentially present in drinking water. CONCLUSION Regardless of the supply, increased public engagement in source-water protection and drinking-water treatment, including consumer point-of-use treatment, is warranted to reduce risks associated with long-term TW contaminant exposures, especially in vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Mary C Cardon
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | - Nicola Evans
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | - L Earl Gray
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Christopher P Weis
- U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Analysis of Estrogenic Activity in Maryland Coastal Bays Using the MCF-7 Cell Proliferation Assay. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126254. [PMID: 34207818 PMCID: PMC8296043 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) with estrogenic or estrogenic-like activity have been increasingly detected in aquatic environments and have been an issue of global concern due to their potential negative effects on wildlife and human health. This study used the MCF-7 cell proliferation assay (E-Screen) to assess the estrogenic activity profiles in Maryland Coastal Bays (MCBs), a eutrophic system of estuaries impacted by human activities. Estrogenic activity was observed in all study sites tested. Water samples from MCBs increased MCF-7 cell proliferation above the negative control from 2.1-fold at site 8, located in Sinepuxent Bay close to the Ocean City Inlet, to 6.3-fold at site 6, located in Newport Bay. The proliferative effects of the sediment samples over the negative control ranged from 1.9-fold at the Assateague Island National Seashore site to 7.7-fold at the Public Landing site. Moreover, elevated cell proliferation (p < 0.05) was observed when cells were co-exposed with 17ß-Estradiol (E2), while reduction in cell proliferation was observed when cells were co-exposed with the antagonist ICI 182, 780 suggesting that cell proliferative effects were primarily mediated by the estrogen receptor (ER). These results suggest the occurrence of some estrogenic or hormonal-like compounds in the MCBs and are consistent with our previous findings based on vitellogenin analyses.
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Participatory Mapping as a Didactic and Auxiliary Tool for Learning Community Integration, Technology Transference, and Natural Resource Management. ISPRS INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEO-INFORMATION 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/ijgi10040206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Participatory mapping is a tool for community work linked to natural resource management. It is an auxiliary for diagnosis and data acquisition from communities and their natural resources. In Baja California, there are several indigenous communities, some close to urban areas but still unknown to most people in cities as well as visitors. These communities are fighting to restore and maintain their language, tradition, territory, biological, and cultural diversity. This work was carried out by linking members of the indigenous community of San Jose de la Zorra with bachelor’s and graduate degree students, to obtain information on the biological, cultural, and economic activities of the community through participatory mapping. The learning experience was significant for all participants; although it was not the intention in this study, students had the unique opportunity to exchange information and learn culture and biodiversity from indigenous people. The indigenous community was involved in field data acquisition and the use of some information and communication technology resources developed for this approach, and used it for natural resource management and decision making. The main results of this experience were wide format printed maps that were placed on several sites inside and outside the community, digital mapping that gave information about natural, cultural, and economic resources of the community for local and foreign visitors, and technology transference to solve problems identified by the community.
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19
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Ruyle BJ, Pickard HM, LeBlanc DR, Tokranov AK, Thackray CP, Hu XC, Vecitis CD, Sunderland EM. Isolating the AFFF Signature in Coastal Watersheds Using Oxidizable PFAS Precursors and Unexplained Organofluorine. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:3686-3695. [PMID: 33667081 PMCID: PMC11082878 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Water supplies for millions of U.S. individuals exceed maximum contaminant levels for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Contemporary and legacy use of aqueous film forming foams (AFFF) is a major contamination source. However, diverse PFAS sources are present within watersheds, making it difficult to isolate their predominant origins. Here we examine PFAS source signatures among six adjacent coastal watersheds on Cape Cod, MA, U.S.A. using multivariate clustering techniques. A distinct signature of AFFF contamination enriched in precursors with six perfluorinated carbons (C6) was identified in watersheds with an AFFF source, while others were enriched in C4 precursors. Principal component analysis of PFAS composition in impacted watersheds showed a decline in precursor composition relative to AFFF stocks and a corresponding increase in terminal perfluoroalkyl sulfonates with < C6 but not those with ≥ C6. Prior work shows that in AFFF stocks, all extractable organofluorine (EOF) can be explained by targeted PFAS and precursors inferred using Bayesian inference on the total oxidizable precursor assay. Using the same techniques for the first time in impacted watersheds, we find that only 24%-63% of the EOF can be explained by targeted PFAS and oxidizable precursors. Our work thus indicates the presence of large non-AFFF organofluorine sources in these coastal watersheds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridger J. Ruyle
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
| | - Heidi M. Pickard
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
| | - Denis R. LeBlanc
- New England Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Northborough, MA 01532
| | - Andrea K. Tokranov
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
- New England Water Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Northborough, MA 01532
| | - Colin P. Thackray
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
| | - Xindi C. Hu
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston MA USA 02115
- Mathematica, Inc., Oakland CA USA 94612
| | - Chad D. Vecitis
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
| | - Elsie M. Sunderland
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge MA USA 02138
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston MA USA 02115
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20
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González Peña OI, López Zavala MÁ, Cabral Ruelas H. Pharmaceuticals Market, Consumption Trends and Disease Incidence Are Not Driving the Pharmaceutical Research on Water and Wastewater. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:2532. [PMID: 33806343 PMCID: PMC7967517 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals enhance our quality of life; consequently, their consumption is growing as a result of the need to treat ageing-related and chronic diseases and changes in the clinical practice. The market revenues also show an historic growth worldwide motivated by the increase on the drug demand. However, this positivism on the market is fogged because the discharge of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites into the environment, including water, also increases due to their inappropriate management, treatment and disposal; now, worldwide, this fact is recognized as an environmental concern and human health risk. Intriguingly, researchers have studied the most effective methods for pharmaceutical removal in wastewater; however, the types of pharmaceuticals investigated in most of these studies do not reflect the most produced and consumed pharmaceuticals on the market. Hence, an attempt was done to analyze the pharmaceutical market, drugs consumption trends and the pharmaceutical research interests worldwide. Notwithstanding, the intensive research work done in different pharmaceutical research fronts such as disposal and fate, environmental impacts and concerns, human health risks, removal, degradation and development of treatment technologies, found that such research is not totally aligned with the market trends and consumption patterns. There are other drivers and interests that promote the pharmaceutical research. Thus, this review is an important contribution to those that are interested not only on the pharmaceutical market and drugs consumption, but also on the links, the drivers and interests that motivate and determine the research work on certain groups of pharmaceuticals on water and wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Israel González Peña
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada Sur No. 2501, Col. Tecnológico, Monterrey 64849, Mexico;
| | - Miguel Ángel López Zavala
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada Sur No. 2501, Col. Tecnológico, Monterrey 64849, Mexico;
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Owusu C, Silverman GS, Vinson DS, Paul R, Baker KM, Delmelle EM. Predicting coliform presence in private wells as a function of well characteristics, parcel size and leachfield soil rating. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 758:143701. [PMID: 33277013 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Public water systems must be tested frequently for coliform bacteria to determine whether other pathogens may be present, yet no testing or disinfection is required for private wells. In this paper, we identify whether well age, type of well, well depth, parcel size, and soil ratings for a leachfield can predict the probability of detecting coliform bacteria in private wells using a multivariate logistic regression model. Samples from 1163 wells were analyzed for the presence of coliform bacteria between October 2017 and October 2019 across Gaston County, North Carolina, USA. The maximum well age was 30 years, and bored wells (median age = 24 years) were older than drilled wells (median age = 19 years). Bored wells were shallower (mean depth = 18 m) compared to drilled wells (mean depth = 79 m). We found coliform bacteria in 329 samples, including 290 of 1091 drilled wells and 39 of 72 bored wells. The model results showed bored wells were 4.76 times more likely to contain bacteria compared to drilled wells. We found that the likelihood of coliform bacteria significantly increased with well age, suggesting that those constructed before well standards were enforced in 1989 may be at a higher risk. We found no significant association between poorly rated soils for a leachfield, well depth, parcel size and the likelihood of having coliform in wells. These findings can be leveraged to determine areas of concern to encourage well users to take action to reduce their risk of drinking possible pathogens in well water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Owusu
- Department of Geography and Earth Sciences and Center for Applied Geographic Information Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28233, USA.
| | - Gary S Silverman
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28233, USA.
| | - David S Vinson
- Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28233, USA.
| | - Rajib Paul
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28233, USA.
| | - Kathleen M Baker
- Department of Geography, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA.
| | - Eric M Delmelle
- Department of Geography and Earth Sciences and Center for Applied Geographic Information Science, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28233, USA.
