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Wang D, Chen X, Luo J, Shi P, Zhou Q, Li A, Pan Y. Comparison of chlorine and chlorine dioxide disinfection in drinking water: Evaluation of disinfection byproduct formation under equal disinfection efficiency. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 260:121932. [PMID: 38906077 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Disinfection efficiency and disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation are two important aspects deserving careful consideration when evaluating different disinfection protocols. However, most of the previous studies on the selection of disinfection methods by comparing DBP formation were carried out under the same initial/residual dose and contact time of different disinfectants, and such a practice may cause overdose or underdose of a certain disinfectant, leading to the inaccurate evaluation of disinfection. In this study, a comprehensive and quantitative comparison of chlorine (Cl2) and chlorine dioxide (ClO2) disinfection was conducted with regard to their DBP formation under equal disinfection efficiency. The microbial inactivation models as well as the Cl2 and ClO2 demand models were developed. On such basis, the integral CT (ICT) values were determined and used as a bridge to connect disinfection efficiency and DBP formation. For 3-log10 and 4-log10 reductions of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, ClO2 had 1.5 and 5.8 times higher inactivation ability than Cl2, respectively. In the premise of equal disinfection efficiency (i.e., the ICT ratios of Cl2 to ClO2 = 1.5 and 5.8), the levels of total organic chlorine, total organic bromine, and total organic halogen formed in the Cl2 disinfection were significantly higher than those formed in the ClO2 disinfection. Among the 35 target aliphatic DBPs, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) were the dominant species formed in both Cl2 and ClO2 disinfection. The total THM levels formed in Cl2 disinfection were 14.6 and 30.3 times higher than those in ClO2 disinfection, respectively. The total HAA levels formed in Cl2 disinfection were 3.5 and 5.4 times higher than those in ClO2 disinfection, respectively. Formation of the target 48 aromatic DBPs was much favored in Cl2 disinfection than that in ClO2 disinfection, and the formation levels was dominated by contact time. This study demonstrated that ClO2 had significant advantages over Cl2, especially at higher microorganism inactivation and lower DBP formation requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxiao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Xueyao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Jiayi Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Peng Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Qing Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Aimin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China.
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Arnaboldi S, Righi F, Mangeri L, Galuppini E, Bertasi B, Finazzi G, Varisco G, Ongaro S, Gandolfi C, Lamera R, Amboni P, Rota E, Balbino D, Colombo C, Gelmi M, Boffelli A, Gasparri S, Filipello V, Losio MN. Contamination source identification for the prompt management of a gastroenteritis outbreak caused by norovirus in drinking water in Northern Italy. Heliyon 2024; 10:e32767. [PMID: 38975098 PMCID: PMC11225738 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
In June 2022, a gastroenteritis outbreak occurred in a town in Northern Italy, possibly associated with the ingestion of norovirus from public drinking water. Noroviruses are highly infectious RNA viruses, with high stability in the environment. They are the primary cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide, and despite the fact that the disease is mainly self-limiting, norovirus infection can lead to severe illness in the immunocompromised, the elderly and children. Immediately after the notification of the suspected norovirus outbreak, faecal specimens were collected from hospitalised patients, and water samples were collected from public drinking fountains in the affected area, to confirm the presence of norovirus. Norovirus was detected in 80 % (95 % CI 0.58-0.91) of the faecal specimens, and in 50 % (95 % CI 0.28-0.72) of the water samples using RT (reverse transcription) Real-time PCR. The identification of GII genotype in all samples confirmed public drinking water as the source of norovirus contamination. In addition, in one faeces and one water sample, the co-presence of genotypes GI and GII was detected. The strains were typed by sequencing, with most of them belonging to the genotype GII.3. Immediately after the confirmation of norovirus contamination in public drinking water, the local competent authorities applied safety measures, resulting in a decline in number of cases. Moreover, after the application of disinfection protocols in the water plant, the sampling was repeated with negative results for norovirus in the affected area. However, positive samples were found in the neighbouring area (prevalence 10.00 %, 95 % CI 0.02-0.40) and in the water spring (prevalence 50.00 %, 95 % CI 0.21-0.78), suggesting norovirus persistence and spread from the water source. The prompt identification of the source of contamination, and collaboration with the local authorities guided the implementation of proper procedures to control viral spread, resulting in the successful control of the outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Arnaboldi
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesco Righi
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Lucia Mangeri
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Elisa Galuppini
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Barbara Bertasi
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Guido Finazzi
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
- National Reference Centre for Emerging Risks in Food Safety (CRESA), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giorgio Varisco
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Stefania Ongaro
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Camillo Gandolfi
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Rossella Lamera
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Paolo Amboni
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Elena Rota
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Deborah Balbino
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Constanza Colombo
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Martina Gelmi
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Alessandra Boffelli
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Serena Gasparri
- Department of Hygiene and Health, Agenzia di Tutela della Salute (ATS), Via Borgo Palazzo 130, 24100, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Virginia Filipello
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marina-Nadia Losio
- Food Safety Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Via A. Bianchi 9, 25124, Brescia, Italy
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Allende A, Férez-Rubio JA, Tudela JA, Aznar R, Gil MI, Sánchez G, Randazzo W. Human intestinal enteroids and predictive models validate the operational limits of sanitizers used for viral disinfection of vegetable process wash water. Int J Food Microbiol 2024; 413:110601. [PMID: 38301540 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Vegetables are globally associated with a considerable number of foodborne outbreaks caused by viral infections, specifically human norovirus. In fresh produce industry, washing represents a critical step for food safety as process wash water (PWW) needs to be maintained at appropriate microbial quality to prevent water-mediated cross-contamination. This study aimed to explore the disinfection efficacy of chlorine (free chlorine, FC), chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and peracetic acid (PAA) in PWW against infectious human norovirus and Tulane virus (TV). First, we tested the extent of TV inactivation in baby leaf, bell pepper, and vegetables mix PWW and monitored the viral decay by cell culture. Then, inactivation kinetics were defined for infectious human norovirus exposed to FC, ClO2 and PAA in baby leaves PWW using the human intestinal enteroids (HIE) system. Finally, kinetic inactivation models were fitted to TV reduction and decay of sanitizers to aid the implementation of disinfection strategies. Results showed that >8 log10 human norovirus and 3.9 log10 TV were inactivated by 20 ppm FC within 1 min; and by 3 ppm ClO2 in 1 min (TV) or 5 min (norovirus). PAA treatment at 80 ppm reduced ca. 2 log10 TV but not completely inactivated the virus even after 20 min exposure, while 5 min treatment prevented norovirus replication in HIE. TV inactivation in PWWs was described using an exponential decay model. Taking these data together, we demonstrated the value of applying the HIE model to validate current operational limits for the most commonly used sanitizers. The inactivation kinetics for human norovirus and TV, along with the predictive model described in this study expand the current knowledge to implement post-harvest produce safety procedures in industry settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Allende
- Research Group on Microbiology and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables (MxQ), Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 25, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - José Antonio Férez-Rubio
- Research Group on Microbiology and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables (MxQ), Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 25, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Tudela
- Research Group on Microbiology and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables (MxQ), Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 25, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Rosa Aznar
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain; Department of Microbiology and Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Maria Isabel Gil
- Research Group on Microbiology and Quality of Fruits and Vegetables (MxQ), Department of Food Science and Technology, CEBAS-CSIC, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, 25, 30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Gloria Sánchez
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain
| | - Walter Randazzo
- Department of Preservation and Food Safety Technologies, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, IATA-CSIC, Av. Agustín Escardino 7, Paterna 46980, Valencia, Spain.
