Bridging animal and human models of exercise-induced brain plasticity

From movement to motivation: a proposed framework to understand the antidepressant effect of exercise

Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, exerting a profound negative impact on quality of life in those who experience it. Depression is associated with disruptions to several closely related neural and cognitive processes, including dopamine transmission, fronto-striatal brain activity and connectivity, reward processing and motivation. Physical activity, especially aerobic exercise, reduces depressive symptoms, but the mechanisms driving its antidepressant effects are poorly understood. Here we propose a novel hypothesis for understanding the antidepressant effects of exercise, centred on motivation, across different levels of explanation. There is robust evidence that aerobic exercise decreases systemic inflammation. Inflammation is known to reduce dopamine transmission, which in turn is strongly implicated in effort-based decision making for reward. Drawing on a broad range of research in humans and animals, we propose that by reducing inflammation and boosting dopamine transmission, with consequent effects on effort-based decision making for reward, exercise initially specifically improves 'interest-activity' symptoms of depression-namely anhedonia, fatigue and subjective cognitive impairment - by increasing propensity to exert effort. Extending this framework to the topic of cognitive control, we explain how cognitive impairment in depression may also be conceptualised through an effort-based decision-making framework, which may help to explain the impact of exercise on cognitive impairment. Understanding the mechanisms underlying the antidepressant effects of exercise could inform the development of novel intervention strategies, in particular personalised interventions and boost social prescribing.

Effects of maternal age and environmental enrichment on learning ability and brain size

It is well known that maternal age at reproduction affects offspring lifespan and some other fitness-related traits, but it remains understudied whether maternal senescence affects how offspring respond to their environments. Early environment often plays a significant role in the development of an animal's behavioral phenotype. For example, complex environments can promote changes in cognitive ability and brain morphology in young animals. Here, we study whether and how maternal effect senescence influences offspring plasticity in cognition, group behavior, and brain morphology in response to environmental complexity. For this, juvenile 3-spined sticklebacks from young and old mothers (i.e. 1-yr and 2-yr-old) were exposed to different levels of environmental enrichment and complexity (i.e. none, simple, and complex), and their behavior, cognitive ability, and brain size were measured. Exposing fish to enriched conditions improved individual learning ability assessed by a repeated detour-reaching task, increased the size of the whole brain, and decreased aggressive interactions in the shoal. Maternal age did not influence the inhibitory control, learning ability, and group behavioral responses of offspring to the experimental environmental change. However, maternal age affected how some brain regions of offspring changed in response to environmental complexity. In offspring from old mothers, those exposed to the complex environment had larger telencephalons and cerebellums than those who experienced simpler environments. Our results suggest that maternal effect senescence may influence how offspring invest in brain functions related to cognition in response to environmental complexity.

Effects of different exercise modes and intensities on cognitive performance, adult hippocampal neurogenesis, and synaptic plasticity in mice

Exercise can induce beneficial improvements in cognition. However, the effects of different modes and intensities of exercise have yet to be explored in detail. This study aimed to identify the effects of different exercise modes (aerobic and resistance) and intensities (low and high) on cognitive performance, adult hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in mice. A total of 40 C57BL/6J mice were randomised into 5 groups (n = 8 mice per group): control, low-intensity aerobic exercise, high-intensity aerobic exercise, low-intensity resistance exercise, and high-intensity resistance exercise. The aerobic exercise groups underwent treadmill training, while the resistance exercise groups underwent ladder climbing training. At the end of the exercise period, cognitive performance was assessed by the Y-maze and Barnes maze. In addition, adult hippocampal neurogenesis was evaluated immunohistochemically by 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU)/ neuronal nuclei (NeuN) co-labeling. The levels of synaptic plasticity-related proteins in the hippocampus, including synaptophysin (SYP) and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), were analyzed by western blotting. Our results showed no significant differences in cognitive performance among the groups. However, high-intensity aerobic exercise significantly increased hippocampal adult neurogenesis relative to the control. A trend towards increased adult neurogenesis was observed in the low-intensity aerobic group compared to the control group. No significant changes in synaptic plasticity were observed among all groups. Our results indicate that high-intensity aerobic exercise may be the most potent stimulator of adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

Sit less and move more! A cross-sectional study of the associations between physical activity and sedentary behaviors with inhibitory control in Brazilian adults

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the independent and joint associations between sedentary behaviors (SB) and physical activity (PA) with inhibitory control (IC) in adults.

METHODS

A total of 111 participants (median age = 30 years; 60% women), completed the Stroop Color-Words test to assess IC. They also wore accelerometers for seven days to measure SB, light PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), and daily steps. We previously set cutoff points for SB and PA measurements and tested them to determine their association with IC. All analyses were adjusted for potential confounding factors including age, gender, post-secondary education, income, body mass index, and accelerometer wear time.

RESULTS

Low SB, high MVPA, and high daily steps were independently associated with a better IC compared to their respective counterparts. Adults with low levels of SB and light PA demonstrated better IC performance (β = -227.67, 95%CI = -434.14 to -21.20) compared to those with high SB and low light PA. Conversely, individuals with high SB and high light PA exhibited worse performance (β = 126.80, 95%CI = 2.11 to 251.50) than those in the high SB and low light PA group. Furthermore, the joint association of low SB with high MVPA (β = -491.12, 95%CI = -689.23 to -293.01) or low SB with high daily steps (β = -254.29, 95%CI = -416.41 to -92.16) demonstrated better IC performance compared to those with high SB and low MVPA or low daily steps.

CONCLUSION

Our findings highlight independent and joint associations between low SB, high MVPA, and high daily steps with enhanced IC in adults.

Effects of acute aerobic exercise on resting state functional connectivity of motor cortex in college students

This study intends to inspect the effects of acute aerobic exercise (AE) on resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) in motor cortex of college students and the moderating effect of fitness level.

METHODS

20 high fitness level college students and 20 ordinary college students were recruited in public. Subjects completed 25 min of moderate- and high-intensity acute aerobic exercise respectively by a bicycle ergometer, and the motor cortex's blood oxygen signals in resting state were monitored by functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS, the Shimadzu portable Light NIRS, Japan) in pre- and post-test.

RESULTS

At the moderate intensity level, the total mean value of RSFC pre- and post-test was significantly different in the high fitness level group (pre-test 0.62 ± 0.18, post-test 0.51 ± 0.17, t(19) = 2.61, p = 0.02, d = 0.58), but no significant change was found in the low fitness level group. At the high-intensity level, there was no significant difference in the difference of total RSFC between pre- and post-test in the high and low fitness group. According to and change trend of 190 "edges": at the moderate-intensity level, the number of difference edges in the high fitness group (d = 0.58, 23) were significantly higher than those in the low fitness group (d = 0.32, 15), while at high-intensity level, there was a reverse trend between the high fitness group (d = 0.25, 18) and the low fitness group (d = 0.39, 23).

CONCLUSIONS

moderate-intensity AE can cause significant changes of RSFC in the motor cortex of college students with high fitness, while high fitness has a moderating effect on the relationship between exercise intensity and RSFC. RSFC of people with high fitness is more likely to be affected by AE and show a wider range of changes.

Treadmill Exercise Enhances Post-Stroke Functional Recovery in Mice via the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 Signaling Pathway

To validate that treadmill exercise promotes neurofunctional recovery post ischemic stroke and to specifically explore the role of the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 signaling pathway in this treadmill-mediated recovery process. C57BL/6 J mice were used to establish a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. From days 5 to 28 post-stroke, the experimental group did 10-min treadmill sessions twice daily at 12 r/min; the control group remained inactive. On day 6 post-stroke, mice received three intraperitoneal injections of Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) or PBS. On days 1, 3, and 5 post-stroke, mice received intracerebroventricular injections of exogenous recombinant CX3CL1, CX3CL1 antagonist, or PBS. The modified neurological severity score (mNSS) and the corner test were used to assess sensorimotor function, and the morris water maze (MWM) test was employed to evaluate cognitive function. Western blot detected CX3CL1 and CX3CR1 protein expression, while immunofluorescence observed these proteins, neurogenesis in the subventricular zone (SVZ), rostral migratory stream (RMS), and dentate gyrus (DG), along with Iba1 and CD68 co-expression. ELISA quantified IL-1β, IL-4, and IL-10 levels. Treadmill exercise significantly improved neurofunctional recovery in MCAO mice, enhanced neurogenesis in the RMS and SVZ, and increased the expression of CX3CL1 and CX3CR1. The CX3CL1/CX3CR1 axis enhanced the impact of treadmill exercise on neurofunctional recovery, promoting neurogenesis in the RMS and SVZ, and reducing inflammation. Additionally, this axis also enhanced neurogenesis and suppressed microglial activation in the DG induced by treadmill exercise. This study demonstrates the CX3CL1/CX3CR1 pathway as critical for treadmill-induced post-stroke recovery, indicating its potential target for exercise mimetics in rehabilitation.