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Zhou J, Li S, Liang X, Feng X, Wang T, Li Z, Zhu L. First report on the sources, vertical distribution and human health risks of legacy and novel per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in groundwater from the Loess Plateau, China. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 404:124134. [PMID: 33022527 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, legacy and novel per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were measured in groundwater samples collected from the Loess Plateau of China to understand their occurrence, sources and health risks. The total concentration of PFASs ranged from 2.78 to 115 ng/L, with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as the dominant compound. Many emerging PFASs, including 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonates (FTS), 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonic acid (Cl-PFESAs), ammonium 4,8-dioxa-3H-perfluorononanoate (ADONA), and hexafluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) homologues were frequently detected in 96.7-100% of the samples. Multiple source apportionment analyses indicated that the PFASs in the groundwater mainly originated from industrial activities, but in rural areas, agricultural activities also contributed. The total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay indicated that there were substantial unknown precursors of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in the groundwater samples. The total concentration of PFASs decreased with the well depth, while the PFAA-precursors displayed contrasting vertical profile trends, which might be due to the suppressed microbial transformation in the groundwater. The potential human health risk caused by PFAS exposure via drinking groundwater in the Loess Plateau was low, except for one site that was close to the industry bases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhou
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China
| | - Shujian Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China
| | - Xiaoxue Liang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China
| | - Xuemin Feng
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China
| | - Tiecheng Wang
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China; Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and the Agri-environment in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, No.3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China
| | - Zhi Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China; Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and the Agri-environment in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, No.3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China.
| | - Lingyan Zhu
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi Province 712100, PR China; Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and the Agri-environment in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, No.3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China; Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, PR China.
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Close ME, Humphries B, Northcott G. Outcomes of the first combined national survey of pesticides and emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) in groundwater in New Zealand 2018. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142005. [PMID: 33254893 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The first national survey of Emerging Organic Contaminants (EOCs) involved sampling 121 wells located throughout New Zealand and analysis for a suite of 29 EOCs. This survey was carried out in conjunction with the 2018 national survey of pesticides in groundwater, a survey that is conducted on a four-yearly basis which included the analysis of glyphosate for first time. A total of 227 EOCs were detected in the 85 wells (70%). There were 29 different EOCs in the analytical suite and 25 different EOCs were detected in at least one well. The highest concentration measured was 655 ng/L for sucralose, an artificial sweetener. These results indicate that EOCs, sourced from either animal or human effluents/activities, are making their way into shallow groundwater systems and can be detected at low concentrations. A total of 135 wells were analysed for glyphosate, glufosinate and their principal metabolites. There was only one detection of glyphosate at a concentration of 2.1 μg/L. This well showed evidence of poor wellhead protection and the contamination likely came from containers that were stored near the well. A total of 279 wells were sampled and analysed for pesticides and 68 wells (24.4%) contained detectable residues of pesticides, with 28 of these wells having two or more pesticides detected. The maximum number of pesticides detected in one well was six. None of the sampled wells exceeded the Maximum Acceptable Value (MAV) for drinking water in New Zealand and the concentrations of most of the detected pesticides were equivalent to less than 0.5% of the MAV. Comparisons with earlier National Surveys of pesticides in groundwater in New Zealand indicate the frequencies of pesticide detections have remained similar over the last 16 years, with higher detection frequencies occurring before that time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murray E Close
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited, P.O. Box 29 181, Christchurch, New Zealand.
| | - Bronwyn Humphries
- Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited, P.O. Box 29 181, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Grant Northcott
- Northcott Research Consultants Limited, 20 River Oaks Place, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand
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Mraz AL, Tumwebaze IK, McLoughlin SR, McCarthy ME, Verbyla ME, Hofstra N, Rose JB, Murphy HM. Why pathogens matter for meeting the united nations' sustainable development goal 6 on safely managed water and sanitation. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 189:116591. [PMID: 33189973 PMCID: PMC7814340 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Water and wastewater utilities, water and sanitation hygiene (WASH) practitioners, and regulating bodies, particularly in developing nations, rely heavily on indicator microorganisms, as opposed to pathogens, for much of their regulatory decisions. This commentary illustrates the importance of considering pathogens and not relying only on indicator organisms when making decisions regarding water and sanitation, especially with respect to meeting the current targets of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6. We use quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) to present three common scenarios that WASH and public health practitioners encounter to illustrate our point. These include 1) chlorination of surface water for drinking, 2) land application of latrine waste as a fertilizer, and 3) recreation/domestic use of surface waters impacted by wastewater discharge. We show that the calculated probabilities of risk of infection are statistically significantly higher when using treatment/survival information for pathogens versus using indicator species data. Thus, demonstrating that relying solely on indicators for sanitation decision making is inadequate if we truly want to achieve the SDG6 targets of safely managed water and sanitation services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis L Mraz
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Philadelphia, PA USA; Department of Public Health, College of Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ USA; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Innocent K Tumwebaze
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Philadelphia, PA USA; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shane R McLoughlin
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Philadelphia, PA USA; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Megan E McCarthy
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Philadelphia, PA USA; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Matthew E Verbyla
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Nynke Hofstra
- Water Systems and Global Change Group, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Joan B Rose
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Heather M Murphy
- Water, Health and Applied Microbiology Lab (WHAM Lab), Philadelphia, PA USA; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
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Painter KJ, Brua RB, Spoelstra J, Koehler G, Yates AG. Fate of bioavailable nutrients released to a stream during episodic effluent releases from a municipal wastewater treatment lagoon. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:2374-2387. [PMID: 33155593 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00315h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Municipal wastewater lagoons are common across North America and, unlike larger mechanical wastewater treatment plants, typically release nutrient-rich effluent directly to rivers in intermittent pulses. However, little is known about the fate of nutrients from these episodic events, which may happen under varying hydrologic or thermal conditions. We assessed fate of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) from lagoon effluent during three releases to Deadhorse Creek, Manitoba, Canada. Using net nutrient uptake lengths and natural abundance stable isotope ratios of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and primary producers, we found that DIN was processed during the summer releases though the dominant mechanism was unclear. However, nitrate was largely exported in autumn. Primary producers assimilated lagoon N but did not appear to reduce DIN concentrations. The longitudinal pattern of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) varied between releases and in summer 2019 the stream became a net source of SRP despite concomitant processing of DIN. We hypothesize that low demand for P in Deadhorse Creek, as suggested by upstream SRP > 0.05 mg P L-1, and nutrient ratios indicative of N limitation, reduced instream processing of P. Furthermore, our results indicated that cool or high flow conditions may result in the export of much of the lagoon nutrient load downstream. Our findings suggest the processes that transform wastewater nutrients are overwhelmed during effluent releases. Managers should consider increasing effluent dilution via continuous release of effluent rather than pulsed delivery. However, management of upstream nutrient supply may also be needed when relying upon the self-purifying capacity of rivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin J Painter
- The University of Western Ontario and Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Geography, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, Canada.
| | - Robert B Brua
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, National Hydrology Research Centre, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John Spoelstra
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario L7S 1A1, Canada and Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Geoff Koehler
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, National Hydrology Research Centre, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada and NHRC Stable Isotope Laboratory, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Adam G Yates
- The University of Western Ontario and Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Geography, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, Canada.