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Hiep NT, Nguyen MK, Nhut HT, Hung NTQ, Manh NC, Lin C, Chang SW, Um MJ, Nguyen DD. A review on sterilization methods of environmental decontamination to prevent the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19 virus): A new challenge towards eco-friendly solutions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166021. [PMID: 37543323 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic is currently wreaking havoc on the planet. SARS-CoV-2, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, is the current term for this outbreak. Reports about this novel coronavirus have been presented since the pandemic's breakout, and they have demonstrated that it transmits rapidly from person to person, primarily by droplets in the air. Findings have illustrated that SARS-CoV-2 can survive on surfaces from hours to days. Therefore, it is essential to find practical solutions to reduce the virus's impact on human health and the environment. This work evaluated common sterilization methods that can decontaminate the environment and items. The goal is that healthcare facilities, disease prevention organizations, and local communities can overcome the new challenge of finding eco-friendly solutions. Further, a foundation of information encompassing various sterilization procedures and highlighting their limits to choose the most appropriate method to stop disease-causing viruses in the new context has been presented. The findings of this crucial investigation contribute to gaining insight into the comprehensive sterilization approaches against the coronavirus for human health protection and sustainable environmental development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen Trung Hiep
- Research Institute for Sustainable Development, Ho Chi Minh University of Natural Resources and Environment, 236B Le Van Sy, Ward 1, Tan Binh District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Minh-Ky Nguyen
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Nong Lam University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam; Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 81157, Taiwan
| | - Huynh Tan Nhut
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Nong Lam University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Nguyen Tri Quang Hung
- Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Nong Lam University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam.
| | - Nguyen Cong Manh
- Department of Aquatic and Atmospheric Environment Research, Research Institute of Biotechnology and Environment, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Viet Nam
| | - Chitsan Lin
- Department of Marine Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 81157, Taiwan
| | - S Woong Chang
- Department of Civil & Energy System Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, South Korea
| | - Myoung Jin Um
- Department of Civil & Energy System Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, South Korea
| | - D Duc Nguyen
- Department of Civil & Energy System Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, South Korea; Faculty of Environmental and Food Engineering, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, 300A Nguyen Tat Thanh, District 4, Ho Chi Minh City 755414, Viet Nam.
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Saguti F, Kjellberg I, Churqui MP, Wang H, Tunovic T, Ottoson J, Bergstedt O, Norder H, Nyström K. The Virucidal Effect of the Chlorination of Water at the Initial Phase of Disinfection May Be Underestimated If Contact Time Calculations Are Used. Pathogens 2023; 12:1216. [PMID: 37887732 PMCID: PMC10609707 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12101216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
For the microbiological safety of drinking water, disinfection methods are used to remove or inactivate microorganisms. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide are often used as disinfectants in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). We investigated the effectiveness of these chemicals in inactivate echovirus 30 (E30), simian 11 rotavirus (RV SA11), and human adenovirus type 2 (HAdV2) in purified water from a DWTP. Within two minutes of contact, chlorine dioxide inactivated E30 by 4-log10, RV SA11 by 3-log10, and HAdV2 could not be detected, while chlorine reduced E30 by 3-log10, RV SA11 by 2-3log10, and HAdV2 by 3-4log10. However, viral genomes could be detected for up to 2 h using qPCR. The CT method, based on a combination of disinfectant concentration and contact time, during such a short initial phase, is problematic. The high concentrations of disinfectant needed to neutralize organic matter may have a strong immediate effect on virus viability. This may lead to the underestimation of disinfection and overdosing of disinfectants in water with organic contamination. These results are useful for the selection of disinfection systems for reuse of treated wastewater and in the risk assessment of water treatment processes using chlorine and chlorine dioxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredy Saguti
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Inger Kjellberg
- Göteborgs Stad Kretslopp och Vatten, 424 23 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marianela Patzi Churqui
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Hao Wang
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Timur Tunovic
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jakob Ottoson
- Department of Risk and Benefit Assessment, Swedish Food Agency, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Olof Bergstedt
- Göteborgs Stad Kretslopp och Vatten, 424 23 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Helene Norder
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kristina Nyström
- Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Gothenburg, 413 46 Gothenburg, Sweden
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Zhang Y, Qiu J, Yang K, Lu Y, Xu Z, Yang H, Xu Y, Wang L, Lin Y, Tong X, He J, Xiao Y, Sun X, Huang R, Yu X, Zhong T. Generation, mechanisms, kinetics, and effects of gaseous chlorine dioxide in food preservation. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2023; 22:3105-3129. [PMID: 37199492 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Food preservation is a critical issue in ensuring food safety and quality. Growing concern around industrial pollution of food and demand for environmentally sustainable food has led to increased interest in developing effective and eco-friendly preservation techniques. Gaseous ClO2 has gained attention for its strong oxidizing properties, high efficacy in microorganism inactivation, and potential for preserving the attributes and nutritional quality of fresh food while avoiding the formation of toxic byproducts or unacceptable levels of residues. However, the widespread use of gaseous ClO2 in the food industry is limited by several challenges. These include large-scale generation, high cost and environmental considerations, a lack of understanding of its mechanism of action, and the need for mathematical models to predict inactivation kinetics. This review aims to provide an overview of the up-to-date research and application of gaseous ClO2 . It covers preparation methods, preservation mechanisms, and kinetic models that predict the sterilizing efficacy of gaseous ClO2 under different conditions. The impacts of gaseous ClO2 on the quality attributes of fresh produce and low-moisture foods, such as seeds, sprouts, and spices, are also summarized. Overall, gaseous ClO2 is a promising preservation approach, and future studies are needed to address the challenges in large-scale generation and environmental considerations and to develop standardized protocols and databases for safe and effective use in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Zhang
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Jiafan Qiu
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Kewen Yang
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Yuting Lu
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Zixian Xu
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Huanqi Yang
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Yuqing Xu
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Letao Wang
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Yu Lin
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Xinyang Tong
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Junge He
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Ying Xiao
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Xiuxiu Sun
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, Hilo, USA
| | - Ran Huang
- Academy for Engineering and Applied Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xi Yu
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
| | - Tian Zhong
- Faculty of Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, China
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Tofani S, Ianiro G, De Sabato L, Monini M, Angeloni G, Ponterio E, D'Agostino C, Di Bari MA, Valeri M, Di Bartolo I. Detection and whole genome sequencing of murine norovirus in animal facility in Italy. Anim Biotechnol 2022; 33:1142-1149. [PMID: 33511904 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2021.1876081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Viruses belonging to the genus Norovirus (NoV) of the family Caliciviridae are the major cause of acute viral gastroenteritis worldwide. NoVs are classified into 10 genogroups (GI-GX), and those belonging to the genogroup GV are able to infect several species of rodents. To evaluate the circulation of MNV among mice housed in an Italian facility, sampling was performed over two separate periods, in 2011, and 3 years later in 2014. During the two samplings, 75 fecal samples were collected from healthy mice housed in the animal facility and subjected to RT-PCR for viral detection. After the analysis, 41/75 animals (54.6%) resulted positive for the presence of MNV in feces. Nucleotide sequencing revealed the presence of two MNV variants co-circulating in both 2011 and 2014. One MNV strain was isolated on RAW264.7 cell line, and subjected to full genome sequencing. Our study showed that the murine noroviruses are widespread in the investigated animal facility, despite guidelines for animal care and maintenance. Full genome sequence analysis of the MNV strain described in this study showed a correlation with other strains circulating in Europe. Understanding the molecular epidemiology of this virus should give insight into its natural history and evolution in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Tofani
- Complex Virology Unit, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Lazio e Toscana "M. Aleandri", Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Ianiro
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Luca De Sabato
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Monini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Giorgia Angeloni
- Research and International Cooperation Office, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Eleonora Ponterio
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia D'Agostino
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Michele Angelo Di Bari
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Valeri
- Center for Animal Research and Welfare, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Di Bartolo
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Lanrewaju AA, Enitan-Folami AM, Sabiu S, Swalaha FM. A review on disinfection methods for inactivation of waterborne viruses. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:991856. [PMID: 36212890 PMCID: PMC9539188 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.991856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Water contamination is a global health problem, and the need for safe water is ever-growing due to the public health implications of unsafe water. Contaminated water could contain pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, and viruses that are implicated in several debilitating human diseases. The prevalence and survival of waterborne viruses differ from bacteria and other waterborne microorganisms. In addition, viruses are responsible for more severe waterborne diseases such as gastroenteritis, myocarditis, and encephalitis among others, hence the need for dedicated attention to viral inactivation. Disinfection is vital to water treatment because it removes pathogens, including viruses. The commonly used methods and techniques of disinfection for viral inactivation in water comprise physical disinfection such as membrane filtration, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and conventional chemical processes such as chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone among others. However, the production of disinfection by-products (DBPs) that accompanies chemical methods of disinfection is an issue of great concern due to the increase in the risks of harm to humans, for example, the development of cancer of the bladder and adverse reproductive outcomes. Therefore, this review examines the conventional disinfection approaches alongside emerging disinfection technologies, such as photocatalytic disinfection, cavitation, and electrochemical disinfection. Moreover, the merits, limitations, and log reduction values (LRVs) of the different disinfection methods discussed were compared concerning virus removal efficiency. Future research needs to merge single disinfection techniques into one to achieve improved viral disinfection, and the development of medicinal plant-based materials as disinfectants due to their antimicrobial and safety benefits to avoid toxicity is also highlighted.