Long-term voluntary running improves cognitive ability in developing mice by modulating the cholinergic system, antioxidant ability, and BDNF/PI3K/Akt/CREB pathway

Moderate physical exercise has positive effects on memory. The present study aimed to investigate the impact of long-term exercise on spatial memory in developing mice, as well as its association with the cholinergic system, antioxidant activities, apoptosis factor, and BDNF/PI3K/Akt/CREB pathway in the brain. In this study, Y maze and Novel object recognition (NOR) tests were employed to assess the impact of long-term voluntary exercise on memory. The cholinergic system, antioxidant activities, and apoptosis factors in the brain were quantified using Elisa. Additionally, western blot analysis was conducted to determine the expression of relevant proteins in the BDNF/PI3K/Akt/CREB pathway. The findings demonstrated that prolonged voluntary wheel running exercise enhanced memory in developing mice, concomitant with increased catalase (CAT) activity and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the brain. Moreover, it could also increase the hippocampal acetylcholine (ACh) content and suppress the expression of neuronal apoptosis protein. Additionally, exercise also upregulated the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), phosphoinositide 3 kinases (PI3K), Akt, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB) in the hippocampus. These findings suggest that long-term voluntary wheel running exercise improves the spatial memory of developing mice by modulating the cholinergic system, antioxidant activities, apoptosis factors, and activating the BDNF/PI3K/Akt/CREB pathway.

TAF15 downregulation contributes to the benefits of physical training on dendritic spines and working memory in aged mice

Moderate physical training has been shown to hinder age-related memory decline. While the benefits of physical training on hippocampal memory function are well-documented, little is known about its impact on working memory, which is linked to the prelimbic cortex (PrL), one major subdivision of the prefrontal cortex. Here, we examined the effects of physical training on spatial working memory in a well-established animal model of physical training, starting at 16 months of age and continuing for 5 months (running wheel 1 h/day and 5 days/week). This training strategy improved spatial working memory in aged mice (22-month-old), which was accompanied by an increased spine density and a lower TAF15 expression in the PrL. Specifically, physical training affected both thin and mushroom-type spines on PrL pyramidal cells, and prevented age-related loss of spines on selective segments of apical dendritic branches. Correlation analysis revealed that increased TAF15-expression was detrimental to the dendritic spines. However, physical training downregulated TAF15 expression in the PrL, preserving the dendritic spines on PrL pyramidal cells and improving working memory in trained aged mice. When TAF15 was overexpressed in the PrL via a viral approach, the benefits of physical training on the dendritic spines and working memory were abolished. These data suggest that physical training at a moderate pace might downregulate TAF15 expression in the PrL, which favors the dendritic spines on PrL pyramidal cells, thereby improving spatial working memory.

Effects of Practicing Closed- vs. Open-Skill Exercises on Executive Functions in Individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

(1) Background: Previous studies have identified discrepancies in improvements in executive functioning in typically developing children when comparing closed- and open-skill exercise interventions. However, there is limited research on executive functioning in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study aims to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the impact of closed- and open-skill exercises on ADHD populations. (2) Methods: The PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews were followed to search seven databases to evaluate and analyze studies published from 2013 to 2023. Prospero: CRD42023460452. (3) Results: A meta-analysis of 578 subjects with ADHD in 11 RCTs (Randomized control trial) and 3 NRS (Non-randomized studies) revealed that closed-skill exercise significantly improved executive function subdomains, including inhibitory control (standardized mean differences (SMD) = -1.00), cognitive flexibility (SMD = -1.33), and working memory (SMD = -0.85). Furthermore, open-skill exercise was found to have a positive effect on inhibitory control (SMD = -1.98) and cognitive flexibility (SMD = -0.97) in ADHD patients. Both types of exercise interventions demonstrated an improvement in executive function compared to controls, with open-skill exercises exhibiting superior effects (Qb = 6.26). (4) Conclusions: The review recommends a 12-week intervention cycle with exercise at least twice a week of moderate or higher intensity as suitable for ADHD individuals. This review also encourages individuals with ADHD to engage in exercises involving multiple motor skill types.

Aerobic exercise improves depressive symptoms in the unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease

Aerobic exercise has been shown to have established benefits on motor function in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the impact of exercise on depressive symptoms in PD remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of regular exercise, specifically using a forced running wheel, on both motor performance and the prevalence of depression in a unilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of PD. The behavioral outcomes of exercise were assessed through the rotarod test (RT), forelimb adjusting step test (FAST), sucrose consumption test (SCT), and novelty sucrose splash test (NSST). Our data revealed evident depressive symptoms in the PD animals, characterized by reduced sucrose consumption in the SCT and diminished exploratory activity in the NSST compared to the naïve control group. Specifically, after 11 weeks of exercise, the PD exercise group demonstrated the most significant improvements in sucrose consumption in the SCT. Additionally, this group exhibited reduced immobility and increased exploratory behavior compared to the PD control group in the NSST. Furthermore, the PD exercise group displayed the greatest improvement in correcting forelimb stepping bias. Our results suggested that a regimen of running wheel exercise enhances motor abilities and mitigates the occurrence of depressive behaviors caused by 6-OHDA dopamine depletion in the PD rat model.

The relationship between BDNF and physical activity on depression

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the leading causes of disease burden and disability worldwide. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) seems to have an important role in the molecular mechanisms underlying MDD aetiology, given its implication in regulating neuronal plasticity. There is evidence that physical activity (PA) improves depressive symptoms, with a key role of BDNF in this effect. We aim to perform a systematic review examining the relationship between the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and the BDNF protein, PA and MDD.

METHODS

Both observational and experimental design original articles or systematic reviews were selected, according to the PRISMA statement.

RESULTS

Six studies evaluated the Val66Met polymorphism, suggesting a greater impact of physical activity on depression depending on the Val66Met genotype. More discordant findings were observed among the 13 studies assessing BDNF levels with acute or chronic exercise interventions, mainly due to the high heterogeneity found among intervention designs, limited sample size, and potential bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, there is cumulative evidence supporting the potential role of BDNF in the interaction between PA and MDD. However, this review highlights the need for further research with more homogeneous and standardised criteria, and pinpoints important confounding factors that must be considered in future studies to provide robust conclusions.

Specific exercise patterns generate an epigenetic molecular memory window that drives long-term memory formation and identifies ACVR1C as a bidirectional regulator of memory in mice

Exercise has beneficial effects on cognition throughout the lifespan. Here, we demonstrate that specific exercise patterns transform insufficient, subthreshold training into long-term memory in mice. Our findings reveal a potential molecular memory window such that subthreshold training within this window enables long-term memory formation. We performed RNA-seq on dorsal hippocampus and identify genes whose expression correlate with conditions in which exercise enables long-term memory formation. Among these genes we found Acvr1c, a member of the TGF ß family. We find that exercise, in any amount, alleviates epigenetic repression at the Acvr1c promoter during consolidation. Additionally, we find that ACVR1C can bidirectionally regulate synaptic plasticity and long-term memory in mice. Furthermore, Acvr1c expression is impaired in the aging human and mouse brain, as well as in the 5xFAD mouse model, and over-expression of Acvr1c enables learning and facilitates plasticity in mice. These data suggest that promoting ACVR1C may protect against cognitive impairment.

Multi-omics delineate growth factor network underlying exercise effects in an Alzheimer's mouse model

Physical exercise represents a primary defense against age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD). To impartially investigate the underlying mechanisms, we conducted single-nucleus transcriptomic and chromatin accessibility analyses (snRNA-seq and ATAC-seq) on the hippocampus of mice carrying AD-linked NL-G-F mutations in the amyloid precursor protein gene (APPNL-G-F) following prolonged voluntary wheel-running exercise. Our study reveals that exercise mitigates amyloid-induced changes in both transcriptomic expression and chromatin accessibility through cell type-specific transcriptional regulatory networks. These networks converge on the activation of growth factor signaling pathways, particularly the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and insulin signaling, correlating with an increased proportion of immature dentate granule cells and oligodendrocytes. Notably, the beneficial effects of exercise on neurocognitive functions can be blocked by pharmacological inhibition of EGFR and the downstream phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K). Furthermore, exercise leads to elevated levels of heparin-binding EGF (HB-EGF) in the blood, and intranasal administration of HB-EGF enhances memory function in sedentary APPNL-G-F mice. These findings offer a panoramic delineation of cell type-specific hippocampal transcriptional networks activated by exercise and suggest EGF-related growth factor signaling as a druggable contributor to exercise-induced memory enhancement, thereby suggesting therapeutic avenues for combatting AD-related cognitive decline.

Sensory Stimulation-dependent Npas4 Expression in the Olfactory Bulb during Early Postnatal Development

The development of the olfactory system is influenced by sensory inputs, and it maintains neuronal generation and plasticity throughout the lifespan. The olfactory bulb contains a higher proportion of interneurons than other brain regions, particularly during the early postnatal period of neurogenesis. Although the relationship between sensory stimulation and olfactory bulb development during the postnatal period has been well studied, the molecular mechanisms have yet to be identified. In this study, we used western blotting and immunohistochemistry to analyze the expression of the transcription factor Npas4, a neuron-specific immediate-early gene that acts as a developmental regulator in many brain regions. We found that Npas4 is highly expressed in olfactory bulb interneurons during the early postnatal stages and gradually decreases toward the late postnatal stages. Npas4 expression was observed in all olfactory bulb layers, including the rostral migratory stream, where newborn neurons are generated and migrate to the olfactory bulb. Under sensory deprivation, the olfactory bulb size and the number of olfactory bulb interneurons were reduced. Furthermore, Npas4 expression and the expression of putative Npas4 downstream molecules were decreased. Collectively, these findings indicate that Npas4 expression induced by sensory input plays a role in the formation of neural circuits with excitatory mitral/tufted cells by regulating the survival of olfactory bulb interneurons during the early stages of postnatal development.