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Hinojosa J, Green J, Estrada F, Herrera J, Mata T, Phan D, Pasha ABMT, Matta A, Johnson D, Kapoor V. Determining the primary sources of fecal pollution using microbial source tracking assays combined with land-use information in the Edwards Aquifer. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 184:116211. [PMID: 32721766 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The Edwards Aquifer serves as a primary source of drinking water to more than 2 million people in south-central Texas, and as a karst aquifer, is vulnerable to human and animal fecal contamination which poses a serious risk to human and environmental health. A one-year study (Jan 2018 - Feb 2019) was conducted to determine the primary sources of fecal pollution along the Balcones and Leon Creek within the Edwards Aquifer recharge and contributing zones using general (E. coli, enterococci, and universal Bacteriodales) and host-associated (human-, dog-, cow- and chicken/duck-associated Bacteriodales) microbial source tracking (MST) assays. Additionally, sites were classified based on surrounding land use as a potential source predictor and marker levels were correlated with rain events and water quality parameters. Levels for the three general indicators were highest and exhibited similar trends across the sampling sites, suggesting that the sole use of these markers is not sufficient for specific fecal source identification. Among the host-associated markers, highest concentrations were observed for the dog marker (BacCan) in the Leon Creek area and the cow marker (BacCow) in the Balcones Creek area. Additionally, Chicken/Duck-Bac, BacCan and BacCow all exhibited higher concentrations during the spring season and the end of fall/early winter. Relatively lower concentrations were observed for the human-associated markers (HF183 and BacHum), however, levels were higher in the Leon Creek area and highest following rainfall events. Additionally, relatively higher levels in HF183 and BacHum were observed at sites having greater human population and septic tank density and may be attributed to leaks or breaks in these infrastructures. This study is the first to examine and compare fecal contamination at rural and urban areas in the recharge and contributing zones of the Edwards Aquifer using a molecular MST approach targeting Bacteroidales 16S rRNA gene-based assays. The Bacteroidales marker assays, when combined with land use and weather information, can allow for a better understanding of the sources and fluxes of fecal contamination, which can help devise effective mitigation measures to protect water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Hinojosa
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jemima Green
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Fabiola Estrada
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Jonathan Herrera
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Troy Mata
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Duc Phan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - A B M Tanvir Pasha
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Akanksha Matta
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Drew Johnson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Vikram Kapoor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
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Yu X, Sui Q, Lyu S, Zhao W, Liu J, Cai Z, Yu G, Barcelo D. Municipal Solid Waste Landfills: An Underestimated Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Water Environment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9757-9768. [PMID: 32560585 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) have been the focus of increasing concern in recent decades due to their ubiquity in the environment and potential risks. Out-of-date PPCPs are usually discharged into municipal solid wastes (MSWs), enter the leachates in MSW landfills, and have serious adverse effects on the surrounding water environment. However, the occurrence and removal of PPCPs from landfill leachates have rarely been examined to date. This lack of knowledge makes the landfill an underestimated source of PPCPs in the environment. In this review, we collected the relevant publications of PPCPs in landfill leachates, systematically summarized the occurrence of PPCPs in landfill leachates globally, evaluated the removal performances for various PPCPs by different types of on-site full-scale leachate treatment processes, and assessed the impacts of landfill leachates on PPCPs in the adjacent groundwater. In particular, influencing factors for PPCPs in landfill leachates, including the physicochemical properties of PPCPs, climate conditions, and characteristics of landfill sites (i.e., landfill ages) as well as sociological factors (i.e., economic development), were extensively discussed to understand their occurrence patterns. Future perspectives were also proposed in light of the identified knowledge gaps. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review regarding the occurrence and removal of PPCPs from landfill leachates worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Qian Sui
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shuguang Lyu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wentao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jianguo Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhenxiao Cai
- MicroHAOPs Inc., University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Gang Yu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Damia Barcelo
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Barcelona 08034, Spain
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Khadir A, Negarestani M, Motamedi M. Optimization of an electrocoagulation unit for purification of ibuprofen from drinking water: Effect of conditions and linear/non-linear isotherm study. SEP SCI TECHNOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2020.1770795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khadir
- Young Researcher and Elite Club, Yadegar-e-Imam Khomeini (RAH) Shahre Rey Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrdad Negarestani
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahsa Motamedi
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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Belton K, Schaefer E, Guiney PD. A Review of the Environmental Fate and Effects of Acesulfame-Potassium. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2020; 16:421-437. [PMID: 32065497 PMCID: PMC7318193 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The use of low and no calorie sweeteners (LNCSs) has increased substantially the past several decades. Their high solubility in water, low absorption to soils, and reliable analytical methods facilitate their detection in wastewater and surface waters. Low and no calorie sweeteners are widely used in food and beverage products around the world, have been approved as food additives, and are considered safe for human consumption by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and other regulatory authorities. Concerns have been raised, however, regarding their growing presence and potential aquatic toxicity. Recent studies have provided new empirical environmental monitoring, environmental fate, and ecotoxicity on acesulfame potassium (ACE-K). Acesulfame potassium is an important high-production LNCS, widely detected in the environment and generally reported to be environmentally persistent. Acesulfame-potassium was selected for this environmental fate and effects review to determine its comparative risk to aquatic organisms. The biodegradation of ACE-K is predicted to be low, based on available quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models, and this has been confirmed by several investigations, mostly published prior to 2014. More recently, there appears to be an interesting paradigm shift with several reports of the enhanced ability of wastewater treatment plants to biodegrade ACE-K. Some studies report that ACE-K can be photodegraded into potentially toxic breakdown products, whereas other data indicate that this may not be the case. A robust set of acute and chronic ecotoxicity studies in fish, invertebrates, and freshwater plants provided critical data on ACE-K's aquatic toxicity. Acesulfame-potassium concentrations in wastewater and surface water are generally in the lower parts per billion (ppb) range, whereas concentrations in sludge and groundwater are much lower (parts per trillion [ppt]). This preliminary environmental risk assessment establishes that ACE-K has high margins of safety (MOSs) and presents a negligible risk to the aquatic environment based on a collation of extensive ACE-K environmental monitoring, conservative predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) estimates, and prudent probabilistic exposure modeling. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:421-437. © 2020 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry Belton
- Grocery Manufacturers AssociationArlingtonVirginiaUSA
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Thomas AR, Kranert M, Philip L. Fate and impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products during septage co-composting using an in-vessel composter. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2020; 109:109-118. [PMID: 32402901 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The present study aimed at understanding the impact of pharmaceutical and personal care product (PPCP) load on compost dynamics and fate of PPCPs during the composting. In addition, the compost dynamics during single PPCP degradation and multiple PPCPs degradation were investigated. Results revealed that co-composting could degrade the pharmaceutical, carbamazepine (CBZ) up to 83% during single pollutant degradation while it was 66% during multiple pollutant system, at an initial concentration (IC) of 5 mg/kg dw. In case of personal care product, namely triclosan (TCS), single pollutant degradation resulted in 86% removal whereas the removal efficiency was 83% in multiple pollutant system. Relatively high concentration of CBZ showed a negative impact on compost dynamics compared to that of TCS. Higher IC resulted in lower temperature development and relatively lower pollutant removal. The study on pollutant transfer in compost solid surface and in leachate revealed that TCS was not leached out while the leaching of CBZ was significant during composting process. The various transformation products formed during composting were identified and tentative pathways for CBZ and TCS degradation were proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anu Rachel Thomas
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
| | - Martin Kranert
- University of Stuttgart, Institute for Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste Management, Bandtale 2, 70569, Germany
| | - Ligy Philip
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India.