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9
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Xu X, Cao R, Li K, Wan Q, Wu G, Lin Y, Huang T, Wen G. The protective role and mechanism of melanin for Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus against chlorine-based disinfectants. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 223:119039. [PMID: 36084430 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Revised: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Melanin is a critical component of fungal cell wall which protect fungi from adverse environmental tress. However, the role of melanin for fungi during the disinfection with chlorine-based disinfectants has not been elucidated. The results showed that the inactivation rate constants of Aspergillus niger with chlorine and chlorine dioxide decreased from 0.08 to 2.10 min-1 to 0 after addition of 0.32 mg/L melanin. The results indicated addition of extracted fungal melanin inhibited the inactivation efficiency of chlorine and chlorine dioxide. In contrast, the k of Aspergillus niger after inactivation with monochloramine ranged from 1.50 to 1.78 min-1 after addition of melanin which indicated effect of melanin on the inactivation efficiency of monochloramine was negligible. In addition, the extracted fungal melanin exhibited high reactivity with chlorine and chlorine dioxide but very low reactivity with monochloramine. The different inactivation mechanisms of chlorine-based disinfectants and different reactivity of melanin with chlorine-based disinfectants led to the different protective mechanism of melanin for A. niger and A. flavus spores against disinfection with chlorine-based disinfectants. The chlorine and chlorine dioxide appeared to react with functional groups of melanin in cell wall of spores, so sacrificial reactions between melanin and disinfectants decreased the available disinfectants and limited the diffusion of disinfectants to the reactive site on cell membrane, which led to the decrease of the disinfection efficiency for chlorine and chlorine dioxide. The monochloramine could penetrate into cell and damage DNA without the effect of melanin due to its strong penetration and low reactivity with melanin. Our results systematically demonstrate the protective roles of melanin on the fungal spores against chlorine-based disinfectants and the underlying mechanisms in resisting the environmental stress caused by chlorine-based disinfectants, which provides important implications for the control of fungi, especially for fungi producing melanin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangqian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Ruihua Cao
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Kai Li
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Qiqi Wan
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Gehui Wu
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Yuzhao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Tinglin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China
| | - Gang Wen
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architectur and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an 710055, China.
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10
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Wei R, Wang X, Liu X, Guo C. Chlorine Dioxide Inhibits African Swine Fever Virus by Blocking Viral Attachment and Destroying Viral Nucleic Acids and Proteins. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:844058. [PMID: 35372537 PMCID: PMC8968399 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.844058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious disease and provokes severe economic losses and health threats. At present no effective vaccine or treatment is available to prevent or cure ASF. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop effective drugs against ASF virus (ASFV). Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), an ideal biocide, has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity and no drug resistance. Here, we found that ClO2 strongly inhibited ASFV replication in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs). The inhibitory effect of ClO2 occurred during viral attachment rather than entry, indicating that ClO2 suppressed the early stage of virus life cycle. ClO2 showed a potent anti-ASFV effect when added either before, simultaneously with, or after virus infection. Furthermore, ClO2 could destroy viral nucleic acids and proteins, which may contribute to its capacity of inactivating ASFV virions. The minimum concentration of degradation of ASFV nucleic acids by ClO2 is 1.2 μg/mL, and the degradation is a temperature-dependent manner. These have guiding significance for ClO2 prevention and control of ASFV infection in pig farms. In addition, ClO2 decreased the expression of ASFV-induced inflammatory cytokines. Overall, our findings suggest that ClO2 may be an ideal candidate for the development of novel anti-ASFV prophylactic and therapeutic drugs in swine industry.
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11
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Qiao Z, Ye Y, Szczuka A, Harrison KR, Dodd MC, Wigginton KR. Reactivity of Viral Nucleic Acids with Chlorine and the Impact of Virus Encapsidation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:218-227. [PMID: 34905340 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Free chlorine disinfection is widely applied to inactivate viruses by reacting with their biomolecules, which include nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Knowing the reactivities of viral genomes with free chlorine and the protection that encapsidation provides would ultimately help predict virus susceptibility to the disinfectant. The relative reactivities of different viral genome types and the impact of viral higher order structure with free chlorine are poorly characterized. Here, we studied the reactivity of viral genomes representing four genome types from virus particles with diverse structures, namely, (+)ssRNA (MS2), dsRNA (φ6), ssDNA (φX174), and dsDNA (T3) with free chlorine. We compared the reactivities of these viral nucleic acids when they were suspended in phosphate buffer solutions (naked forms) and when they were in the native virus particles (encapsidated forms). The reactivities of nucleic acids were tracked by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays. The naked dsDNA of T3 was the least reactive with free chlorine, with an average second order rate constant normalized by the number of bases in the measured regions (in M-1 s-1 b-1) that was 34×, 65×, and 189× lower than those of the dsRNA of φ6, ssRNA of MS2, and ssDNA of φX174, respectively. Moreover, different regions in the ssRNA genome of MS2 and the dsRNA genome of φ6 exhibited statistically different reaction kinetics. The genomes within virus particles reacted slower than the naked genomes overall, but the extent of these differences varied among the four viruses. The results on viral nucleic acid reactivity help explain different susceptibilities of viruses to inactivation by free chlorine and also provide a valuable comparison of the susceptibilities of different nucleic acids to oxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Qiao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Yinyin Ye
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Civil, Structural, and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14260, United States
| | - Aleksandra Szczuka
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Katherine R Harrison
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Michael C Dodd
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Krista R Wigginton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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12
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Song M, Hossain MI, Jung S, Yeo D, Wang Z, Min A, Zhao Z, Park S, Choi C. Comparison of virucidal efficacy of sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide, peracetic acid, and ethanol against hepatitis A virus by carrier and suspension tests. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 363:109506. [PMID: 34990885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A carrier (stainless steel disc as a default carrier) testing method is very needed for use in the actual food-processing fields by following the standard guideline. Here, we aimed to compare the virucidal efficacy of four commercial liquid disinfectants, including sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and peracetic acid (PAA) against hepatitis A virus (HAV) following the OECD guideline protocol based on the quantitative carrier testing method and compared carrier testing results with the suspension testing results. The OECD method specifies a test for establishing whether a chemical disinfectant or a microbicide has a virucidal activity on hard non-porous surfaces. The antiviral efficacy was evaluated by plaque assays, and disinfectants were considered effective if the virus reduction was greater than or equal to 3 log10 (99.9% decrease) for carrier or 4 log10 (99.99% decrease) for suspension tests. Results indicated that ClO2 above 500 ppm and 50% ethanol were effective in the carrier test method. In contrast, more than 200 ppm NaOCl and 50 ppm ClO2 for all exposure times and 70% ethanol with contact for more than 5 min were effective in suspension tests. Treatment with PAA (80-2500 ppm) were not effective in carrier or suspension tests. Therefore, we recommend the use of more than 500 ppm ClO2 or 50% ethanol with exposure for 10 min to disinfect surfaces that may be contaminated with HAV. Thus, these results could be effective in establishing official antiviral efficacy testing methods and basic data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxiao Song
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Iqbal Hossain
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Soontag Jung
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Daseul Yeo
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhaoqi Wang
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ae Min
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Ziwei Zhao
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunho Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Changsun Choi
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Gyeonggi-Do 17546, Republic of Korea.
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13
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Masindi V, Foteinis S, Nduli K, Akinwekomi V. Systematic assessment of SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater, rivers and drinking water - A catchment-wide appraisal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 800:149298. [PMID: 34388648 PMCID: PMC8319043 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Human coronaviruses (HCoVs) attracted attention in 2002 with the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak, caused by the SARS-CoV virus (mortality rate 9.6%), and gained further notoriety in 2012 with the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) (mortality rate 34.3%). Currently, the world is experiencing an unprecedented crisis due to the COVID-19 global pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus in 2019. The virus can pass to the faeces of some patients, as was the case of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses. This suggests that apart from the airborne (droplets and aerosols) and person-to-person (including fomites) transmission, the faecal-oral route of transmission could also be possible for HCoVs. In this eventuality, natural water bodies could act as a virus reservoir of infection. Here, the temporospatial migration and attenuation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in municipal wastewater, the receiving environment, and drinking water is evaluated, using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in the South African setting. SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was identified in raw wastewater influent but was below the detection limit in the latter treatment stages. This suggests that the virus decays from as early as primary treatment and this could be attributed to wastewater's hydraulic retention time (2-4 h), composition, and more importantly temperature (>25 °C). Therefore, the probability of SARS-CoV-2 virus transportation in water catchments, in the eventuality that the virus remains infective in wastewater, appears to be low in the South African setting. Finally, catchment-wide monitoring offers a snapshot of the status of the catchment in relation to contagious viruses and can play a pivotal role in informing the custodians and downstream water users of potential risks embedded in water bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vhahangwele Masindi
- Magalies Water (MW), Scientific Services (SS), Research & Development (R&D) Division, Erf 3475, Stoffberg Street, Brits 0250, South Africa; Department of Environmental Science, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences (CAES), University of South Africa (UNISA), P.O. Box 392, Florida 1710, South Africa.