The newly discovered glymphatic system: the missing link between physical exercise and brain health?

Dementias are responsible for the most frequent neurodegenerative diseases and the seventh leading cause of death worldwide. As a result, there is a growing effort by the neuroscientific community to understand the physiopathology of neurodegenerative diseases, including how to alleviate the effects of the cognitive decline by means of non-pharmacological therapies (e.g., physical exercise). Studies have shown that exercise can improve aspects of brain health related to cognition. However, there still needs to be more knowledge regarding the mechanisms controlling these relationships, and a newly discovered cleansing system in the brain, named the glymphatic system, can be the missing link in this mechanism. The objective of this paper is to review recent findings regarding the potential impacts of physical exercise on the glymphatic system and its implications for the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, considering the close interplay between exercise and sleep quality, we aim to explore how sleep patterns may intersect with exercise-induced effects on glymphatic function, further elucidating the complex relationship between lifestyle factors and brain health.

Physical exercise for people with Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Physical exercise is effective in managing Parkinson's disease (PD), but the relative benefit of different exercise types remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the effects of different types of physical exercise in adults with PD on the severity of motor signs, quality of life (QoL), and the occurrence of adverse events, and to generate a clinically meaningful treatment ranking using network meta-analyses (NMAs).

SEARCH METHODS

An experienced information specialist performed a systematic search for relevant articles in CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and five other databases to 17 May 2021. We also searched trial registries, conference proceedings, and reference lists of identified studies up to this date.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing one type of physical exercise for adults with PD to another type of exercise, a control group, or both.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data. A third author was involved in case of disagreements. We categorized the interventions and analyzed their effects on the severity of motor signs, QoL, freezing of gait, and functional mobility and balance up to six weeks after the intervention using NMAs. Two review authors independently assessed the risk of bias using the risk of bias 2 (RoB 2) tool and rated the confidence in the evidence using the CINeMA approach for results on the severity of motor signs and QoL. We consulted a third review author to resolve any disagreements. Due to heterogeneous reporting of adverse events, we summarized safety data narratively and rated our confidence in the evidence using the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 154 RCTs with a total of 7837 participants with mostly mild to moderate disease and no major cognitive impairment. The number of participants per study was small (mean 51, range from 10 to 474). The NMAs on the severity of motor signs and QoL included data from 60 (2721 participants), and 48 (3029 participants) trials, respectively. Eighty-five studies (5192 participants) provided safety data. Here, we present the main results. We observed evidence of beneficial effects for most types of physical exercise included in our review compared to a passive control group. The effects on the severity of motor signs and QoL are expressed as scores on the motor scale of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS-M) and the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire 39 (PDQ-39), respectively. For both scales, higher scores denote higher symptom burden. Therefore, negative estimates reflect improvement (minimum clinically important difference: -2.5 for UPDRS-M and -4.72 for PDQ-39). Severity of motor signs The evidence from the NMA (60 studies; 2721 participants) suggests that dance and gait/balance/functional training probably have a moderate beneficial effect on the severity of motor signs (dance: mean difference (MD) -10.18, 95% confidence interval (CI) -14.87 to -5.36; gait/balance/functional training: MD -7.50, 95% CI -11.39 to -3.48; moderate confidence), and multi-domain training probably has a small beneficial effect on the severity of motor signs (MD -5.90, 95% CI -9.11 to -2.68; moderate confidence). The evidence also suggests that endurance, aqua-based, strength/resistance, and mind-body training might have a small beneficial effect on the severity of motor signs (endurance training: MD -5.76, 95% CI -9.78 to -1.74; aqua-based training: MD -5.09, 95% CI -10.45 to 0.40; strength/resistance training: MD -4.96, 95% CI -9.51 to -0.40; mind-body training: MD -3.62, 95% CI -7.24 to 0.00; low confidence). The evidence is very uncertain about the effects of "Lee Silverman Voice training BIG" (LSVT BIG) and flexibility training on the severity of motor signs (LSVT BIG: MD -6.70, 95% CI -16.48 to 3.08; flexibility training: MD 4.20, 95% CI -1.61 to 9.92; very low confidence). Quality of life The evidence from the NMA (48 studies; 3029 participants) suggests that aqua-based training probably has a large beneficial effect on QoL (MD -15.15, 95% CI -23.43 to -6.87; moderate confidence). The evidence also suggests that mind-body, gait/balance/functional, and multi-domain training and dance might have a small beneficial effect on QoL (mind-body training: MD -7.22, 95% CI -13.57 to -0.70; gait/balance/functional training: MD -6.17, 95% CI -10.75 to -1.59; multi-domain training: MD -5.29, 95% CI -9.51 to -1.06; dance: MD -3.88, 95% CI -10.92 to 3.00; low confidence). The evidence is very uncertain about the effects of gaming, strength/resistance, endurance, and flexibility training on QoL (gaming: MD -8.99, 95% CI -23.43 to 5.46; strength/resistance training: MD -6.70, 95% CI -12.86 to -0.35; endurance training: MD -6.52, 95% CI -13.74 to 0.88; flexibility training: MD 1.94, 95% CI -10.40 to 14.27; very low confidence). Adverse events Only 85 studies (5192 participants) provided some kind of safety data, mostly only for the intervention groups. No adverse events (AEs) occurred in 40 studies and no serious AEs occurred in four studies. AEs occurred in 28 studies. The most frequently reported events were falls (18 studies) and pain (10 studies). The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of physical exercise on the risk of adverse events (very low confidence). Across outcomes, we observed little evidence of differences between exercise types.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence of beneficial effects on the severity of motor signs and QoL for most types of physical exercise for people with PD included in this review, but little evidence of differences between these interventions. Thus, our review highlights the importance of physical exercise regarding our primary outcomes severity of motor signs and QoL, while the exact exercise type might be secondary. Notably, this conclusion is consistent with the possibility that specific motor symptoms may be treated most effectively by PD-specific programs. Although the evidence is very uncertain about the effect of exercise on the risk of adverse events, the interventions included in our review were described as relatively safe. Larger, well-conducted studies are needed to increase confidence in the evidence. Additional studies recruiting people with advanced disease severity and cognitive impairment might help extend the generalizability of our findings to a broader range of people with PD.

Systematic review on effects of experimental orthodontic tooth displacement on brain activation assessed by fMRI

BACKGROUND

Orthodontic treatment is often accompanied by discomfort and pain in patients, which are believed to be a result of orthodontic tooth displacement caused by the mechanical forces exerted by the orthodontic appliances on the periodontal tissues. These lead to change blood oxygen level dependent response in related brain regions.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review aims to assess the impact of experimental orthodontic tooth displacement on alterations in central nervous system activation assessed by tasked based and resting state fMRI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was conducted using online databases, following PRISMA guidelines and the PICO framework. Selected studies utilized magnetic resonance imaging to examine the brain activity changes in healthy participants after the insertion of orthodontic appliances.

RESULTS

The initial database screening resulted in 791 studies. Of these, 234 were duplicates and 547 were deemed irrelevant considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Of the ten remaining potential relevant studies, two were excluded during full-text screening. Eight prospective articles were eligible for further analysis. The included studies provided evidence of the intricate interplay between orthodontic treatment, pain perception, and brain function. All of the participants in the included studies employed orthodontic separators in short-term experiments to induce tooth displacement during the early stage of orthodontic treatment. Alterations in brain activation were observed in brain regions, functional connectivity and brain networks, predominantly affecting regions implicated in nociception (thalamus, insula), emotion (insula, frontal areas), and cognition (frontal areas, cerebellum, default mode network).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that orthodontic treatment influences beyond the pain matrix and affects other brain regions including the limbic system. Furthermore, understanding the orthodontically induced brain activation can aid in development of targeted pain management strategies that do not adversely affect orthodontic tooth movement. Due to the moderate to serious risk of bias and the heterogeneity among the included studies, further clinical trials on this subject are recommended.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of physical exercise on white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults

In the context of a globally aging population, exploring interventions that counteract age-related cognitive decline and cerebral structural alterations is paramount. Among various strategies, physical exercise (PE) emerges as a prevalent activity routinely incorporated in many individuals' lives. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to elucidate the impact of PE on white matter (WM) integrity and cognitive function in older adults. Data from 581 participants, 312 in the PE intervention group, and 269 in the control group were extracted from nine randomized controlled trials (RCTs) retrieved from databases including PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library. The results indicated a significant improvement in white matter (WM) integrity in individuals engaged in PE, as evidenced by enhanced fractional anisotropy (FA) scores (SMD = 0.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.05, 0.75], P = 0.024). The GRADE assessment revealed a moderate risk. However, no significant associations were found between PE and other metrics such as radial diffusivity (RD), mean diffusivity (MD), white matter volume (WMV), hippocampal volume (HV), and cognitive functions (executive function [EF], memory, processing speed). In conclusion, our study emphasizes the potential neurostructural and cognitive functional benefits of physical exercise for the brain health of older adults.