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Li BB, Hu LX, Yang YY, Wang TT, Liu C, Ying GG. Contamination profiles and health risks of PFASs in groundwater of the Maozhou River basin. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 260:113996. [PMID: 31991359 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a group of chemicals with a wide range of industrial and commercial applications, but little is known about the contamination of PFASs in groundwater and their linkage to surface water. Here we investigated the occurrence of PFASs in groundwater and surface water at the Maozhou River basin in order to understand their contamination profiles and potential health risks. The results showed that total PFASs concentrations ranged from 9.9 to 592.2 ng/L, 50.2-339.9 ng/L and 3.7-74.3 ng/g in groundwater, river water and sediment, respectively. The detection frequencies of C4-C8 chains (C4-C8) PFASs were higher than C9-C14 chains PFASs in the river and groundwater. Statistical analysis showed an obvious correlation between the major contaminants in the river and those in the groundwater, indicating the potential linkage of PFASs in the groundwater to the surface water. The wastewater indicator found in groundwater suggested domestic wastewater was only one of the source for the PFASs in the river and groundwater of Maozhou River basin. Moreover, human health risk assessment showed low risks from the PFASs to the residents by drinking groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei-Bei Li
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Li-Xin Hu
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuan-Yuan Yang
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Tuan-Tuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry, CAS Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environment Pollution and Control, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Chongxuan Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Guang-Guo Ying
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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Li D, Yao Y, Sun H, Wang Y, Pu J, Calderón R, Alder AC, Kannan K. Artificial Sweeteners in Pig Feed: A Worldwide Survey and Case Study in Pig Farms in Tianjin, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:4059-4067. [PMID: 32122124 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Some artificial sweeteners (ASs) are used in pig feeds, although little is known on this regard. An investigation was conducted by determining seven common ASs in pig feed, manure, wastewater, compost, and soil from 16 pig farms in Tianjin, China. Saccharin (SAC) was predominant in feed (1.41-326 mg/kg) and manure samples (1.06-401 mg/kg). The annual mass loads of ASs in pig feeds were estimated at 5.69-119, 4.92-149, and 1.29-35 kg per 103 piglets, hogs, and sows, respectively. The annual emission of ASs via biowaste (i.e., manure) was estimated at 3.58-85.2, 0.04-26.2, and 0.08-9.97 kg per 103 capita for the three dominant ASs, i.e., SAC, neotame (NEO), and cyclamate (CYC). On a global scale, SAC was also widely detected at concentrations of 0.01-326 mg/kg in pig feed from China, Switzerland, Japan, Chile, and the United States, suggesting the worldwide use of ASs in pig feed. NEO and CYC were found in 41% and 30% of the feed samples, respectively, at concentrations of 0.05-70 mg/kg, whereas other ASs were barely found with rather lower concentrations. The annual mass loads of ASs consumed via pig feed consumption were estimated at 2400 tons worldwide. Thus, pig farming is an important source of ASs to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yiming Yao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Hongwen Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yu Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Jian Pu
- Faculty of Information Networking for Innovation and Design, Tokyo University, Tokyo 115-0053, Japan
- Institute for Future Initiatives, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan
| | - Raul Calderón
- Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Fabrica 1990, Segundo Piso, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alfredo C Alder
- MOE Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12201, United States
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Model of Carbon Footprint Assessment for the Life Cycle of the System of Wastewater Collection, Transport and Treatment. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5799. [PMID: 32242041 PMCID: PMC7118112 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62798-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents a model of the environmental assessment of the system of wastewater collection, transport and treatment. The model was developed based on an original environmental assessment method of a system consisting of four elements: septic tanks, household wastewater treatment plants, a sewerage system and a central wastewater treatment plant. To conduct the environmental assessment, the Life Cycle Assessment technique was applied. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method was also applied, which enabled the determination of the carbon footprint of the analysed wastewater management system. This article presents the outline of an original method applied to create a model and an inventory of the data necessary for environmental assessment and the application of the model for the environmental assessment of a system of wastewater collection, transport and treatment in a city with over 50.000 inhabitants. Three feasible variants (from a functional, technical, organizational and financial point of view) of the system’s development were analysed. The variants were subjected to comparative analysis using the solution. The obtained results, together with the assessment method can be used as a practical tool to assess whether the European Commission’s guidelines are met, as well as the challenges facing wastewater management in the circular economy are overcome.
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Kibuye FA, Gall HE, Veith TL, Elkin KR, Elliott HA, Harper JP, Watson JE. Influence of hydrologic and anthropogenic drivers on emerging organic contaminants in drinking water sources in the Susquehanna River Basin. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 245:125583. [PMID: 31869673 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Occurrence of emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) in surface water bodies can cause adverse effects on non-target organisms. When surface waters are used as drinking water sources, temporal variability in EOC concentrations can potentially impact drinking water quality and human health. To better understand spatiotemporal variability of EOCs in drinking water sources in Central Pennsylvania, EOCs were evaluated in six drinking water sources during a two-year study period (April 2016-June 2018) in the Susquehanna River Basin (SRB). The study was conducted in two phases: Phase I was a spatially distributed sampling approach within the SRB focusing on seven human pharmaceuticals and Phase II was a temporally intensive sampling regime at a single site focusing on a broader range of EOCs. Concentration-discharge relationships were utilized to classify EOC transport dynamics and understand the extent to which hydrologic and anthropogenic factors, such as surface runoff and wastewater effluent, may contribute to EOC occurrence. Overall, EOCs were present at higher concentrations in colder seasons than warmer seasons. Thiamethoxam, a neonicotinoid insecticide, and caffeine exhibited accretion dynamics during high-flow periods, suggesting higher transport during surface runoff events. Human pharmaceuticals known to persist in wastewater effluent were inversely correlated with discharge, indicating dilution characteristics consistent with diminished wastewater signals during high-flow periods. Acetaminophen exhibited near-chemostatic transport dynamics, indicating nonpoint source inputs during high-flow periods. Risk calculations revealed that although EOCs posed medium-to-high risk to aquatic organisms, human health risk through fish consumption was low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith A Kibuye
- The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Heather E Gall
- The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Tamie L Veith
- USDA-ARS Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Kyle R Elkin
- USDA-ARS Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Herschel A Elliott
- The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Jeremy P Harper
- The Pennsylvania State University, Energy and Environmental Sustainability Laboratories, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - John E Watson
- The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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Gray AD, Todd D, Hershey AE. The seasonal distribution and concentration of antibiotics in rural streams and drinking wells in the piedmont of North Carolina. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 710:136286. [PMID: 32050361 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated 16 residential, rural well sites and respective nearby streams in the Piedmont of North Carolina over three different seasons to determine antibiotic presence and concentration. Fifteen antibiotics were detected in stream surface water, groundwater, and stream sediment compartments. Antibiotics detected representing penicillin, sulfonamide, macrolide, aminoglycoside, lincosamide, and quinolone groups. Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), sulfamerazine (SMR), danofloxacin (DAN), and erythromycin (ETM) were the most commonly detected among samples throughout the sampling period. Concentrations reported in the study ranged from 0 to 1740 ng/L in surface water and groundwater, and 0t378 μg/kg in stream sediment. There was a seasonal influence on antibiotic concentrations in each environmental compartment. Fall had the highest antibiotic concentrations for surface water and stream sediments overall, and groundwater concentrations were highest in the winter. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to assess the correlation between environmental variables. Antibiotic concentrations correlated with groundwater pH, surface water pH, and surface water temperature. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS), used to display seasonal and environmental compartment data, demonstrated no discernible trend in the distribution of antibiotics over time. Human health risk assessments based on risk quotients (RQs). RQs from groundwater assessment shown no risk to children 6-11 years old, or adults 18 years old or older. Results from this study illustrate that the occurrence of antibiotics in streams and groundwater in the Piedmont of North Carolina is widespread and provide a basis for future studies investigating the occurrence of antibiotics in rural areas, especially where animal density is high. This work is important because it contributes to the paucity of information on antibiotic pollution in rural areas, and because it illustrates the importance of using a combined targeted and non-targeted approach to antibiotic pollution in streams and groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin D Gray
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina - Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States of America.