| | - Spyros Foteinis
- Research Centre for Carbon Solutions, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK.
| | - Kefilwe Nduli
- Magalies Water (MW), Scientific Services (SS), Research & Development (R&D) Division, Erf 3475, Stoffberg Street, Brits 0250, South Africa
| | - Vhahangwele Akinwekomi
- Magalies Water (MW), Scientific Services (SS), Research & Development (R&D) Division, Erf 3475, Stoffberg Street, Brits 0250, South Africa
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14
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Iakovides IC, Manoli K, Karaolia P, Michael-Kordatou I, Manaia CM, Fatta-Kassinos D. Reduction of antibiotic resistance determinants in urban wastewater by ozone: Emphasis on the impact of wastewater matrix towards the inactivation kinetics, toxicity and bacterial regrowth. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 420:126527. [PMID: 34329111 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of bench-scale ozonation on the inactivation of total cultivable and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus spp., and total heterotrophs), and the reduction of gene markers (16S rRNA and intl1) and antibiotic resistance genes (qacEΔ1, sul1, aadA1 and dfrA1) indigenously present in wastewater effluents treated by membrane bioreactor (MBR) or conventional activated sludge (CAS). The Chick-Watson model-predicted ozone exposure (CT) requirements, showed that higher CT values were needed for CAS- than MBR-treated effluents to achieve a 3-log reduction of each microbial group, i.e., ~30 and 10 gO3 min gDOC-1 respectively. Ozonation was efficient in inactivating the examined antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and no bacterial regrowth was observed after 72 h. The genes abundance decreased significantly by ozone, but an increase in their abundance was detected 72 h after storage of the treated samples. A very low removal of DOC was achieved and at the same time phyto- and eco-toxicity increased after the ozonation treatment in both wastewater matrices. The gene abundance, regrowth and toxicity results of this study may be of high environmental significance for comprehensive evaluation of ozone and may guide future studies in assessing these parameters for other oxidants/disinfectants.
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Affiliation(s)
- I C Iakovides
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; Nireas-International Water Research Centre, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - K Manoli
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; Nireas-International Water Research Centre, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - P Karaolia
- Nireas-International Water Research Centre, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - I Michael-Kordatou
- Nireas-International Water Research Centre, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - C M Manaia
- Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua de Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
| | - D Fatta-Kassinos
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; Nireas-International Water Research Centre, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus.
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15
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Chen L, Deng Y, Dong S, Wang H, Li P, Zhang H, Chu W. The occurrence and control of waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 281:130728. [PMID: 34010719 PMCID: PMC8084847 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
As the coronavirus disease 2019 continues to spread globally, its culprit, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 has been brought under scrutiny. In addition to inhalation transmission, the possible fecal-oral viral transmission via water/wastewater has also been brought under the spotlight, necessitating a timely global review on the current knowledge about waterborne viruses in drinking water treatment system - the very barrier that intercepts waterborne pathogens to terminal water users. In this article we reviewed the occurrence, concentration methods, and control strategies, also, treatment performance on waterborne viruses during drinking water treatment were summarized. Additionally, we emphasized the potential of applying the quantitative microbial risk assessment to guide drinking water treatment to mitigate the viral exposure risks, especially when the unregulated novel viral pathogens are of concern. This review paves road for better control of viruses at drinking water treatment plants to protect public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Deng
- Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
| | - Shengkun Dong
- Key LLaboratory of Water Cycle and Water Security in Southern China of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong, China
| | - Hong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Pan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Huaiyu Zhang
- Central and Southern China Institute of Municipal Engineering Design and Research, Hubei, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China.
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16
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Balachandran S, Charamba LVC, Manoli K, Karaolia P, Caucci S, Fatta-Kassinos D. Simultaneous inactivation of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and enterococci by peracetic acid in urban wastewater: Exposure-based kinetics and comparison with chlorine. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 202:117403. [PMID: 34274900 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The presence of antibiotic resistance in wastewater sparked a great interest in investigating the inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria by disinfecting agents. In this study, the inactivation kinetics of multidrug-resistant E. coli and enterococci by an emerging environmentally-friendly disinfectant, peracetic acid (PAA), in wastewater and phosphate buffer at pH 6.5 and pH 7.5, were characterized. It was demonstrated that the inactivation of the studied multidrug-resistant bacteria was governed by their exposure to PAA, i.e., integral of the PAA concentration over time (integral CT or ICT). Both regimes of the PAA inactivation of bacteria, i.e., initial resistance followed by a faster inactivation, were described well by an ICT-based Chick-Watson inactivation kinetic model. In wastewater at pH 7.5, the model-predicted ICT requirements showed that the multidrug-resistant enterococci were less susceptible to PAA than E. coli, e.g., to achieve a 3-log reduction, an ICT of 32.7 mg min/L and 23.4 mg min/L was needed, respectively. No regrowth of the studied bacteria was observed after 72 h from PAA disinfection at 25 ± 1 °C. Soluble constituents of wastewater decreased the PAA inactivation of both multidrug-resistant bacteria, i.e., higher inactivation was observed in phosphate buffer than wastewater at the same pH of 7.5. In phosphate buffer, a lower pH of 6.5 resulted in higher inactivation of multidrug-resistant E. coli compared with pH 7.5, but it did not affect the PAA inactivation of multidrug-resistant enterococci. A comparison with the most commonly used chemical disinfectant, chlorine, showed higher inactivation of both multidrug-resistant bacteria by chlorine and higher chlorine decay than PAA. The results of the present study may have implications in designing a PAA disinfection process, aiming at controlling antibiotic resistance, in terms of selecting a suitable fecal indicator and optimizing disinfectant dosing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjana Balachandran
- Institute of Urban Water Management, Department of Hydrosciences, Technische Universität Dresden (TU Dresden), Zellescher Weg 18, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Livia V C Charamba
- Institute of Urban Water Management, Department of Hydrosciences, Technische Universität Dresden (TU Dresden), Zellescher Weg 18, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Kyriakos Manoli
- Nireas-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, CY-1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, CY-1678 Nicosia, Cyprus.
| | - Popi Karaolia
- Nireas-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, CY-1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Serena Caucci
- Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES), United Nations University, Ammonstrasse 74, 01067 Dresden, Germany
| | - Despo Fatta-Kassinos
- Nireas-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, CY-1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, CY-1678 Nicosia, Cyprus.
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17
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Aerobic Conditions and Endogenous Reactive Oxygen Species Reduce the Production of Infectious MS2 Phage by Escherichia coli. Viruses 2021; 13:v13071376. [PMID: 34372580 PMCID: PMC8310082 DOI: 10.3390/v13071376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the defective/non-infectious enteric phages and viruses that end up in wastewater originate in human feces. Some of the causes of this high level of inactivity at the host stage are unknown. There is a significant gap between how enteric phages are environmentally transmitted and how we might design molecular tools that would only detect infectious ones. Thus, there is a need to explain the low proportion of infectious viral particles once replicated. By analyzing lysis plaque content, we were able to confirm that, under aerobic conditions, Escherichia coli produce low numbers of infectious MS2 phages (I) than the total number of phages indicated by the genome copies (G) with an I/G ratio of around 2%. Anaerobic conditions of replication and ROS inhibition increase the I/G ratio to 8 and 25%, respectively. These data cannot only be explained by variations in the total numbers of MS2 phages produced or in the metabolism of E. coli. We therefore suggest that oxidative damage impacts the molecular replication and assembly of MS2 phages.