The causal relationship between physical activity, sedentary behavior and brain cortical structure: a Mendelian randomization study

Physical activity and sedentary behavior, both distinct lifestyle behaviors associated with brain health, have an unclear potential relationship with brain cortical structure. This study aimed to determine the causal link between physical activity, sedentary behavior, and brain cortical structure (cortical surface area and thickness) through Mendelian randomization analysis. The inverse-variance weighted method was primarily utilized, accompanied by sensitivity analyses, to confirm the results' robustness and accuracy. Analysis revealed nominally significant findings, indicating a potential positive influence of physical activity on cortical thickness in the bankssts (β = 0.002 mm, P = 0.043) and the fusiform (β = 0.002 mm, P = 0.018), and a potential negative association of sedentary behavior with cortical surface area in the caudal middle frontal (β = -34.181 mm2, P = 0.038) and the pars opercularis (β = -33.069 mm2, P = 0.002), alongside a nominally positive correlation with the cortical surface area of the inferior parietal (β = 58.332 mm2, P = 0.035). Additionally, a nominally significant negative correlation was observed between sedentary behavior and cortical thickness in the paracentral (β = -0.014 mm, P = 0.042). These findings offer insights into how lifestyle behaviors may influence brain cortical structures, advancing our understanding of their interaction with brain health.

Data-driven MRI analysis reveals fitness-related functional change in default mode network and cognition following an exercise intervention

Previous research has indicated that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is structurally and functionally neuroprotective in older adults. However, questions remain regarding the mechanistic role of CRF on cognitive and brain health. The purposes of this study were to investigate if higher pre-intervention CRF was associated with greater change in functional brain connectivity during an exercise intervention and to determine if the magnitude of change in connectivity was related to better post-intervention cognitive performance. The sample included low-active older adults (n = 139) who completed a 6-month exercise intervention and underwent neuropsychological testing, functional neuroimaging, and CRF testing before and after the intervention. A data-driven multi-voxel pattern analysis was performed on resting-state MRI scans to determine changes in whole-brain patterns of connectivity from pre- to post-intervention as a function of pre-intervention CRF. Results revealed a positive correlation between pre-intervention CRF and changes in functional connectivity in the precentral gyrus. Using the precentral gyrus as a seed, analyses indicated that CRF-related connectivity changes within the precentral gyrus were derived from increased correlation strength within clusters located in the Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) and increased anti-correlation strength within clusters located in the Default Mode Network (DMN). Exploratory analysis demonstrated that connectivity change between the precentral gyrus seed and DMN clusters were associated with improved post-intervention performance on perceptual speed tasks. These findings suggest that in a sample of low-active and mostly lower-fit older adults, even subtle individual differences in CRF may influence the relationship between functional connectivity and aspects of cognition following a 6-month exercise intervention.

Combining physical & cognitive training with iPSC-derived dopaminergic neuron transplantation promotes graft integration & better functional outcome in parkinsonian marmosets

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a relentlessly progressive and currently incurable neurodegenerative disease with significant unmet medical needs. Since PD stems from the degeneration of midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons in a defined brain location, PD patients are considered optimal candidates for cell replacement therapy. Clinical trials for cell transplantation in PD are beginning to re-emerge worldwide with a new focus on induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as a source of DA neurons since they can be derived from adult somatic cells and produced in large quantities under current good manufacturing practices. However, for this therapeutic strategy to be realized as a viable clinical option, fundamental translational challenges need to be addressed including the manufacturing process, purity and efficacy of the cells, the method of delivery, the extent of host reinnervation and the impact of patient-centered adjunctive interventions. In this study we report on the impact of physical and cognitive training (PCT) on functional recovery in the nonhuman primate (NHP) model of PD after cell transplantation. We observed that at 6 months post-transplant, the PCT group returned to normal baseline in their daily activity measured by actigraphy, significantly improved in their sensorimotor and cognitive tasks, and showed enhanced synapse formation between grafted cells and host cells. We also describe a robust, simple, efficient, scalable, and cost-effective manufacturing process of engraftable DA neurons derived from iPSCs. This study suggests that integrating PCT with cell transplantation therapy could promote optimal graft functional integration and better outcome for patients with PD.

The impact of adult neurogenesis on affective functions: of mice and men

In most mammals, new neurons are not only produced during embryogenesis but also after birth. Soon after adult neurogenesis was discovered, the influence of recruiting new neurons on cognitive functions, especially on memory, was documented. Likewise, the late process of neuronal production also contributes to affective functions, but this outcome was recognized with more difficulty. This review covers hypes and hopes of discovering the influence of newly-generated neurons on brain circuits devoted to affective functions. If the possibility of integrating new neurons into the adult brain is a commonly accepted faculty in the realm of mammals, the reluctance is strong when it comes to translating this concept to humans. Compiling data suggest now that new neurons are derived not only from stem cells, but also from a population of neuroblasts displaying a protracted maturation and ready to be engaged in adult brain circuits, under specific signals. Here, we discuss the significance of recruiting new neurons in the adult brain circuits, specifically in the context of affective outcomes. We also discuss the fact that adult neurogenesis could be the ultimate cellular process that integrates elements from both the internal and external environment to adjust brain functions. While we must be critical and beware of the unreal promises that Science could generate sometimes, it is important to continue exploring the potential of neural recruitment in adult primates. Reporting adult neurogenesis in humankind contributes to a new vision of humans as mammals whose brain continues to develop throughout life. This peculiar faculty could one day become the target of treatment for mental health, cognitive disorders, and elderly-associated diseases. The vision of an adult brain which never stops integrating new neurons is a real game changer for designing new therapeutic interventions to treat mental disorders associated with substantial morbidity, mortality, and social costs.

Considering the response in addition to the challenge - a narrative review in appraisal of a motor reserve framework

The remarkable increase in human life expectancy over the past century has been achieved at the expense of the risk of age-related impairment and disease. Neurodegeneration, be it part of normal aging or due to neurodegenerative disorders, is characterized by loss of specific neuronal populations, leading to increasing clinical impairment. The individual course may be described as balance between aging- or disease-related pathology and intrinsic mechanisms of adaptation. There is plenty of evidence that the human brain is provided with exhaustible resources to maintain function in the face of adverse conditions. While a reserve concept has mainly been coined in cognitive neuroscience, emerging evidence suggests similar mechanisms to underlie individual differences of adaptive capacity within the motor system. In this narrative review, we summarize what has been proposed to date about a motor reserve (mR) framework. We present current evidence from research in aging subjects and people with neurological conditions, followed by a description of what is known about potential neuronal substrates of mR so far. As there is no gold standard of mR quantification, we outline current approaches which describe various indicators of mR. We conclude by sketching out potential future directions of research. Expediting our understanding of differences in individual motor resilience towards aging and disease will eventually contribute to new, individually tailored therapeutic strategies. Provided early diagnosis, enhancing the individual mR may be suited to postpone disease onset by years and may be an efficacious contribution towards healthy aging, with an increased quality of life for the elderly.

Magnetic resonance elastography captures a transient benefit of exercise intervention on forebrain stiffness in a rat model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

BACKGROUND

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), a group of prevalent conditions resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure, affect the maturation of cerebral white matter as first identified with neuroimaging. However, traditional methods are unable to track subtle microstructural alterations to white matter. This preliminary study uses a highly sensitive and clinically translatable magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) protocol to assess brain tissue microstructure through its mechanical properties following an exercise intervention in a rat model of FASD.

METHODS

Female rat pups were either alcohol-exposed (AE) via intragastric intubation of alcohol in milk substitute (5.25 g/kg/day) or sham-intubated (SI) on postnatal days (PD) four through nine to model alcohol exposure during the brain growth spurt. On PD 30, half of AE and SI rats were randomly assigned to either a wheel-running or standard cage for 12 days. Magnetic resonance elastography was used to measure whole brain and callosal mechanical properties at the end of the intervention (around PD 42) and at 1 month post-intervention, and findings were validated with histological quantification of oligoglia.

RESULTS

Alcohol exposure reduced forebrain stiffness (p = 0.02) in standard-housed rats. The adolescent exercise intervention mitigated this effect, confirming that increased aerobic activity supports proper neurodevelopmental trajectories. Forebrain damping ratio was lowest in standard-housed AE rats (p < 0.01), but this effect was not mitigated by intervention exposure. At 1 month post-intervention, all rats exhibited comparable forebrain stiffness and damping ratio (p > 0.05). Callosal stiffness and damping ratio increased with age. With cessation of exercise, there was a negative rebound effect on the quantity of callosal oligodendrocytes, irrespective of treatment group, which diverged from our MRE results.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first application of MRE to measure the brain's mechanical properties in a rodent model of FASD. MRE successfully captured alcohol-related changes in forebrain stiffness and damping ratio. Additionally, MRE identified an exercise-related increase to forebrain stiffness in AE rats.