| | - Daniel Todd
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina - Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States of America
| | - Anne E Hershey
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina - Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States of America
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Zhu C, Xu J, Song S, Wang J, Li Y, Liu R, Shen Y. TiO 2 quantum dots loaded sulfonated graphene aerogel for effective adsorption-photocatalysis of PFOA. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 698:134275. [PMID: 31505352 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
With the pollution of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) became increasingly serious, the researches focused on removal of PFASs by adsorption-photocatalysis method has attracted considerable attention. To make the catalyst TiO2 disperse uniformly as quantum dots onto hydrophobic surface which was liable to attract perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) were used in this work, which not only connected the hydrophilic TiCl3 to the hydrophobic sulfonated graphene (SG) nanosheets, but also behaved as the molecular template for controlled nucleation and growth of the nanostructured TiO2. After 3D SG-TiO2 QD nanosheets were fabricated, a series of 3D SG-TiO2 QD aerogels were self-assembled by ice-template. TiO2 uniformly distributed on the surface of SG aerogel at QD size level (2-3 nm) and the size of TiO2 could be effectively regulated by concentration of SDS. Compared with aggregated TiO2 material, 3D SG-TiO2 QD aerogels owned higher adsorption and photocatalytic performance. Benefiting from the hydrophobic surface of 3D SG as well as dispersed TiO2 QDs, 3D SG-TiO2 QD could enrich PFOA instantaneously (0.0381/s) and photocatalytic decomposed them effectively (1.898 E-4/s). PFOA degradation by hole and hydroxyl radicals proceeded via a stepwise mechanism. The column made of 3D SG-TiO2 QD could remove PFOA persistently in cycles of permeation. 3D SG-TiO2 QD possessed powerful adsorption-photocatalytic decomposition capability of PFOA and steady reusability performance. The present work highlights the individual roles and synergistic effect of TiO2 QD and 3D SG for effectively removing PFOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, PR China
| | - Jinli Xu
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, PR China
| | - Shuang Song
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, PR China
| | - Jun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Separation Membranes and Membrane Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Yungui Li
- Sichuan Provincial Sci-Tech Cooperation Base of Low-cost Wastewater Treatment Technology, Department of Environmental Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, China
| | - Renlan Liu
- College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Yi Shen
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology for Industrial Pollution Control of Zhejiang Province, College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, PR China.
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Kleinsteuber S, Rohwerder T, Lohse U, Seiwert B, Reemtsma T. Sated by a Zero-Calorie Sweetener: Wastewater Bacteria Can Feed on Acesulfame. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2606. [PMID: 31824446 PMCID: PMC6879467 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The widely used artificial sweetener acesulfame K has long been considered recalcitrant in biological wastewater treatment. Due to its persistence and mobility in the aquatic environment, acesulfame has been used as marker substance for wastewater input in surface water and groundwater. However, recent studies indicated that the potential to remove this xenobiotic compound is emerging in wastewater treatment plants worldwide, leading to decreasing mass loads in receiving waters despite unchanged human consumption patterns. Here we show evidence that acesulfame can be mineralized in a catabolic process and used as sole carbon source by bacterial pure strains isolated from activated sludge and identified as Bosea sp. and Chelatococcus sp. The strains mineralize 1 g/L acesulfame K within 8–9 days. We discuss the potential degradation pathway and how this novel catabolic trait confirms the “principle of microbial infallibility.” Once the enzymes involved in acesulfame degradation and their genes are identified, it will be possible to survey diverse environments and trace back the evolutionary origin as well as the mechanisms of global distribution and establishment of such a new catabolic trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Kleinsteuber
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thore Rohwerder
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ute Lohse
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bettina Seiwert
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Thorsten Reemtsma
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute for Analytical Chemistry, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Abstract
Rivers are important ecosystems under continuous anthropogenic stresses. The hyporheic zone is a ubiquitous, reactive interface between the main channel and its surrounding sediments along the river network. We elaborate on the main physical, biological, and biogeochemical drivers and processes within the hyporheic zone that have been studied by multiple scientific disciplines for almost half a century. These previous efforts have shown that the hyporheic zone is a modulator for most metabolic stream processes and serves as a refuge and habitat for a diverse range of aquatic organisms. It also exerts a major control on river water quality by increasing the contact time with reactive environments, which in turn results in retention and transformation of nutrients, trace organic compounds, fine suspended particles, and microplastics, among others. The paper showcases the critical importance of hyporheic zones, both from a scientific and an applied perspective, and their role in ecosystem services to answer the question of the manuscript title. It identifies major research gaps in our understanding of hyporheic processes. In conclusion, we highlight the potential of hyporheic restoration to efficiently manage and reactivate ecosystem functions and services in river corridors.
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Johnson TD, Belitz K, Lombard MA. Estimating domestic well locations and populations served in the contiguous U.S. for years 2000 and 2010. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 687:1261-1273. [PMID: 31412460 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Domestic wells provide drinking water supply for approximately 40 million people in the United States. Knowing the location of these wells, and the populations they serve, is important for identifying heavily used aquifers, locations susceptible to contamination, and populations potentially impacted by poor-quality groundwater. The 1990 census was the last nationally consistent survey of a home's source of water, and has not been surveyed since. This paper presents a method for projecting the population dependent on domestic wells for years after 1990, using information from the 1990 census along with population data from subsequent censuses. The method is based on the "domestic ratio" at the census block-group level, defined here as the number of households dependent on domestic wells divided by the total population. Analysis of 1990 data (>220,000 block-groups) indicates that the domestic ratio is a function of the household density. As household density increases, the domestic ratio decreases, once a household density threshold is met. The 1990 data were used to develop a relationship between household density and the domestic ratio. The fitted model, along with household density data from 2000 and 2010, was used to estimate domestic ratios for each decadal year. In turn, the number of households dependent on domestic wells was estimated at the block-group level for 2000 and 2010. High-resolution census-block population data were used to refine the spatial distribution of domestic-well usage and to convert the data into population numbers. The results are presented in two downloadable raster datasets for each decadal year. It is estimated that the total population using domestic-well water in the contiguous U.S. increased 1.5% from 1990 to 2000 to a total of 37.25 million people and increased slightly from 2000 to 2010 to 37.29 million people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler D Johnson
- United States Geological Survey, California Water Science Center, 4165 Spruance Rd. Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92101, United States.
| | - Kenneth Belitz
- United States Geological Survey, Earth Systems Processes Division, 10 Bearfoot Rd., Northborough, MA 01532, United States.
| | - Melissa A Lombard
- United States Geological Survey, New England Water Science Center, New Hampshire Office, 361 Commerce Way, Pembroke, NH 03275, United States.