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18
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Zhang M, Ghosh S, Kumar M, Santiana M, Bleck CKE, Chaimongkol N, Altan-Bonnet N, Shuai D. Emerging Pathogenic Unit of Vesicle-Cloaked Murine Norovirus Clusters is Resistant to Environmental Stresses and UV 254 Disinfection. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:6197-6205. [PMID: 33856208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
An individual virion was long believed to act as an independent infectious unit in virology, until the recent discovery of vesicle-cloaked virus clusters which has greatly challenged this central paradigm. Vesicle-cloaked virus clusters (also known as viral vesicles) are phospholipid-bilayer encapsulated fluid sacs that contain multiple virions or multiple copies of viral genomes. Norovirus is a global leading causative agent of gastroenteritis, and the reported prevalence of vesicle-cloaked norovirus clusters in stool has raised concerns whether the current disinfection, sanitation, and hygiene practices can effectively control environmental pollution by these pathogenic units. In this study, we have demonstrated that vesicle-cloaked murine norovirus (MNV-1) clusters were highly persistent under temperature variation (i.e., freeze-thaw) and they were partially resistant to detergent decomposition. MNV-1 vesicles were 1.89-3.17-fold more infectious in vitro than their free virus counterparts. Most importantly, MNV-1 vesicles were up to 2.16-times more resistant to UV254 disinfection than free MNV-1 at a low viral load in vitro. Interestingly, with the increase of the viral load, free MNV-1 and MNV-1 vesicles showed equivalent resistance to UV254 disinfection. We show that the increased multiplicity of infection provided by vesicles is in part responsible for these attributes. Our study, for the first time, sheds light on the environmental behavior of vesicle-cloaked virus clusters as unique emerging pathogenic units. Our study highlights the need to revisit current paradigms of disinfection, sanitation, and hygiene practices for protecting public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20052, United States
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Dynamics, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sourish Ghosh
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Dynamics, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Manish Kumar
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Dynamics, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Marianita Santiana
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Dynamics, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Christopher K E Bleck
- Electron Microcopy Core, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Natthawan Chaimongkol
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Nihal Altan-Bonnet
- Laboratory of Host-Pathogen Dynamics, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Danmeng Shuai
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20052, United States
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Ge Y, Zhang X, Shu L, Yang X. Kinetics and Mechanisms of Virus Inactivation by Chlorine Dioxide in Water Treatment: A Review. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 106:560-567. [PMID: 33629148 PMCID: PMC7904506 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-021-03137-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), an alternative disinfectant to chlorine, has been widely applied in water and wastewater disinfection. This paper aims at presenting an overview of the inactivation kinetics and mechanisms of ClO2 with viruses. The inactivation efficiencies vary greatly among different virus species. The inactivation rates for different serotypes within a family of viruses can differ by over 284%. Generally, to achieve a 4-log removal, the exposure doses, also being referred to as Ct values (mutiplying the concentration of ClO2 and contact time) vary in the range of 0.06-10 mg L-1 min. Inactivation kinetics of viruses show two phases: an initial rapid inactivation phase followed by a tailing phase. Inactivation rates of viruses increase as pH or temperature increases, but show different trends with increasing concentrations of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Both damages in viral proteins and in the 5' noncoding region within the genome contribute to virus inactivation upon ClO2 disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuexian Ge
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Xinran Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Longfei Shu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
| | - Xin Yang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China.
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20
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Tang A, Bi X, Li X, Li F, Liao X, Zou J, Sun W, Yuan B. The inactivation of bacteriophage MS2 by sodium hypochlorite in the presence of particles. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 266:129191. [PMID: 33310358 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The inactivation of bacteriophage MS2 by sodium hypochlorite was investigated to understand the effect of solution chemistry on the disinfection efficacy in the presence of particles. Kaolinite and Microcystis aeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) were used as the models of inorganic and organic particles to simulate high turbidity and algal cells, respectively, in drinking water sources. In both particle-containing solutions, lower pH, the presence of cations (di-valent Ca2+) and natural organic matters (NOM) were regarded as the main factors to influence the aggregation and inactivation of MS2. The results showed that MS2 aggregated in all solutions at pH 3.0, protecting the inner viruses. At pH 7.0, the presence of Na+ cations (0-200 mmol/L) did not affect the inactivation efficacy of MS2, which always followed the order of particles-free ≈ kaolinite > M. aeruginosa. The inactivation efficacy of MS2 in the presence of Ca2+ cations followed the order of kaolinite > particles-free > M. aeruginosa at 0-50 mmol/L Ca2+ cations, while the inactivation efficacy remained almost constant in the range of 100-200 mmol/L Ca2+ cations. By contrast, kaolinite offered not enough protection to adsorbed MS2, but MS2 aggregation decreased disinfection efficacy at a high concentration of Ca2+ cations. Moreover, the presence of humic acid as NOM decreased the inactivation of MS2 more significantly than M. aeruginosa due to the more consumption of free chlorine from humic acids. Therefore, the co-existence of NOM and di-valent Ca2+ cations are potential challenges for the inactivation of viruses by sodium hypochlorite in safe drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aixi Tang
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Xiaochao Bi
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Xiaoxue Li
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Fei Li
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Xiaobin Liao
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Jing Zou
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China
| | - Wenjie Sun
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, 75275, USA
| | - Baoling Yuan
- Xiamen Engineering & Technology Research Center for Urban Water Environment Planning and Remediation, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, PR China.
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21
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Buckley D, Dharmasena M, Wang H, Huang J, Adams J, Pettigrew C, Fraser A, Jiang X. Efficacy of novel aqueous photo-chlorine dioxide against a human norovirus surrogate, bacteriophage MS2 and Clostridium difficile endospores, in suspension, on stainless steel and under greenhouse conditions. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 130:1531-1545. [PMID: 33025608 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The efficacy of a novel photochemical method for generating chlorine dioxide (photoClO2 ) was evaluated against human noroviruses (HuNoV) surrogate, bacteriophage MS2, and Clostridium difficile endospores. METHODS AND RESULTS Chlorine dioxide was generated by mixing 1% sodium chlorite with 10 parts-per-million (ppm) Eosin Y and irradiating with a photo-activator-excitable light. PhotoClO2 efficacy was assessed against bacteriophage MS2 and C. difficile endospores in suspension, on hard surfaces and greenhouse conditions under soiled and unsoiled conditions. The estimated effective photoClO2 produced and consumed was 20·39 ± 0·16 ppm at a rate of 8·16 ppm per min in a 1% sodium chlorite solution. In suspension, MS2 phage was reduced by 3·35 and >5·10 log10 PFU per ml in 120 and 90 min, with and without soil, respectively. At the same time, when dried on stainless steel surface, MS2 phage was reduced by >4·53 log10 PFU per carrier in 30 min under both conditions. On the other hand, C. difficile endospores in suspension were reduced by 2·26 and 3·65 log10 CFU per ml in 120 min with and without soiling, respectively. However, on stainless steel surface, maximal reductions of the C. difficile endospores were 0·8 and 1·5 log10 CFU per carrier with and without soiling, respectively, and a maximal reduction of 2·97 log10 CFU per carrier under greenhouse conditions at 24 h. CONCLUSIONS Overall, photoClO2 showed promise as a technology to control HuNoV contamination on environmental surfaces but requires further optimization and testing against C. difficile endospores. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Results from this investigation will serve as a model for how to generate and quantify photoClO2 and how to appropriately evaluate this new class of disinfectants against environmentally resilient pathogens: viruses and bacterial endospores.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Buckley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - M Dharmasena
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - H Wang
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - J Huang
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - J Adams
- The Procter and Gamble Co, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - C Pettigrew
- The Procter and Gamble Co, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - A Fraser
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - X Jiang
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
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22
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Maffettone R, Manoli K, Santoro D, Passalacqua KD, Wobus CE, Sarathy S. Performic Acid Disinfection of Municipal Secondary Effluent Wastewater: Inactivation of Murine Norovirus, Fecal Coliforms, and Enterococci. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:12761-12770. [PMID: 32835477 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Performic acid (PFA) is an emerging disinfectant to inactivate bacterial and viral microorganisms in wastewater. In this study, the inactivation kinetics of murine norovirus (MNV) by PFA, in phosphate buffer and municipal secondary effluent wastewater, are reported for the first time. PFA decay followed first-order kinetics and the inactivation of MNV was governed by the exposure of microorganisms to PFA, i.e., the integral of the PFA concentration over time (integral CT or ICT). The extension of the Chick-Watson model, in the ICT domain, described well the reduction of MNV by PFA, with determined ICT-based inactivation rate constants, kd, of 1.024 ± 0.038 L/(mg·min) and 0.482 ± 0.022 L/(mg·min) in phosphate buffer and wastewater, respectively, at pH 7.2. Furthermore, the simultaneous PFA inactivation of MNV and fecal indicators indigenously present in wastewater such as fecal coliforms and enterococci showed that 1-log reduction could be achieved with ICT of 2, 1.5, and 3.5 mg·min/L, respectively. When compared with the most commonly used peracid disinfectant of municipal wastewater, peracetic acid (PAA), the ICT requirements determined using the fitted ICT-based kinetic models were ∼20 times higher for PAA than PFA, indicating a much stronger inactivation power of the PFA molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Maffettone
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
- Trojan Technologies, London, Ontario N5 V 4T7, Canada
| | - Kyriakos Manoli
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
- Trojan Technologies, London, Ontario N5 V 4T7, Canada
| | - Domenico Santoro
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
- USP Technologies, London, Ontario N5 V 4T7, Canada
| | - Karla D Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Christiane E Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Siva Sarathy
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
- Trojan Technologies, London, Ontario N5 V 4T7, Canada
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23
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Amoah ID, Kumari S, Bux F. Coronaviruses in wastewater processes: Source, fate and potential risks. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 143:105962. [PMID: 32711332 PMCID: PMC7346830 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The last 17 years have seen three major outbreaks caused by coronaviruses, with the latest outbreak, COVID-19, declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. The frequency of these outbreaks, their mortality and associated disruption to normal life calls for concerted efforts to understand their occurrence and fate in different environments. There is an increased interest in the occurrence of coronaviruses in wastewater from the perspective of wastewater-based epidemiology. However, there is no comprehensive review of the knowledge on coronavirus occurrence, fate and potential transmission in wastewater. This paper, provides a review of the literature on the occurrence of coronaviruses in wastewater treatment processes. We discuss the presence of viral RNA in feces as a result of diarrhoea caused by gastrointestinal infections. We also reviewed the literature on the presence, survival and potential removal of coronaviruses in common wastewater treatment processes. The detection of infectious viral particles in feces of patients raises questions on the potential risks of infection for people exposed to untreated sewage/wastewater. We, therefore, highlighted the potential risk of infection with coronaviruses for workers in wastewater treatment plants and the public that may be exposed through faulty plumbing or burst sewer networks. The mortalities and morbidities associated with the current COVID-19 pandemic warrants a much more focused research on the role of environments, such as wastewater and surface water, in disease transmission. The current wealth of knowledge on coronaviruses in wastewater based on the reviewed literature is scant and therefore calls for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Dennis Amoah
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, P.O. Box 1334, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, P.O. Box 1334, Durban 4000, South Africa.