Whole body vibration ameliorates anxiety-like behavior and memory functions in 30 months old senescent male rats

Whole body vibration (WBV) is a form of passive exercise that offers an alternative physical training to aged individuals with limitations in their physical and mental capabilities. The aim of the present study was to explore the therapeutic potential of five weeks of WBV on anxiety-like behaviors as well as learning and memory abilities in senescent thirty months old rats. Animals were exposed to 5 min vibration twice per day, five times per week during the five consecutive weeks. Pseudo WBV treated animals served as controls. After five weeks of WBV treatment, animals were tested for anxiety-like behavior by the open field test and for spatial and object memory functions by the novel and spatial object recognition tests, respectively. As a result, anxiety-like and exploratory behaviors were significantly improved in the WBV treated group compared to the pseudo WBV group. Furthermore, WBV treatment increased discrimination performance in both spatial and object memory function testing. These results indicate that WBV treatment in thirty months old rats seems to have comparable beneficial effects on age-related emotional and cognitive performance as what has been reported in younger age groups.

Potential effect of physical exercise on the downregulation of BDNF mRNA expression in rat hippocampus following intracerebral hemorrhage

OBJECTIVES

Physical exercise is known to induce expression of the neuroprotective brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. This study examined the effects of physical exercise on hippocampal BDNF expression and the potential benefits for preventing remote secondary hippocampal damage and neurological impairment following intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Wistar rats were randomly assigned to sham-operated, ICH, and ICH followed by exercise (ICH/Ex) groups. The two ICH groups were injected with type IV collagenase into the left basal ganglia, while sham animals were injected with equal-volume saline. The ICH/Ex group rats ran on a treadmill at 11 m/min for 30 min/day from day 3 to 16 post-ICH. All animals were examined for neurological function on day 2 pretreatment and from day 3 to 15 posttreatment, for spontaneous motor activity in the open field on day 15, and for cognitive ability using the object location test on day 16. Animals were then euthanized and bilateral hippocampi collected for gene expression analyses.

RESULTS

Experimental ICH induced neurological deficits that were not reversed by exercise. In contrast, ICH did not alter spontaneous activity or object location ability. Expression of BDNF mRNA of the ICH group was significantly downregulated in the ipsilateral hippocampus compared to the SHAM group, but this downregulation was not shown in the ICH/Ex group. The ICH/Ex group showed the downregulation of caspase-3 mRNA expression in the contralateral hippocampus compared to the SHAM group, while neither ICH nor exercise influenced toll-like receptor 4 mRNA expression.

CONCLUSIONS

ICH induced the secondary BDNF downregulation in the hippocampus remote from the lesion, whereas physical exercise might partially mitigate the downregulation.

Cognitive and behavioural rehabilitation interventions for survivors of childhood cancer with neurocognitive sequelae: A systematic review

There is considerable interest in cognitive and behavioural interventions to manage and improve neurocognitive (dys)functions in childhood cancer survivors and the literature is rapidly growing. This systematic review aimed to examine the literature of such interventions and their impact on executive functions (EFs) and attention. A search of relevant manuscripts was performed in PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science in March 2023 in accordance with the PRISMA statement. After screening 3737 records, 17 unique studies published between 2002 and 2022 were charted and summarized. Participants (N = 718) were mostly children (M = 12.2 years), who were long-term survivors (M = 5.0 years post treatment) of brain or CNS tumours (48%). Identified interventions included computerized cognitive training, physical activity, and cognitive interventions with compensatory strategy training. The highest quality RCT studies included computerized training (i.e., Cogmed), neurofeedback, and exergaming. Evidence suggests that Cogmed may improve the performance of certain working memory tasks (near transfer) and possibly improve visual attention tasks for individuals with working memory impairments. However, the evidence did not support far transfer of effects to real life. No significant effects (near or far-transfer) were found following neurofeedback and exergaming interventions. Finally, a knowledge gap was identified for interventions directed at long-term survivors in adulthood.

Measuring Neuroplasticity in Response to Cardiovascular Exercise in People With Stroke: A Critical Perspective

BACKGROUND

Rehabilitative treatments that promote neuroplasticity are believed to improve recovery after stroke. Animal studies have shown that cardiovascular exercise (CE) promotes neuroplasticity but the effects of this intervention on the human brain and its implications for the functional recovery of patients remain unclear. The use of biomarkers has enabled the assessment of cellular and molecular events that occur in the central nervous system after brain injury. Some of these biomarkers have proven to be particularly valuable for the diagnosis of severity, prognosis of recovery, as well as for measuring the neuroplastic response to different treatments after stroke.

OBJECTIVES

To provide a critical analysis on the current evidence supporting the use of neurophysiological, neuroimaging, and blood biomarkers to assess the neuroplastic response to CE in individuals poststroke.

RESULTS

Most biomarkers used are responsive to the effects of acute and chronic CE interventions, but the response appears to be variable and is not consistently associated with functional improvements. Small sample sizes, methodological variability, incomplete information regarding patient's characteristics, inadequate standardization of training parameters, and lack of reporting of associations with functional outcomes preclude the quantification of the neuroplastic effects of CE poststroke using biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

Consensus on the optimal biomarkers to monitor the neuroplastic response to CE is currently lacking. By addressing critical methodological issues, future studies could advance our understanding of the use of biomarkers to measure the impact of CE on neuroplasticity and functional recovery in patients with stroke.

Cognitive Dysfunction and Exercise: From Epigenetic to Genetic Molecular Mechanisms

Maintaining good health is crucial, and exercise plays a vital role in achieving this goal. It offers a range of positive benefits for cognitive function, regardless of age. However, as our population ages and life expectancy increases, cognitive impairment has become a prevalent issue, often coexisting with age-related neurodegenerative conditions. This can result in devastating consequences such as memory loss, difficulty speaking, and confusion, greatly hindering one's ability to lead an ordinary life. In addition, the decrease in mental capacity has a significant effect on an individual's physical and emotional well-being, greatly reducing their overall level of contentment and causing a significant financial burden for communities. While most current approaches aim to slow the decline of cognition, exercise offers a non-pharmacological, safe, and accessible solution. Its effects on cognition are intricate and involve changes in the brain's neural plasticity, mitochondrial stability, and energy metabolism. Moreover, exercise triggers the release of cytokines, playing a significant role in the body-brain connection and its impact on cognition. Additionally, exercise can influence gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms, leading to lasting improvements in brain function and behavior. Herein, we summarized various genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that can be modulated by exercise in cognitive dysfunction.

Relationship between physical activity and specific working memory indicators of depressive symptoms in university students

BACKGROUND

The detection rate of depression among university students has been increasing in recent years, becoming one of the main psychological diseases that endangers their physical and mental health. According to statistics, self-harm and suicide, for which there is no effective intervention, are the second leading causes of death.

AIM

To explore the relationship between different elements and levels of physical activity and college students' depression-symptom-specific working memory indicators.

METHODS

Of 143 college students were analyzed using the Beck Depression Self-Rating Scale, the Physical Activity Rating Scale, and the Working Memory Task.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference between college students with depressive symptoms and healthy college students in completing verbal and spatial working memory (SWM) tasks correctly (all P < 0.01). Physical Activity Scale-3 scores were significantly and positively correlated with the correct rate of the verbal working memory task (r = 0.166) and the correct rate of the SWM task (r = 0.210) (all P < 0.05). There were significant differences in the correct rates of verbal and SWM tasks according to different exercise intensities (all P < 0.05) and different exercise durations (all P < 0.05), and no significant differences in the correct rates of verbal and SWM tasks by exercise frequency (all P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

An increase in physical exercise among college students, particularly medium- and high-intensity exercise and exercise of 30 min or more, can improve the correct rate of completing working memory tasks.

Exercise-Induced Functional Changes in People with Parkinson's Disease following External Cueing and Task-Based Intervention

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to evaluate change in motor function, gait speed, dynamic balance, balance confidence, and quality of life (QoL) in nine participants with Parkinson's disease (PwPD) completing Lee Silverman Voice Treatment BIG (LSVT-BIG), an external cueing and task-based intervention. Although supported as an efficacious treatment in PwPD, there is limited research examining clinically meaningful change in outcome measures related to external cueing and task-based interventions.

Materials and Methods

This was a case series of nine PwPD (age range 64-76 years, 55% male) who completed the LSVT-BIG protocol. Disease duration ranged from 1 to 17 years and was classified as moderate in all participants (Hoehn and Yahr = 2 or 3). Outcome measures included motor function (MDS-UPDRS Part III Motor), gait speed, dynamic balance (MiniBEST), Activities-specific Balance Confidence (ABC), and Summary Index for PD Quality of Life 39 (PDQ-SI). Assessments were completed at baseline (BASE), end of treatment (EOT), and 4 weeks after EOT (EOT+4).

Results

Minimal detectable change (MDC) or minimal clinical important difference (MCID) was observed in one or more outcome measures in 8 of 9 participants at EOT and EOT+4 across domains of motor function (67%, 78%), gait speed (78%, 67%), balance confidence (44%, 33%), quality of life (44%, 78%), and dynamic balance (22%, 22%). Discussion. In this case series, 8 of 9 participants showed MDC or MCID changes across multiple functional domains. Improvements were observed immediately post (EOT) and 4-week post-treatment (EOT+4) suggesting a temporal component of the LSVT-BIG impact on functional change. Future research should include clinical trials to examine additional external cueing and task-based intervention efficacy with consideration of intensity, frequency, and mode of delivery across disease severity.

Cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with cortical thickness of medial temporal brain areas associated with spatial cognition in young but not older adults

Cardiorespiratory fitness has a potent effect on neurocognitive health, especially regarding the hippocampal memory system. However, less is known about the impact of cardiorespiratory fitness on medial temporal lobe extrahippocampal neocortical regions. Specifically, it is unclear how cardiorespiratory fitness modulates these brain regions in young adulthood and if these regions are differentially related to cardiorespiratory fitness in young versus older adults. The primary goal of this study was to investigate if cardiorespiratory fitness predicted medial temporal lobe cortical thickness which, with the hippocampus, are critical for spatial learning and memory. Additionally, given the established role of these cortices in spatial navigation, we sought to determine if cardiorespiratory fitness and medial temporal lobe cortical thickness would predict greater subjective sense of direction in both young and older adults. Cross-sectional data from 56 young adults (20-35 years) and 44 older adults (55-85 years) were included. FreeSurfer 6.0 was used to automatically segment participants' 3T T1-weighted images. Using hierarchical multiple regression analyses, we confirmed significant associations between greater cardiorespiratory fitness and greater left entorhinal, left parahippocampal, and left perirhinal cortical thickness in young, but not older, adults. Left parahippocampal cortical thickness interacted with age group to differentially predict subjective sense of direction in young and older adults. Young adults displayed a positive, and older adults a negative, correlation between left parahippocampal cortical thickness and sense of direction. Our findings extend previous work on the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and hippocampal subfield structure in young adults to left medial temporal lobe neocortical regions.

Trajectories and contributing factors of neural compensation in healthy and pathological aging

Neural degeneration is a hallmark of healthy aging and can be associated with specific cognitive impairments. However, neural degeneration per se is not matched by unremitting declines in cognitive abilities. Instead, middle-aged and older adults typically maintain surprisingly high levels of cognitive functioning, suggesting that the human brain can adapt to structural degeneration by neural compensation. Here, we summarize prevailing theories and recent empirical studies on neural compensation with a focus on often neglected contributing factors, such as lifestyle, metabolism and neural plasticity. We suggest that these factors moderate the relationship between structural integrity and neural compensation, maintaining psychological well-being and behavioral functioning. Finally, we discuss that a breakdown in neural compensation may pose a tipping point that distinguishes the trajectories of healthy vs pathological aging, but conjoint support from psychology and cognitive neuroscience for this alluring view is still scarce. Therefore, future experiments that target the concomitant processes of neural compensation and associated behavior will foster a comprehensive understanding of both healthy and pathological aging.

Relationship of Self-Reported Physical Activity with Cognition in Middle- Aged Adults

OBJECTIVE

The increasing prevalence of age-related cognitive decline highlights the importance of physical activity for cognitive health. Regular exercise has been associated with improved mental health and reduced risk of cognitive decline. This study investigated the connection between self-reported physical activity and cognitive function in middle-aged adults.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 56 Indian adults aged 30-55, selected based on a health screening questionnaire. Participants reported their physical activity using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-SF), which categorized them into low, moderate, and high activity levels. Cognitive functions, including visual memory, executive function, and attention, were assessed using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Automated Testing Battery (CANTAB). Results were statistically analyzed for relationships between cognitive domains and physical activity parameters using Pearson's correlation and linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

The study showed a significant positive correlation of attention with moderate and vigorous physical activity, while sedentary behavior negatively impacted attention. Linear regression showed that attention is affected by moderate-intensity activity whereas executive function and visual memory are affected by age.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the view that moderate and vigorous intensity activities may positively affect attention in middle-aged adults highlighting the benefits of physical activity.

The effects of an exercise intervention on neuroelectric activity and executive function in children with overweight/obesity: The ActiveBrains randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether a 20-week aerobic and resistance exercise program induces changes in brain current density underlying working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity.

METHODS

A total of 67 children (10.00 ± 1.10 years) were randomized into an exercise or control group. Electroencephalography (EEG)-based current density (μA/mm2 ) was estimated using standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA) during a working memory task (Delayed non-matched-to-sample task, DNMS) and inhibitory control task (Modified flanker task, MFT). In DNMS, participants had to memorize four stimuli (Pokemons) and then select between two of them, one of which had not been previously shown. In MFT, participants had to indicate whether the centered cow (i.e., target) of five faced the right or left.

RESULTS

The exercise group had significantly greater increases in brain activation in comparison with the control group during the encoding phase of DNMS, particularly during retention of second stimuli in temporal and frontal areas (peak t = from 3.4 to 3.8, cluster size [k] = from 11 to 39), during the retention of the third stimuli in frontal areas (peak t = from 3.7 to 3.9, k = from 15 to 26), and during the retention of the fourth stimuli in temporal and occipital areas (peak t = from 2.7 to 4.3, k = from 13 to 101). In MFT, the exercise group presented a lower current density change in the middle frontal gyrus (peak t = -4.1, k = 5). No significant change was observed between groups for behavioral performance (p ≥ 0.05).

CONCLUSION

A 20-week exercise program modulates brain activity which might provide a positive influence on working memory and inhibitory control in children with overweight/obesity.

Exercise habits and mental health: Exploring the significance of multimodal imaging markers

Engaging in regular physical activity and establishing exercise habits is known to have multifaceted benefits extending beyond physical health to cognitive and mental well-being. This study explores the intricate relationship between exercise habits, brain imaging markers, and mental health outcomes. While extensive evidence supports the positive impact of exercise on cognitive functions and mental health, recent advancements in multimodal imaging techniques provide a new dimension to this exploration. By using a cross-sectional multimodal brain-behavior statistic in participants with different exercise habits, we aim to unveil the intricate mechanisms underlying exercise's influence on cognition and mental health, including the status of depression, anxiety, and quality of life. This integration of exercise science and imaging promises to substantiate cognitive benefits on mental health and uncover functional and structural changes underpinning these effects. This study embarks on a journey to explore the significance of multimodal imaging metrics (i.e., structural and functional metrics) in deciphering the intricate interplay between exercise habits and mental health, enhancing the comprehension of how exercise profoundly shapes psychological well-being. Our analysis of group comparisons uncovered a strong association between regular exercise habits and improved mental well-being, encompassing factors such as depression, anxiety levels, and overall life satisfaction. Additionally, individuals who engaged in exercise displayed enhanced brain metrics across different modalities. These metrics encompassed greater gray matter volume within the left frontal regions and hippocampus, improved white matter integrity in the frontal-occipital fasciculus, as well as more robust functional network configurations in the anterior segments of the default mode network. The interplay between exercise habits, brain adaptations, and mental health outcomes underscores the pivotal role of an active lifestyle in nurturing a resilient and high-functioning brain, thus paving the way for tailored interventions and improved well-being.

Physical Exercise Promotes Beneficial Changes on Neurotrophic Factors in Mesolimbic Brain Areas After AMPH Relapse: Involvement of the Endogenous Opioid System

Addiction is a serious public health problem, and the current pharmacotherapy is unable to prevent drug use reinstatement. Studies have focused on physical exercise as a promising coadjuvant treatment. Our research group recently showed beneficial neuroadaptations in the dopaminergic system related to amphetamine-relapse prevention involving physical exercise-induced endogenous opioid system activation (EXE-OS activation). In this context, additional mechanisms were explored to understand the exercise benefits on drug addiction. Male rats previously exposed to amphetamine (AMPH, 4.0 mg/kg) for 8 days were submitted to physical exercise for 5 weeks. EXE-OS activation was blocked by naloxone administration (0.3 mg/kg) 5 min before each physical exercise session. After the exercise protocol, the rats were re-exposed to AMPH for 3 days, and in sequence, euthanasia was performed and the VTA and NAc were dissected. In the VTA, our findings showed increased immunocontent of proBDNF, BDNF, and GDNF and decreased levels of AMPH-induced TrkB; therefore, EXE-OS activation increased all these markers and naloxone administration prevented this exercise-induced effect. In the NAc, the same molecular markers were also increased by AMPH and decreased by EXE-OS activation. In this study, we propose a close relation between EXE-OS activation beneficial influence and a consequent neuroadaptation on neurotrophins and dopaminergic system levels in the mesolimbic brain area, preventing the observed AMPH-relapse behavior. Our outcomes bring additional knowledge concerning addiction neurobiology understanding and show that EXE-OS activation may be a potential adjuvant tool in drug addiction therapy.

Exercise evaluation with metabolic and ventilatory responses and blood lactate concentration in mice

This study aimed to clarify the differential exercise capacity between 2-month-old and 10-month-old mice using an incremental running test. Metabolic and ventilatory responses and blood lactate concentration were measured to evaluate exercise capacity. We examined whether incremental running test results reflected metabolic and ventilatory responses and blood lactate concentration observed during the steady-state running test. Metabolic response significantly declined with age, whereas ventilatory response was similar between the groups. A low-intensity/moderate exercise load of 10/min in an incremental running test was performed on both mice for 30 min. They showed a characteristic pattern in ventilatory response in 10-month mice. The results of incremental running tests didn't necessarily reflect the steady-state metabolic and ventilatory responses because some parameters showed an approximation and others did not in incremental and steady-state tests, which changed with age. Our study suggests metabolic and ventilatory responses depending on age and provides basic knowledge regarding the objective and quantitative assessment of treadmill running in an animal model.