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Vystavna Y, Schmidt SI, Diadin D, Rossi PM, Vergeles Y, Erostate M, Yermakovych I, Yakovlev V, Knöller K, Vadillo I. Multi-tracing of recharge seasonality and contamination in groundwater: A tool for urban water resource management. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:413-422. [PMID: 31226539 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In this study, sources of recharge and contamination in urban groundwater and in groundwater underneath a forest in the same aquifer were determined and compared. Data on hydro-chemical parameters and stable isotopes of water were collected in urban and forest springs in the Kharkiv region, Ukraine, over a period of 12 months. Groundwater transit time and precipitation contribution were calculated using hydrogeological data and stable isotopes of water to delineate groundwater recharge conditions. Hydro-chemical data, stable isotopes and emerging contaminants were used to trace anthropogenic groundwater recharge and approximate sewage and tap water contributions to the aquifer. The results indicated that each spring had unique isotopic signatures that could be explained by recharge conditions, groundwater residence time, and specific mixing patterns with sewage and water leaks. Elevated nitrate content, stable isotopes of nitrate, and the presence of emerging pollutants (mainly illicit drugs) in most of the urban springs confirmed mixing of urban groundwater with sewage leaks. These leaks amounted to up to 25% of total recharge and exhibited seasonal variations in some springs. Overall, the results show that urban groundwater receives variable seasonal contributions of anthropogenic components that increase the risk to the environment and human health, and reduce its usability for drinking water production. The multi-tracing approach presented can be useful for other cities worldwide that have similar problems of poor water management and inadequate sewage and water supply infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Vystavna
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na Sádkách 7, 37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic; Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, vul. Marshala Bazhanova 17, 61002, Kharkiv, Ukraine.
| | - S I Schmidt
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Biology Centre of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na Sádkách 7, 37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - D Diadin
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, vul. Marshala Bazhanova 17, 61002, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - P M Rossi
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4300, 90014, Oulu, Finland
| | - Y Vergeles
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, vul. Marshala Bazhanova 17, 61002, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - M Erostate
- Université de Corse Pascal Paoli, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Département d'Hydrogéologie, Campus Grimaldi, BP 52, F-20250, Corte, France; CNRS, UMR 6134, SPE, F-20250, Corte, France
| | - I Yermakovych
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, vul. Marshala Bazhanova 17, 61002, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - V Yakovlev
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Management, O.M. Beketov National University of Urban Economy in Kharkiv, vul. Marshala Bazhanova 17, 61002, Kharkiv, Ukraine; Water Quality Laboratory "PLAYA", vul. Hanna 10, 61001, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - K Knöller
- Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Department of Catchment Hydrology, Theodor-Lieser-Str. 4, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - I Vadillo
- Group of Hydrogeology, Faculty of Science, University of Malaga, 29071, Malaga, Spain
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Alquwaizany AS, Alfadul SM, Khan MA, Alabdulaaly AI. Occurrence of organic compounds in groundwater of Saudi Arabia. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2019; 191:601. [PMID: 31478100 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-019-7723-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The presence of organic compounds in drinking water is well recognized in many developing countries; however, the occurrence of organic contaminants in the groundwater of Saudi Arabia, which is the main source of drinking water in the country, is not well documented. A national comprehensive study was carried out to assess the occurrence of organic compounds in groundwater wells used for drinking water purpose, in different regions of Saudi Arabia. A total of 993 well water samples were collected from all 13 administrative regions of the kingdom. Samples were analyzed for a total of 131 organic compounds using the standard methods. The results indicated that total organic carbon values were in the range of 0.01 to 84.13 mg/L with an average weighted value of 12.61 mg/L. Organic compounds were detected in only 9 regions, with 19.84% of the samples containing organic compounds. Only 96 wells (9.67%) showed contents of organic compounds above the safe limits. Pesticides were not detected in any of the well water samples. Overall, organic compounds were found in only 197 out of 993 wells (19.84%) in the whole country. Most of the wells containing organic compounds were located in residential, industrial, and agriculture areas. Riyadh region and Eastern Province were found to have the most affected wells as compared to other regions. Several regions did not show any organic compounds in the well waters.It can be said that the problem of groundwater contamination with organic compounds in Saudi Arabia is not acute and is manageable at present. It is, however, recommended that a regular monitoring of drinking water wells of all regions should be carried out by the competent authorities for organic compounds to know any contamination if and when it happens. Preventing such contaminants from reaching drinking water sources and protecting drinking water well heads from such contaminants remains a priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdulaziz S Alquwaizany
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh, 11442, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| | - Sulaiman M Alfadul
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh, 11442, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mujahid A Khan
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh, 11442, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulrahman I Alabdulaaly
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, P.O. Box 6086, Riyadh, 11442, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Kibuye FA, Gall HE, Elkin KR, Swistock B, Veith TL, Watson JE, Elliott HA. Occurrence, Concentrations, and Risks of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Private Wells in Central Pennsylvania. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2019; 48:1057-1066. [PMID: 31589682 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2018.08.0301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Over-the-counter and prescription medications are routinely present at detectable levels in surface and groundwater bodies. The presence of these emerging contaminants has raised both environmental and public health concerns, particularly when the water is used for drinking either directly or with additional treatment. However, the frequency of occurrence, range of concentrations, and potential human health risks are not well understood, especially for groundwater supplies. Private wells are often not tested for contaminants regulated by drinking water standards and are even less frequently tested for emerging contaminants. By partnering with the Pennsylvania Master Well Owner Network, water samples were collected from 26 households with private wells in the West Branch of the Susquehanna River basin in central Pennsylvania in winter 2017. All samples were analyzed for six pharmaceuticals (acetaminophen, ampicillin, naproxen, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim) and one over-the-counter stimulant (caffeine). At least one compound was detected at each site. Ofloxacin and naproxen were the most and least frequently detected compounds, respectively. Concentrations from the groundwater wells were higher than those of nearby surface water samples. However, risk calculations revealed that none of the concentrations measured in groundwater samples posed significant human health risk. A simple, physicochemical-based modeling approach was used to predict pharmaceutical transport from septic absorption field to groundwater and further elucidate variations in detection frequencies. Findings indicate that although septic tanks may act as contaminant sources for groundwater wells, the human health impacts from trace-level pharmaceuticals that may be present are likely minimal.
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Seasonal Variation of Water Quality in Unregulated Domestic Wells. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16091569. [PMID: 31060292 PMCID: PMC6539867 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16091569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In the United States (U.S.), up to 14% of the population depend on private wells as their primary drinking water source. The U.S. government does not regulate contaminants in private wells. The goals of this study were to investigate the quality of drinking water from unregulated private wells within one mile (1.6 kilometers) of an effluent-dominated river in the arid Southwest, determine differences in contaminant levels between wet and dry seasons, and identify contributions from human sources by specifically measuring man-made organic contaminants (perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfate (PFOS), and sucralose). Samples were collected during two dry seasons and two wet seasons over the course of two years and analyzed for microbial (Escherichia coli), inorganic (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nitrate), and synthetic organic (PFOA, PFOS, and sucralose) contaminants. Arsenic, nitrate, and Escherichia coli concentrations exceeded their respective regulatory levels of 0.01 mg/L, 10 mg/L, and 1 colony forming unit (CFU)/100 mL, respectively. The measured concentrations of PFOA and PFOS exceeded the respective Public Health Advisory level. Arsenic, PFOA, PFOS, and sucralose were significantly higher during the dry seasons, whereas E. coli was higher during the wet seasons. While some contaminants were correlated (e.g., As and Hg ρ = 0.87; PFOA and PFOS ρ = 0.45), the lack of correlation between different contaminant types indicates that they may arise from different sources. Multi-faceted interventions are needed to reduce exposure to drinking water above health-based guidelines.