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology, Durban University of Technology, P.O. Box 1334, Durban 4000, South Africa
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24
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25
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Mao Q, Li Q, Li H, Yuan S, Zhang J. Oxidative paraben removal with chlorine dioxide: Reaction kinetics and mechanism. Sep Purif Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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26
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Rachmadi AT, Kitajima M, Kato T, Kato H, Okabe S, Sano D. Required Chlorination Doses to Fulfill the Credit Value for Disinfection of Enteric Viruses in Water: A Critical Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2068-2077. [PMID: 31927958 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A credit value of virus inactivation has been assigned to the disinfection step in international and domestic guidelines for wastewater reclamation and reuse. To fulfill the credit value for water disinfection, water engineers need to apply an appropriate disinfection strength, expressed as a CT value (mg × min/L), which is a product of disinfectant concentration and contact time, against enteric viruses in wastewater. In the present study, we extracted published experimental data on enteric virus inactivation using free chlorine and monochloramine and applied the Tobit analysis and simple linear regression analysis to calculate the range of CT values (mg × min/L) needed for 4-log10 inactivation. Data were selected from peer-reviewed papers containing kinetics data of virus infectivity and chlorine residual in water. Coxsackie B virus and echovirus require higher CT values (lower susceptibility) for 4-log10 inactivation than adenovirus and a human norovirus surrogate (murine norovirus) with free chlorine. On the other hand, adenovirus has lower susceptibility to monochloramine compared to murine norovirus, coxsackievirus, and echovirus. The factors that influence the required CT value are virus type, pH, water temperature, and water matrix. This systematic review demonstrates that enteroviruses and adenovirus are appropriate representative enteric viruses to evaluate water disinfection using free chlorine and monochloramine, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andri Taruna Rachmadi
- Department of Frontier Science for Advanced Environment, Graduate School of Environmental Studies , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku , Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
- Division of Environmental Engineering , Hokkaido University , North 13, West 8, Kita-ku , Sapporo , Hokkaido 060-8628 , Japan
- Water Desalination and Reuse Center (WDRC) , King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia
| | - Masaaki Kitajima
- Division of Environmental Engineering , Hokkaido University , North 13, West 8, Kita-ku , Sapporo , Hokkaido 060-8628 , Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Kato
- Division of Electronics and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology , Gunma University , Tenjin-cho 1-5-1 , Kiryu , Gunma 376-8515 , Japan
- Center for Research on Adoption of NextGen Transportation Systems (CRANTS) , Gunma University , Aramaki-machi 4-2 , Maebashi , Gunma 371-8510 , Japan
- Integrated Institute for Regulatory Science , Waseda University , Tsurumaki-cho 513, Shinjuku-ku , Tokyo 162-0041 , Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kato
- Japan Institute of Wastewater Engineering and Technology , 3-1 Suido-Cho, Shinjuku-ku , Tokyo 162-0811 , Japan
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-6-10, Aramaki, Aoba-ku , Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
| | - Satoshi Okabe
- Division of Environmental Engineering , Hokkaido University , North 13, West 8, Kita-ku , Sapporo , Hokkaido 060-8628 , Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Department of Frontier Science for Advanced Environment, Graduate School of Environmental Studies , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku , Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Tohoku University , Aoba 6-6-06, Aramaki, Aoba-ku , Sendai , Miyagi 980-8579 , Japan
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27
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Manoli K, Maffettone R, Sharma VK, Santoro D, Ray AK, Passalacqua KD, Carnahan KE, Wobus CE, Sarathy S. Inactivation of Murine Norovirus and Fecal Coliforms by Ferrate(VI) in Secondary Effluent Wastewater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1878-1888. [PMID: 31886654 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Ferrate(VI) (FeVIO42, Fe(VI)) is an emerging oxidant/disinfectant to treat a wide range of contaminants and microbial pollutants in wastewater. This study describes the inactivation of murine norovirus (MNV) by Fe(VI) in phosphate buffer (PB) and secondary effluent wastewater (SEW). The decay of Fe(VI) had second-order kinetics in PB while Fe(VI) underwent an initial demand followed by first-order decay kinetics in SEW. The Chick-Watson inactivation kinetic model, based on integral CT (ICT) dose, well fitted the inactivation of MNV in both PB and SEW. In PB, the values of the inactivation rate constant (kd) decreased with an increase in pH, which was related to the reaction of protonated Fe(VI) species (HFeO4-) with MNV. Higher kd was observed in SEW than in PB. The inactivation of indigenous fecal coliforms (FC) in SEW was also measured. A two-population double-exponential model that accounted for both dispersed and particle-associated FC well fitted the inactivation data with determined kd and particle-associated inactivation rate constant (kp). Results show that Fe(VI) was more effective in inactivating dispersed FC than MNV. The MNV inactivation results obtained herein, coupled with the detailed modeling, provide important information in designing an Fe(VI) wastewater disinfection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyriakos Manoli
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario N6A5B9 , Canada
- Trojan Technologies , London , Ontario N5V4T7 , Canada
| | - Roberta Maffettone
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario N6A5B9 , Canada
- Trojan Technologies , London , Ontario N5V4T7 , Canada
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Program for the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health , Texas A&M University , 212 Adriance Lab Road , College Station , Texas 77843 , United States
| | - Domenico Santoro
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario N6A5B9 , Canada
- Trojan Technologies , London , Ontario N5V4T7 , Canada
| | - Ajay K Ray
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario N6A5B9 , Canada
| | - Karla D Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Kelly E Carnahan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Christiane E Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor , Michigan 48109 , United States
| | - Siva Sarathy
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering , University of Western Ontario , London , Ontario N6A5B9 , Canada
- Trojan Technologies , London , Ontario N5V4T7 , Canada
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28
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Predictive Water Virology: Hierarchical Bayesian Modeling for Estimating Virus Inactivation Curve. WATER 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/w11102187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) are a series of actions to be taken to ensure product consumption safety. In food poisoning risk management, researchers in the field of predictive microbiology calculate the values that provide minimum stress (e.g., temperature and contact time in heating) for sufficient microbe inactivation based on mathematical models. HACCP has also been employed for health risk management in sanitation safety planning (SSP), but the application of predictive microbiology to water-related pathogens is difficult because the variety of pathogen types and the complex composition of the wastewater matrix does not allow us to make a simple mathematical model to predict inactivation efficiency. In this study, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to construct predictive inactivation curves using free chlorine for enteric viruses based on a hierarchical Bayesian model using parameters such as water quality. Our model considered uncertainty among virus disinfection tests and difference in genotype-dependent sensitivity of a virus to disinfectant. The proposed model makes it possible to identify critical disinfection stress capable of reducing virus concentration that is below the tolerable concentration to ensure human health.