Innovative drug delivery strategies to the CNS for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis (MS) represent a great emotional, financial and social burden. Despite intense efforts, great unmet medical needs remain in that field. MS is an autoimmune, chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease with no curative treatment up to date. The current therapies mostly act in the periphery and seek to modulate aberrant immune responses as well as slow down the progression of the disease. Some of these therapies are associated with adverse effects related partly to their administration route and show some limitations due to their rapid clearance and inability to reach the CNS. The scientific community have recently focused their research on developing MS therapies targeting different processes within the CNS. However, delivery of therapeutics to the CNS is mainly limited by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop new drug delivery strategies that ensure CNS availability to capitalize on identified therapeutic targets. Several approaches have been developed to overcome or bypass the BBB and increase delivery of therapeutics to the CNS. Among these strategies, the use of alternative routes of administration, such as the nose-to-brain (N2B) pathway, offers a promising non-invasive option in the scope of MS, as it would allow a direct transport of the drugs from the nasal cavity to the brain. Moreover, the combination of bioactive molecules within nanocarriers bring forth new opportunities for MS therapies, allowing and/or increasing their transport to the CNS. Here we will review and discuss these alternative administration routes as well as the nanocarrier approaches useful to deliver drugs for MS.

Exercise Reshapes the Brain: Molecular, Cellular, and Structural Changes Associated with Cognitive Improvements

Physical exercise is well known as a non-pharmacological and holistic therapy believed to prevent and mitigate numerous neurological conditions and alleviate ageing-related cognitive decline. To do so, exercise affects the central nervous system (CNS) at different levels. It changes brain physiology and structure, promoting cognitive improvements, which ultimately improves quality of life. Most of these effects are mediated by neurotrophins release, enhanced adult hippocampal neurogenesis, attenuation of neuroinflammation, modulation of cerebral blood flow, and structural reorganisation, besides to promote social interaction with beneficial cognitive outcomes. In this review, we discuss, based on experimental and human research, how exercise impacts the brain structure and function and how these changes contribute to cognitive improvements. Understanding the mechanisms by which exercise affects the brain is essential to understand the brain plasticity following exercise, guiding therapeutic approaches to improve the quality of life, especially in obesity, ageing, neurodegenerative disorders, and following traumatic brain injury.

Intermittent Fasting on Neurologic Diseases: Potential Role of Gut Microbiota

As the global population ages, the prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases is surging. These disorders have a multifaceted pathogenesis, entwined with genetic and environmental factors. Emerging research underscores the profound influence of diet on the development and progression of health conditions. Intermittent fasting (IF), a dietary pattern that is increasingly embraced and recommended, has demonstrated potential in improving neurophysiological functions and mitigating pathological injuries with few adverse effects. Although the precise mechanisms of IF's beneficial impact are not yet completely understood, gut microbiota and their metabolites are believed to be pivotal in mediating these effects. This review endeavors to thoroughly examine current studies on the shifts in gut microbiota and metabolite profiles prompted by IF, and their possible consequences for neural health. It also highlights the significance of dietary strategies as a clinical consideration for those with neurological conditions.

Perinatal Depression and the Role of Synaptic Plasticity in Its Pathogenesis and Treatment

Emerging evidence indicates that synaptic plasticity is significantly involved in the pathophysiology and treatment of perinatal depression. Animal models have demonstrated the effects of overstimulated or weakened synapses in various circuits of the brain in causing affective disturbances. GABAergic theory of depression, stress, and the neuroplasticity model of depression indicate the role of synaptic plasticity in the pathogenesis of depression. Multiple factors related to perinatal depression like hormonal shifts, newer antidepressants, mood stabilizers, monoamine systems, biomarkers, neurotrophins, cytokines, psychotherapy and electroconvulsive therapy have demonstrated direct and indirect effects on synaptic plasticity. In this review, we discuss and summarize the various patho-physiology-related effects of synaptic plasticity in depression. We also discuss the association of treatment-related aspects related to psychotropics, electroconvulsive therapy, neuromodulation, psychotherapy, physical exercise and yoga with synaptic plasticity in perinatal depression. Future insights into newer methods of treatment directed towards the modulation of neuroplasticity for perinatal depression will be discussed.

Aerobic exercise combined with chlorogenic acid exerts neuroprotective effects and reverses cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease model mice (APP/PS1) via the SIRT1/ /PGC-1α/PPARγ signaling pathway

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disease account for 60-80% of the total number of people with dementia, but its treatment and prevention strategies are still in a long process of exploration. It has been reported that a healthy lifestyle may be an effective non-pharmacological intervention for the prevention and treatment of AD, including increased physical activity and the consumption of polyphenol-rich foods. This study, therefore, investigated the effects of 8 weeks of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (EX), administration of chlorogenic acid administration (GCA), and a combination of both (EX+GCA) on β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition, inflammatory factors, oxidative stress markers, neuronal damage, and cognitive performance in the brains of AD model mice (APP/PS1) and which signaling pathways may be responsible for these effects. The study used Western blot to detect the expression of signaling pathway-related proteins, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect the expression of inflammatory factors, hematoxylin-eosin staining to detect hippocampal neuronal morphology, immunohistochemistry to detect changes in Aβ deposition in the hippocampus, an oxidative stress marker kit to detect oxidative stress status and the Morris water maze to detect changes in cognitive performance. This study showed that an 8-week intervention (EX/GCA/EX+GCA) activating the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway improved oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, Aβ deposition, and cognitive performance in mice. However, there was no obvious difference between the EX and GCA groups. In contrast, the combined EX+GCA intervention was significantly better than phase EX or GCA. Our study suggests that although relief of Aβ deposition, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, neuronal damage, and cognitive decline could also be achieved with EX or GCA, the combined EX+GCA intervention showed better results. These relief effects on AD-related conditions may be obtained by mediating the activation of the SIRT1/PGC-1α signaling pathway. This study is the first to explore the improvement of AD-related conditions with a combined lifestyle of EX+GCA. This healthy lifestyle could be a candidate option for the treatment of AD.

"Your brain can't wait": perspectives of children and adolescents with acquired brain injury and their parents on physical rehabilitation during the subacute phase

PURPOSE

Physical interventions during subacute rehabilitation have potential to improve functional recovery. This study explored the perspectives of children and adolescents with acquired brain injury (ABI) and their parents with respect to physical rehabilitation during the subacute phase.

METHODS

Thirteen children and adolescents with ABI and their parents were included and interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Interview transcripts were analysed using inductive thematic analysis approach.

RESULTS

Six themes were identified: 1) beliefs of physical rehabilitation, 2) content of physical rehabilitation, 3) tailored care, 4) impact of context, 5) communication and 6) transition. The importance of intensive physical practice was widely supported. The positive can-do mentality was emphasised to create an atmosphere of hope, meaning that every effort would be made to achieve maximum recovery. Intensive involvement of parents is considered essential during subacute rehabilitation including an open and mutual dialogue about the focus of rehabilitation, therapy goals and future participation in their own environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the need for an intensive rehabilitation approach, tailored to the individual's needs. The perspectives of children and adolescents and their parents in our study contribute to a better understanding of factors that are important for optimal recovery through physical rehabilitation during the subacute phase.

Brief environmental enrichment elicits metaplasticity on the insular cortex in vivo and reduces the strength of conditioned taste aversion

Environmental enrichment (EE) is known to improve memory and cognition and modulate the impact of aversive stimuli in animals, promoting the development of resilience to stressful situations. Likewise, it is known that EE can modulate synaptic plasticity as is the case of long-term potentiation (LTP). These findings have been described initially in ex vivo preparations, suggesting that the effects of EE are the result of an early modification of the synaptic excitability and transmission. In this regard, it is known that metaplasticity refers to the persistent modification, by previous activity, in the ability to induce synaptic plasticity. Our previous studies have shown that prior training in conditioned taste aversion (CTA) prevents the subsequent induction of LTP in the projection from the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (Bla) to the insular cortex (IC) in vivo. In addition, we have shown that CTA extinction allows the induction but not the maintenance of IC-LTP of the Bla-IC pathway. Recently, we also showed that prior exposure to environmental enrichment for three weeks reduces the strength of CTA, restoring the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in the IC. The present study aimed to analyze the effects of brief exposure to an enriched environment on the strength of aversive memory, as well as on the in vivo IC-LTP. To do so, adult rats were exposed for seven days to an EE, either before CTA training or LTP induction in the Bla-IC pathway. Our results demonstrate that a seven-day exposure to an enriched environment attenuates the aversive response to a strong CTA and allows the induction but not the maintenance of LTP in the insular cortex. These findings provide evidence that metaplastic regulation in a neocortical region takes part in the mechanisms through which brief exposure to enriched environments attenuates an aversive response.