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Branchet P, Ariza Castro N, Fenet H, Gomez E, Courant F, Sebag D, Gardon J, Jourdan C, Ngounou Ngatcha B, Kengne I, Cadot E, Gonzalez C. Anthropic impacts on Sub-Saharan urban water resources through their pharmaceutical contamination (Yaoundé, Center Region, Cameroon). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 660:886-898. [PMID: 30743974 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 12/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Sub-Saharan urban centers have to tackle high population growth, lack of sanitation infrastructures and the need for good quality water resources. To characterize the impacts of anthropization on the water resources of the capital of Cameroon (Yaoundé), a multi-disciplinary approach was used in ten sub-watersheds (peri-urban and urban) of the Méfou watershed. Pharmaceutical residues were used as tracers of surface and groundwater contamination caused by the release of domestic wastewater from pit latrines and landfills. A water use survey was conducted in the vicinity of the sampling sites to better assess water use, treatment and management. Available land use and hydro-geomorphological data completed characterization of the sub-watersheds. The combined data showed that natural features (elevation, slope, and hydrography) and human activities (land use) favor rainfall-runoff events and hence surface water contamination. Pharmaceutical monitoring revealed contamination of both surface and groundwater especially in the urban sub-watersheds. Analgesics/anti-inflammatory drugs and anti-epileptic carbamazepine were the most frequently found compounds (in up to 91% of water samples) with concentrations of acetaminophen reaching 5660 ng/L. In urban sub-watersheds, 50% of the groundwater sites used for drinking water were contaminated by diclofenac (476-518 ng/L), carbamazepine (263-335 ng/L), ibuprofen (141-276 ng/L), sulfamethoxazole (<2-1285 ng/L) and acetaminophen (110-111 ng/L), emphasizing the need for a deeper understanding of the interactions between surface and groundwater. The use of groundwater as drinking water by 68% of the total population surveyed raises concerns about population exposure and potential health risks. This case study highlights the need for strategies to limit contamination of the water resource given the predicted future expansion of Sub-Saharan urban centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Branchet
- Laboratoire de Génie de l'Environnement Industriel, IMT Mines Alès, University of Montpellier, Alès, France.
| | - N Ariza Castro
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Escuela de Química, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago 159-7050, Costa Rica.
| | - H Fenet
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - E Gomez
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Escuela de Química, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago 159-7050, Costa Rica.
| | - F Courant
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - D Sebag
- Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, UNICAEN, CNRS, M2C, Rouen, France.
| | - J Gardon
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - C Jourdan
- Observatoire de Recherche Méditerranéen de l'Environnement (OREME), University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Laboratoire d'étude des Interactions entre Sol, Agrosystème et Hydrosystème (LISAH), INRA, Montpellier, France
| | - B Ngounou Ngatcha
- Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ngaoundéré, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
| | - I Kengne
- Wastewater Research Unit, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - E Cadot
- HydroSciences Montpellier, IRD, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
| | - C Gonzalez
- Laboratoire de Génie de l'Environnement Industriel, IMT Mines Alès, University of Montpellier, Alès, France.
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Dalahmeh SS, Alziq N, Ahrens L. Potential of biochar filters for onsite wastewater treatment: Effects of active and inactive biofilms on adsorption of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in laboratory column experiments. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 247:155-164. [PMID: 30669083 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the potential of biochar filters as a replacement for, or complement to, sand filters for removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from wastewater in on-site wastewater treatment systems (OWTSs). Concentrations and removal of nine perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs; C3-11) and three perfluoroalkane sulfonates (PFSAs; C4, 6, 8) and one perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA; C8) were investigated over 22 weeks in four treatments with column filters: biochar (BC) without biofilm (BC-no-biofilm), biochar with active biofilm (BC-active-biofilm), biochar with inactive biofilm (BC-inactive-biofilm) and sand with active biofilm (Sand-active-biofilm). The filters were operated under hydraulic loading (50 L m-2 day-1) to mimic the loading rate in on-site filtration beds. The initial concentrations of the ΣPFASs in the influent were in the range of 1500-4900 ng L-1. In BC-no-biofilm, the removal efficiency (20-60%) and adsorption capacity (0-88 ng ΣPFASs g-1 BC) of short-chain PFCAs (C3-6) and PFSA (C4) was low, whereas the removal efficiency (90-99%) and the adsorption capacity (73-168 ng g-1) was high for C7-C11 PFCAs, C6, C8 PFSAs and FOSA. The relative removal was generally lower for C3-9 PFCAs and C4, C6, C8 PFSAs using BC-active-biofilm and BC-inactive-biofilm compared with BC-no-biofilm. This can be explained by the presence of biofilm and solids in BC-active-biofilm and the presence of wastewater solids in BC-inactive-biofilm, which decreased the availability and number of adsorption sites for PFASs compared with BC-no-biofilm. On the other hand, inactivation of the biofilm resulted in lower removal efficiencies for C5-11 PFCAs, C4, C6, C8 PFSAs and FOSA, probably because the biofilm degraded organic matter and thus increased the availability and number of adsorption sites compared with BC-inactive-biofilm. Sand-active-biofilm showed poor removal (0-70%) for all PFASs except FOSA (90%) and its adsorption capacity was low (0.0-7.5 ng g-1). In general, for all biochar treatments, shorter-chain PFASs were more resistant to removal than longer-chain PFASs. In addition, C4, C6 and C8 PFSAs showed 10-30%, 10-50% and 20-30% higher average removal efficiency, respectively, than PFCAs with corresponding perfluoroalkyl chain length. In conclusion, biochar is a promising filter medium for removal of PFASs in OWTSs, especially for PFASs with a perfluorocarbon chain longer than C6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar S Dalahmeh
- Department of Energy and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7032, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Nancy Alziq
- Centre for Water and Environment, Royal Scientific Society, Box 1438, 11941, Amman, Jordan
| | - Lutz Ahrens
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7050, SE 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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Bexfield LM, Toccalino PL, Belitz K, Foreman WT, Furlong ET. Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:2950-2960. [PMID: 30834750 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
This is the first large-scale, systematic assessment of hormone and pharmaceutical occurrence in groundwater used for drinking across the United States. Samples from 1091 sites in Principal Aquifers representing 60% of the volume pumped for drinking-water supply had final data for 21 hormones and 103 pharmaceuticals. At least one compound was detected at 5.9% of 844 sites representing the resource used for public supply across the entirety of 15 Principal Aquifers, and at 11.3% of 247 sites representing the resource used for domestic supply over subareas of nine Principal Aquifers. Of 34 compounds detected, one plastics component (bisphenol A), three pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole, and meprobamate), and the caffeine degradate 1,7-dimethylxanthine were detected in more than 0.5% of samples. Hydrocortisone had a concentration greater than a human-health benchmark at 1 site. Compounds with high solubility and low Koc were most likely to be detected. Detections were most common in shallow wells with a component of recent recharge, particularly in crystalline-rock and mixed land-use settings. Results indicate vulnerability of groundwater used for drinking water in the U.S. to contamination by these compounds is generally limited, and exposure to these compounds at detected concentrations is unlikely to have adverse effects on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Bexfield
- U.S. Geological Survey, 6700 Edith Boulevard NE , Albuquerque , New Mexico 87113 , United States
| | - Patricia L Toccalino
- U.S. Geological Survey, 6000 J Street, Placer Hall, Sacramento , California 95819 , United States
| | - Kenneth Belitz
- U.S. Geological Survey, 10 Bearfoot Road , Northborough , Massachusetts 01532 , United States
| | - William T Foreman
- U.S. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 25585, Denver Federal Center , Denver , Colorado 80225 , United States
| | - Edward T Furlong
- U.S. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 25585, Denver Federal Center , Denver , Colorado 80225 , United States
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Ramage S, Camacho-Muñoz D, Petrie B. Enantioselective LC-MS/MS for anthropogenic markers of septic tank discharge. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 219:191-201. [PMID: 30537591 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Households in rural locations utilize septic tanks for wastewater treatment and can cause surface water contamination. A new methodology was developed to help investigate the role septic tanks play in the dissemination of prescription and over-the-counter drugs, personal care products and stimulants in the aqueous environment. Simultaneous analysis of 16 chiral and achiral anthropogenic markers was achieved using a Chirobiotic V2® enantioselective column in polar ionic mode. The optimized method achieved quantitation limits for 16 compounds in the range 0.001-2.9 μg L-1 and 0.0002-0.43 μg L-1 for septic tank effluent and stream water, respectively. Application of the method to samples collected in North East Scotland found caffeine to be ubiquitous in all samples studied suggesting it as a good indicator of septic tank discharge. In rural streams studied, concentrations of all prescription drugs investigated were ≤0.02 μg L-1. However, analgesics and stimulants were at high concentration in one location indicating direct discharge of septic tank wastewater (i.e., not dissipated through a soak away). For example, paracetamol, cotinine and caffeine were measured at 1100 μg L-1, 31 μg L-1 and 200 μg L-1, respectively, which is comparable to septic tank effluents. Furthermore, S(+)-amphetamine and R(-)-amphetamine were present in this stream sample at 0.20 and 0.27 μg L-1. This corresponds to an enantiomeric fraction of 0.43, which is typical of untreated wastewaters in the UK. Findings illustrate further study on the diffuse impact of septic tanks to surface water is needed and can be supported using this new multi-residue enantioselective method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Ramage
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK
| | - Dolores Camacho-Muñoz
- Laboratory for Lipidomics and Lipid Biology, Division of Pharmacy and Optometry, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Bruce Petrie
- School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, AB10 7GJ, UK.