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29
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Zhang Y, Miao Z, Huang X, Wang X, Liu J, Wang G. Laser Tweezers Raman Spectroscopy (LTRS) to Detect Effects of Chlorine Dioxide on Individual Nosema bombycis Spores. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 73:774-780. [PMID: 30444144 DOI: 10.1177/0003702818817522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The microsporidium Nosema bombycis (Nb) causes pebrine, a fatal disease in sericulture. Nb is effectively killed by chlorine dioxide (ClO2); however, the precise killing mechanism remains unclear. We used laser tweezers Raman spectroscopy (LTRS) to monitor the action of ClO2 on individual Nb spores in real time. Raman peaks of ClO2 appeared in Nb spores, corresponding to decreased peaks of trehalose that gradually disappeared. A peak (1658 cm-1) corresponding to the protein α-helix significantly weakened while that (1668 cm-1) corresponding to irregular protein structures was enhanced; their intensities were negatively correlated in a certain time range and dependent on ClO2 concentration. The intensities of peaks at 782 cm-1 (nucleic acids) and 1004 cm-1 (phenylalanine of protein) did not change evidently even under extremely high ClO2 concentrations. Thus, ClO2 rapidly permeates the Nb spore wall, changing the protein secondary structure to lose biological function and destroy permeability, causing trehalose to leak out. These effects are ClO2 concentration-dependent, but no other obvious changes to biomacromolecules were detected. Single-cell analysis using LTRS is an effective method to monitor the action of chemical sporicides on microbes in real time, providing insight into the heterogeneity of cell stress resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- 1 School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi Normal University, Guangxi, China
- 2 Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Guangxi, China
| | - Zhenbin Miao
- 1 School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi Normal University, Guangxi, China
- 2 Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Guangxi, China
| | - Xuhua Huang
- 3 Guangxi Academy of Sericultural Sciences, Guangxi, China
| | | | - Junxian Liu
- 1 School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi Normal University, Guangxi, China
| | - Guiwen Wang
- 2 Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Guangxi, China
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30
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Netzler NE, Enosi Tuipulotu D, White PA. Norovirus antivirals: Where are we now? Med Res Rev 2019; 39:860-886. [PMID: 30584800 PMCID: PMC7168425 DOI: 10.1002/med.21545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses inflict a significant health burden on society and are responsible for approximately 699 million infections and over 200 000 estimated deaths worldwide each year. Yet despite significant research efforts, approved vaccines or antivirals to combat this pathogen are still lacking. Safe and effective antivirals are not available, particularly for chronically infected immunocompromised individuals, and for prophylactic applications to protect high-risk and vulnerable populations in outbreak settings. Since the discovery of human norovirus in 1972, the lack of a cell culture system has hindered biological research and antiviral studies for many years. Recent breakthroughs in culturing human norovirus have been encouraging, however, further development and optimization of these novel methodologies are required to facilitate more robust replication levels, that will enable reliable serological and replication studies, as well as advances in antiviral development. In the last few years, considerable progress has been made toward the development of norovirus antivirals, inviting an updated review. This review focuses on potential therapeutics that have been reported since 2010, which were examined across at least two model systems used for studying human norovirus or its enzymes. In addition, we have placed emphasis on antiviral compounds with a defined chemical structure. We include a comprehensive outline of direct-acting antivirals and offer a discussion of host-modulating compounds, a rapidly expanding and promising area of antiviral research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie E. Netzler
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Daniel Enosi Tuipulotu
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Peter A. White
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, SydneyNew South WalesAustralia
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31
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Gao Y, Wu J, Li Z, Zhang X, Lu N, Xue C, Leung AW, Xu C, Tang Q. Curcumin-mediated photodynamic inactivation (PDI) against DH5α contaminated in oysters and cellular toxicological evaluation of PDI-treated oysters. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2019; 26:244-251. [PMID: 30951866 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal effect of curcumin (CUR)-mediated photodynamic inactivation (PDI) against Escherichia coli DH5α in vitro and in oysters, then further investigate the edible security of PDI-treated oysters based on cellular toxicological methods. First, DH5α cells were irradiated by a 470 nm LED light source with an energy density of 3.6 J/cm2. Colony forming units (CFU) were counted and the viability of DH5α cells was calculated after treatment with CUR-mediated PDI. Intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was studied by measuring the fluorescence of 2, 7-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) using a flow cytometry. Membrane permeability was measured using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) with propidium iodide (PI) staining. After that, the bactericidal effect of CUR-mediated PDI was evaluated in oysters which were pre-contaminated with DH5α cells. Finally, cellular toxicology of PDI-treated oysters was evaluated through morphological observation, 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, DNA ladder assay, and nuclear staining. Results showed that the viability of DH5α was significantly decreased in a CUR concentration-dependent manner and resulted in an approximately 3.5-log reduction at the concentration of 20 μM. After treatment with CUR-mediated PDI (20 μM, 3.6 J/cm2), the ROS level in DH5α cells and the membrane permeability markedly increased. Our data demonstrated that CUR-mediated PDI had a good decontamination effect against DH5α contaminated in oysters. After incubation with PDI-treated oysters, fibroblasts L929 cell morphology, MTT absorbance and cell apoptosis had no obvious changes. Our findings preliminarily demonstrated that CUR-mediated PDI-treated oysters had no cytotoxicity to fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Juan Wu
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China; Innovation Center for Marine Drug Screening and Evaluation, Marine Biomedical Research Institute of Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Zhaojie Li
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Na Lu
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Changhu Xue
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Albert Wingnang Leung
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chuanshan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Qingjuan Tang
- Laboratory of Food Science and Human Health, College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China.
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Zhu Z, Guo Y, Yu P, Wang X, Zhang X, Dong W, Liu X, Guo C. Chlorine dioxide inhibits the replication of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus by blocking viral attachment. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 67:78-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Kamarasu P, Hsu HY, Moore MD. Research Progress in Viral Inactivation Utilizing Human Norovirus Surrogates. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2018. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2018.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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López-Gálvez F, Randazzo W, Vásquez A, Sánchez G, Decol LT, Aznar R, Gil MI, Allende A. Irrigating Lettuce with Wastewater Effluent: Does Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide Inactivate Viruses? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2018; 47:1139-1145. [PMID: 30272803 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2017.12.0485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Reclaimed water obtained from urban wastewater is currently being used as irrigation water in water-scarce regions in Spain. However, wastewater can contain enteric viruses that water reclamation treatment cannot remove or inactivate completely. In the present study, greenhouse-grown baby lettuce ( L.) was irrigated with secondary treatment effluent from a wastewater treatment plant untreated and treated using chlorine dioxide (ClO). The effect of ClO treatment on the physicochemical characteristics and the presence of enteric viruses in irrigation water and lettuce was assessed. The presence of human noroviruses genogroups I and II (NoV GI and NoV GII), and human astroviruses (HAstV), was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Additionally, to check for the loss of infectivity induced by the disinfection treatment, positive samples were re-analyzed after pretreatment with the intercalating dye PMAxx before RNA extraction and RT-qPCR. There were no significant differences in the proportion of positive samples and the concentration of enteric viruses between treated and untreated reclaimed water without PMAxx pretreatment ( > 0.05). A significantly lower concentration of NoV GI was detected in ClO-treated water when samples were pretreated with PMAxx ( < 0.05), indicating that inactivation was due to the disinfection treatment. Laboratory-scale validation tests indicated the suitability of PMAxx-RT-qPCR for discrimination between potentially infectious and ClO-damaged viruses. Although the applied ClO treatment was not able to significantly reduce the enteric virus load of the secondary effluent from the wastewater treatment plant, none of the lettuce samples analyzed ( = 36) was positive for the presence of NoV or HAstV.