Advancing Alzheimer's Therapeutics: Exploring the Impact of Physical Exercise in Animal Models and Patients

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the main neurodegenerative disorder characterized by several pathophysiological features, including the misfolding of the tau protein and the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, synaptic dysfunction, metabolic alterations, and cognitive impairment. These mechanisms collectively contribute to neurodegeneration, necessitating the exploration of therapeutic approaches with multiple targets. Physical exercise has emerged as a promising non-pharmacological intervention for AD, with demonstrated effects on promoting neurogenesis, activating neurotrophic factors, reducing Aβ aggregates, minimizing the formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), dampening inflammatory processes, mitigating oxidative stress, and improving the functionality of the neurovascular unit (NVU). Overall, the neuroprotective effects of exercise are not singular, but are multi-targets. Numerous studies have investigated physical exercise's potential in both AD patients and animal models, employing various exercise protocols to elucidate the underlying neurobiological mechanisms and effects. The objective of this review is to analyze the neurological therapeutic effects of these exercise protocols in animal models and compare them with studies conducted in AD patients. By translating findings from different approaches, this review aims to identify opportune, specific, and personalized therapeutic windows, thus advancing research on the use of physical exercise with AD patients.

Effects of reduced kinematic and social play experience on affective appraisal of human-rat play in rats

BACKGROUND

Play is a common and developmentally important behaviour in young mammals. Specifically in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), reduced opportunity to engage in rough-and-tumble (RT) play has been associated with impaired development in social competence. However, RT play is a complex behaviour having both a kinematic aspect (i.e., performing complex 3D manoeuvres during play fights) and a social aspect (interacting with a playful partner). There has been little research so far on disentangling the two aspects in RT play, especially on how these two aspects affect the affective appraisal of the intense physical contact during play.

RESULTS

To examine the developmental effects of kinematic and social play reduction on affective appraisal in rats, we subjected male Long-Evans rats from 21 days old to RT play experience that was reduced either kinematically (through playing in a low ceiling environment) or socially (through playing with a less playful Fischer-344 rat). Starting at 35 days, we measured their production of positively (50-kHz) and negatively (22-kHz) valenced ultrasonic vocalisations (USVs) in a 2-min standardised human-rat play procedure that mimicked the playful sequences of nape contact, pinning, and belly stimulation ('tickling') for ten days. We hypothesised that the rats with kinematically or socially reduced play would perceive the 'tickling' less positively and thus emit positive ultrasonic vocalisations at lower rates compared to control rats with non-reduced play experience. Our results confirmed that each of the treatments reduced play differently: while the kinematic reduction abolished playful pinnings entirely, the social reduction decreased the pinnings and made play highly asymmetric. During the tickling procedure, rats mostly produced 50 kHz USV, indicating that they appraised the procedure as positive. There was a wide inter individual variance and high individual consistency in rats' USV responses to 'tickling'. Crucially, neither the kinematically nor the socially reduced play experience affected either type of USV production when rats were 'tickled'.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding indicates that the ability to appraise play-like interactions as positive remains unaffected even when the kinematic or the social aspect of play experience was substantially curtailed.

Treadmill Exercise Improves Behavioral and Neurobiological Alterations in Restraint-Stressed Rats

Stress is a state that is known to impact an organism's physiological and psychological balance as well as the morphology and functionality of certain brain areas. In the present work, chronic restraint stress (CRS) model rats treated with treadmill exercise were used to examine anomalies associated to emotion and mood as well as molecular changes in the brain. Forty male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into control, stress, exercise, and stress+exercise groups. CRS were exposed to stress group rats and exercise group underwent a chronic treadmill exercise. Depressive-like behavior was evaluated with the forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST). For assessing anxiety-like behavior, the light-dark test (LDT) and the open field test (OFT) were used. The Morris water maze test (MWMT) was used for testing memory and learning. Brain's monoamine level and the expression of genes related to stress were measured. It was discovered that CRS lengthens latency in the MWMT, increases immobility in the FST and TST, decreases time in the light compartment, and causes hypoactivity in the OFT. CRS reduced the dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens(NAc). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), dopamine receptors, and serotonin receptor (HTR2A) gene expression in the prefrontal cortex, corpus striatum, and hypothalamus were decreased by CRS. Exercise on a treadmill leads to increase NAc's dopamine and noradrenaline levels and prevented behavioral alterations. Exercise increased the alterations of BDNF expressions in the brain in addition to improving behavior. As a result, CRS-induced behavioral impairments were effectively reversed by chronic treadmill exercise with molecular alterations in the brain.

Monitoring lasting changes to brain tissue integrity through mechanical properties following adolescent exercise intervention in a rat model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Background

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) encompass a group of highly prevalent conditions resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol exposure during the third trimester of pregnancy overlapping with the brain growth spurt is detrimental to white matter growth and myelination, particularly in the corpus callosum, ultimately affecting tissue integrity in adolescence. Traditional neuroimaging techniques have been essential for assessing neurodevelopment in affected youth; however, these methods are limited in their capacity to track subtle microstructural alterations to white matter, thus restricting their effectiveness in monitoring therapeutic intervention. In this preliminary study we use a highly sensitive and clinically translatable Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) protocol for assessing brain tissue microstructure through its mechanical properties following an exercise intervention in a rat model of FASD.

Methods

Rat pups were divided into two groups: alcohol-exposed (AE) pups which received alcohol in milk substitute (5.25 g/kg/day) via intragastric intubation on postnatal days (PD) four through nine during the rat brain growth spurt (Dobbing and Sands, 1979), or sham-intubated (SI) controls. In adolescence, on PD 30, half AE and SI rats were randomly assigned to either a modified home cage with free access to a running wheel or to a new home cage for 12 days (Gursky and Klintsova, 2017). Previous studies conducted in the lab have shown that 12 days of voluntary exercise intervention in adolescence immediately ameliorated callosal myelination in AE rats (Milbocker et al., 2022, 2023). MRE was used to measure longitudinal changes to mechanical properties of the whole brain and the corpus callosum at intervention termination and one-month post-intervention. Histological quantification of precursor and myelinating oligoglia in corpus callosum was performed one-month post-intervention.

Results

Prior to intervention, AE rats had lower forebrain stiffness in adolescence compared to SI controls ( p = 0.02). Exercise intervention immediately mitigated this effect in AE rats, resulting in higher forebrain stiffness post-intervention in adolescence. Similarly, we discovered that forebrain damping ratio was lowest in AE rats in adolescence ( p < 0.01), irrespective of intervention exposure. One-month post-intervention in adulthood, AE and SI rats exhibited comparable forebrain stiffness and damping ratio (p > 0.05). Taken together, these MRE data suggest that adolescent exercise intervention supports neurodevelopmental "catch-up" in AE rats. Analysis of the stiffness and damping ratio of the body of corpus callosum revealed that these measures increased with age. Finally, histological quantification of myelinating oligodendrocytes one-month post-intervention revealed a negative rebound effect of exercise cessation on the total estimate of these cells in the body of corpus callosum, irrespective of treatment group which was not convergent with noninvasive MRE measures.

Conclusions

This is the first application of MRE to measure changes in brain mechanical properties in a rodent model of FASD. MRE successfully captured alcohol-related changes to forebrain stiffness and damping ratio in adolescence. These preliminary findings expand upon results from previous studies which used traditional diffusion neuroimaging to identify structural changes to the adolescent brain in rodent models of FASD (Milbocker et al., 2022; Newville et al., 2017). Additionally, in vivo MRE identified an exercise-related alteration to forebrain stiffness that occurred in adolescence, immediately post-intervention.

A prospective analysis of physical activity and mental health in children: the GECKO Drenthe cohort

BACKGROUND

Mental health problems in young people have become a global health burden. The positive effects of physical activity on mental health in adults are well known but still not clear in children. The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent physical activity in early childhood would affect mental health in middle childhood.

METHODS

From the Dutch GECKO Drenthe birth cohort, 850 children (51.5% boys) were enrolled in this analysis. Physical activity and sedentary time were measured at age 5-6 using ActiGraph GT3X. Mental health was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) at age 5-6 and age 10-11. Multiple linear regression models were used to estimate the associations between physical activity, sedentary time and SDQ subscales, stratified by gender, adjusting for age, BMI, maternal education level, family size, accelerometer wear time and season, and additionally adjusting for SDQ scores at age 5-6 to take tracking of mental health over time into account.

RESULTS

Greater physical activity volume at age 5-6 was associated with lower peer problems scores at age 10-11 in boys and girls. An increase in MVPA was associated with lower peer problems scores in boys (b = -0.445, -0.713 to -0.176) and girls (b = -0.354, -0.601 to -0.107), however, increased sedentary time was linked to higher peer problems scores in boys (b = 1.18, 0.455 to 1.906) and girls (b = 0.870, 0.191 to 1.550). For hyperactivity, higher levels of physical activity volume and MVPA were associated with higher hyperactivity scores in boys. Increased sedentary time was related to lower hyperactivity scores in boys. Further adjustment for SDQ scores at age 5-6 attenuated associations between physical activity and hyperactivity in boys but hardly changed the relationships with peer problems. No significant associations between physical activity and other SDQ subscales or total difficulties scores were observed, neither in boys nor in girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Children who are more physically active at age 5-6 have fewer peer problems at age 10-11, and for boys, greater activity levels at age 5-6 could be an indicator of hyperactivity at age 10-11.