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Kibuye FA, Gall HE, Elkin KR, Ayers B, Veith TL, Miller M, Jacob S, Hayden KR, Watson JE, Elliott HA. Fate of pharmaceuticals in a spray-irrigation system: From wastewater to groundwater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 654:197-208. [PMID: 30445321 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Land application of wastewater effluent is beneficial for recharging groundwater aquifers and avoiding direct pollutant discharges to surface waters. However, the fate of non-regulated organic wastewater pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), in such wastewater reuse systems is understudied. Here, a 14-month study (October 2016 through December 2017) was conducted to evaluate the fate and potential risks of seven commonly used PPCPs in a local wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and from 13 groundwater monitoring wells at a spray-irrigation site where effluent has been spray-irrigated since the early 1980s. Acetaminophen and trimethoprim were the most frequently detected (93%) PPCPs in WWTP influent, while in the effluent, caffeine and trimethoprim were detected most frequently (70%). Wastewater treatment generally reduced concentrations of acetaminophen and caffeine by >88%; however, some compounds had low removal or were present at higher concentrations in the effluent compared with influent (e.g. naproxen, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim and ofloxacin). Seasonal trends were observed, with higher PPCP concentrations in the WWTP influent and effluent in the winter. Risk calculations conducted on the wastewater effluent suggest that the risk posed by PPCPs that persisted in the effluent are medium to high to aquatic organisms. Detection frequencies of PPCPs were lower in groundwater samples compared to the effluent, with sulfamethoxazole (40%) and caffeine (32%) as the most frequently detected compounds. Similarly, average concentrations of PPCPs in groundwater were found to be nearly two orders of magnitude lower than concentrations in the effluent. Minimal seasonal influence was observed for groundwater samples. Human health risk assessments indicate that concentrations in groundwater, which is used as a drinking water source, appear to pose minimal risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith A Kibuye
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Heather E Gall
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Kyle R Elkin
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Brittany Ayers
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Tamie L Veith
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Megan Miller
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Shannon Jacob
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Kathryn R Hayden
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - John E Watson
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Herschel A Elliott
- Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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Gao Q, Blum KM, Gago-Ferrero P, Wiberg K, Ahrens L, Andersson PL. Impact of on-site wastewater infiltration systems on organic contaminants in groundwater and recipient waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:1670-1679. [PMID: 30317168 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
On-site sewage treatment facilities, particularly septic systems combined with soil infiltration, can be an important source of emerging organic contaminants in groundwater and surface water and thus represent a significant source of environmental and human exposure. Two infiltration systems in Åre municipality, Sweden, were examined to assess the occurrence of contaminants in groundwater and their fate and transport during infiltration. Groundwater samples, recipient surface water samples, and wastewater samples from septic tanks were collected from 2016 to 2017 covering all climatological seasons. These samples were analysed for a total of 103 contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, organic phosphorus flame-retardants, plasticisers, perfluoroalkyl substances, and food additives. Fourteen of 103 contaminants showed 100% detection frequency in groundwater at concentrations in the low ng L-1 to low μg L-1 range. Of the compounds analysed, tris(2‑butoxyethyl) phosphate, sucralose, caffeine, and benzophenone showed high abundancy with maximum concentrations in the μg L-1 range. The data were normalised for dilution using chloride and sucralose as commonly applied tracers; however, the level of sucralose decreased significantly during infiltration and it is thus suboptimal as a sewage water tracer. Large differences between the two infiltration sites were observed in detection frequencies and concentrations in groundwater, which could be attributed to the system design and the contaminant's migration time from release to sampling point. Seasonal variation was observed for selected chemicals, and the more hydrophobic chemicals showed a higher tendency for attenuation, indicating sorption as a major retention mechanism. A moderate environmental risk to aquatic organisms was estimated in adjacent surface water for galaxolide, tris(1‑chloro‑2‑propyl) phosphate, and tris(2‑butoxyethyl) phosphate. Due to this site-dependency and potential environmental risks, further studies are needed on infiltration systems in different settings and on alternative treatment techniques to reduce the contaminant discharge from on-site sewage treatment facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuju Gao
- Dept. of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Kristin M Blum
- Dept. of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Pablo Gago-Ferrero
- Dept. of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-756 55 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Karin Wiberg
- Dept. of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-756 55 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lutz Ahrens
- Dept. of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), SE-756 55 Uppsala, Sweden
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Schaider LA, Swetschinski L, Campbell C, Rudel RA. Environmental justice and drinking water quality: are there socioeconomic disparities in nitrate levels in U.S. drinking water? Environ Health 2019; 18:3. [PMID: 30651108 PMCID: PMC6335696 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-018-0442-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low-income and minority communities often face disproportionately high pollutant exposures. The lead crisis in Flint, Michigan, has sparked concern about broader socioeconomic disparities in exposures to drinking water contaminants. Nitrate is commonly found in drinking water, especially in agricultural regions, and epidemiological evidence suggests elevated risk of cancer and birth defects at levels below U.S. EPA's drinking water standard (10 mg/L NO3-N). However, there have been no nationwide assessments of socioeconomic disparities in exposures to nitrate or other contaminants in U.S. drinking water. The goals of this study are to identify determinants of nitrate concentrations in U.S. community water systems (CWSs) and to evaluate disparities related to wealth or race/ethnicity. METHODS We compiled nitrate data from 39,466 U.S. CWSs for 2010-2014. We used EPA's Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) to compile CWS characteristics and linked this information with both city- and county-level demographic data gathered from the U.S. Census Bureau. After applying multiple imputation methods to address censored nitrate concentration data, we conducted mixed-effects multivariable regression analyses at national and regional scales. RESULTS 5.6 million Americans are served by a CWS that had an average nitrate concentration ≥ 5 mg/L NO3-N between 2010 and 2014. Extent of agricultural land use and reliance on groundwater sources were significantly associated with nitrate. The percent of Hispanic residents served by each system was significantly associated with nitrate even after accounting for county-level cropland and livestock production, and CWSs in the top quartile of percent Hispanic residents exceeded 5 mg/L nearly three times as often as CWSs serving the lowest quartile. By contrast, the percent of residents living in poverty and percent African American residents were both inversely associated with nitrate. CONCLUSIONS Epidemiological evidence for health effects associated with drinking water above 5 mg/L NO3-N raises concerns about increased risk for the 5.6 million Americans served by public water supplies with average nitrate concentrations above this level. The associations we observed between nitrate concentrations and proportions of Hispanic residents support the need for improved efforts to assist vulnerable communities in addressing contamination and protecting source waters. Future studies can extend our methods to evaluate disparities in exposures to other contaminants and links to health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel A. Schaider
- Silent Spring Institute, 320 Nevada Street, Suite 302, Newton, MA 02460 USA
| | | | | | - Ruthann A. Rudel
- Silent Spring Institute, 320 Nevada Street, Suite 302, Newton, MA 02460 USA
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