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Randazzo W, D'Souza DH, Sanchez G. Norovirus: The Burden of the Unknown. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2018; 86:13-53. [PMID: 30077220 DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HNoVs) are primarily transmitted by the fecal-oral route, either by person-to-person contact, or by ingestion of contaminated food or water as well as by aerosolization. Moreover, HNoVs significantly contribute to foodborne diseases being the causative agent of one-fifth of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. As a consequence of globalization, transnational outbreaks of foodborne infections are reported with increasing frequency. Therefore, in this review, state-of-the-art information regarding molecular procedures for human norovirus detection in food as well common food processing technologies have been summarized. Besides, the purpose of this chapter is to consolidate basic information on various aspects of HNoVs and to summarize food processing technologies that can potentially be applied in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Randazzo
- IATA-CSIC, Valencia, Spain; University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Ha JH, Kim SH, Lee HM, Kim SJ, Lee HW. Efficacy of Combination Treatment with Sodium Metasilicate and Sodium Hypochlorite for Inactivation of Norovirus on Fresh Vegetables. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2018; 15:73-80. [PMID: 29068710 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2017.2331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, fresh vegetables have frequently been associated with the foodborne transmission of enteric viruses, such as human norovirus (NoV). Therefore, several studies have focused on developing methods to inactivate foodborne viruses for preventing outbreaks of foodborne illnesses. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is commonly used as a disinfectant, but results in undesirable effects on the appearance and taste of foods and can generate toxic byproducts when it exceeds the allowable concentration. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of a range of NaOCl concentrations (50-1000 ppm) for reducing the amounts of human NoV (NoV GII.4) on lettuce (Lactuca sativa), celery (Apium graveolens L.), and white cabbage (Brassica oleracea ssp. capitata). In addition, the combination treatment of NaOCl and sodium metasilicate (SMS, 0.1-0.5%) pentahydrate was evaluated for its ability to decrease the populations of NoV GII.4 in the three food samples. An immunomagnetic separation procedure combined with reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used for virus detection. For lettuce, celery, and cabbage, the NoV GII.4 recovery rates were 57.3% ± 6.5%, 52.5% ± 1.7%, and 60.3% ± 3.9%, respectively, using a glycine/NaCl elution buffer (0.25 M glycine/0.14 M NaCl, pH 9.5). The reductions of NoV GII.4 were 3.17, 3.06, and 3.27 log10 genomic copies/μL for lettuce, celery, and cabbage, respectively, at 1000 ppm NaOCl, while a reduction of ∼3 log10 genomic copies/μL was obtained when the samples were treated with a combination of 100 ppm NaOCl and 0.4% SMS pentahydrate. Taken together, these results demonstrated that combined treatment with NaOCl and SMS pentahydrate was an efficient strategy to reduce the concentration of NaOCl for control of NoV GII.4 contamination in fresh vegetables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Hyoung Ha
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi , Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Kim
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi , Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Min Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi , Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Ji Kim
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi , Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae-Won Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi , Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Wu X, Feng Z, Yuan B, Zhou Z, Li F, Sun W. Effects of solution chemistry on the sunlight inactivation of particles-associated viruses MS2. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 162:179-185. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.11.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Lee HW, Lee HM, Yoon SR, Kim SH, Ha JH. Pretreatment with propidium monoazide/sodium lauroyl sarcosinate improves discrimination of infectious waterborne virus by RT-qPCR combined with magnetic separation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 233:306-314. [PMID: 29096303 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
RT-qPCR allows sensitive detection of viral particles of both infectious and noninfectious viruses in water environments, but cannot discriminate non-infectious from infectious viruses. In this study, we aimed to optimize RT-qPCR-based detection of chlorine-inactivated human norovirus (NoV) and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) in suspension by pretreatment with an optimal combination of a monoazide and a detergent that can efficiently penetrate damaged viral capsids. Four methods were compared to determine the efficacy of chlorine disinfection (at 1, 3, and 5 min mg/L): (A) RT-qPCR alone, (B) RT-qPCR assay preceded by magnetic bead separation for enrichment of viral particles (MBS-RT-qPCR), (C) MBS-RT-qPCR assay with pretreatment with propidium monoazide (PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR), and (D) PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR assay with pretreatment with sodium lauroyl sarcosinate (INCI-PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR). On the basis of a PMA optimization assay, 200 and 300 μM PMA were used in subsequent experiments for NoV GII.4 and PMMoV, respectively. Optimal INCI concentrations, having minimal influence on NoV GII.4 and PMMoV, were found to be 0.5% and 0.2% INCI, respectively. For NoV GII.4, there were significant differences (P < 0.05) in log10 genome copies between the PMA-treated and the INCI + PMA-treated samples (log10 genome copies differed by 1.11 and 0.59 log10 for 3 and 5 min mg/L of chlorine, respectively). For PMMoV, INCI induced differences in log10 genome copies of 0.92, 1.18, and 1.86, for 1, 3, and 5 min mg/L of chlorine, respectively. Overall, the results of this study indicate that an optimal combination of PMA and INCI could be very useful for evaluating disinfection methods in water treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae-Won Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Hee-Min Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - So-Ra Yoon
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Kim
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Ji-Hyoung Ha
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea.
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Wen G, Xu X, Huang T, Zhu H, Ma J. Inactivation of three genera of dominant fungal spores in groundwater using chlorine dioxide: Effectiveness, influencing factors, and mechanisms. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 125:132-140. [PMID: 28843153 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Fungi in aquatic environments received more attention recently; therefore, the characteristics of inactivation of fungal spores by widely used disinfectants are quite important. Nonetheless, the inactivation efficacy of fungal spores by chlorine dioxide is poorly known. In this study, the effectiveness of chlorine dioxide at inactivation of three dominant genera of fungal spores isolated from drinking groundwater and the effects of pH, temperature, chlorine dioxide concentration, and humic acid were evaluated. The inactivation mechanisms were explored by analyzing the leakage of intracellular substances, the increase in extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and proteins as well as the changes in spore morphology. The kinetics of inactivation by chlorine dioxide fitted the Chick-Watson model, and different fungal species showed different resistance to chlorine dioxide inactivation, which was in the following order: Cladosporium sp.>Trichoderma sp. >Penicillium sp., which are much more resistant than Escherichia coli. Regarding the three genera of fungal spores used in this study, chlorine dioxide was more effective at inactivation of fungal spores than chlorine. The effect of disinfectant concentration and temperature was positive, and the impact of pH levels (6.0 and 7.0) was insignificant, whereas the influence of water matrices on the inactivation efficiency was negative. The increased concentration of characteristic extracellular substances and changes of spore morphology were observed after inactivation with chlorine dioxide and were due to cell wall and cell membrane damage in fungal spores, causing the leakage of intracellular substances and death of a fungal spore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wen
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China.
| | - Xiangqian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China
| | - Tinglin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China.
| | - Hong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Northwest Water Resource, Environment and Ecology, MOE, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China; Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an, 710055, PR China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, PR China
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Zhong Q, Carratalà A, Ossola R, Bachmann V, Kohn T. Cross-Resistance of UV- or Chlorine Dioxide-Resistant Echovirus 11 to Other Disinfectants. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1928. [PMID: 29046672 PMCID: PMC5632658 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of waterborne viruses with resistance to disinfection has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in the environment. Yet, the implications of such resistance for virus control remain obscure. In this study we investigate if viruses with resistance to a given disinfection method exhibit cross-resistance to other disinfectants. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)- or UV-resistant populations of echovirus 11 were exposed to five inactivating treatments (free chlorine, ClO2, UV radiation, sunlight, and heat), and the extent of cross-resistance was determined. The ClO2-resistant population exhibited cross-resistance to free chlorine, but to none of the other inactivating treatments tested. We furthermore demonstrated that ClO2 and free chlorine act by a similar mechanism, in that they mainly inhibit the binding of echovirus 11 to its host cell. As such, viruses with host binding mechanisms that can withstand ClO2 treatment were also better able to withstand oxidation by free chlorine. Conversely, the UV-resistant population was not significantly cross-resistant to any other disinfection treatment. Overall, our results indicate that viruses with resistance to multiple disinfectants exist, but that they can be controlled by inactivating methods that operate by a distinctly different mechanism. We therefore suggest to utilize two disinfection barriers that act by different mechanisms in order to control disinfection-resistant viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxia Zhong
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Anna Carratalà
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rachele Ossola
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Bachmann
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tamar Kohn
- Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Nie XB, Li ZH, Long YN, He PP, Xu C. Chlorine inactivation of Tubifex tubifex in drinking water and the synergistic effect of sequential inactivation with UV irradiation and chlorine. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 177:7-14. [PMID: 28279903 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The inactivation of Tubifex tubifex is important to prevent contamination of drinking water. Chlorine is a widely-used disinfectant and the key factor in the inactivation of T. tubifex. This study investigated the inactivation kinetics of chlorine on T. tubifex and the synergistic effect of the sequential use of chlorine and UV irradiation. The experimental results indicated that the Ct (concentration × timereaction) concept could be used to evaluate the inactivation kinetics of T. tubifex with chlorine, thus allowing for the use of a simpler Ct approach for the assessment of T. tubifex chlorine inactivation requirements. The inactivation kinetics of T. tubifex by chlorine was found to be well-fitted to a delayed pseudo first-order Chick-Watson expression. Sequential experiments revealed that UV irradiation and chlorine worked synergistically to effectively inactivate T. tubifex as a result of the decreased activation energy, Ea, induced by primary UV irradiation. Furthermore, the inactivation effectiveness of T. tubifex by chlorine was found to be affected by several drinking water quality parameters including pH, turbidity, and chemical oxygen demand with potassium permanganate (CODMn) concentration. High pH exhibited pronounced inactivation effectiveness and the decrease in turbidity and CODMn concentrations contributed to the inactivation of T. tubifex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Bao Nie
- School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Water, Sediment Sciences & Flood Hazard Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China.
| | - Zhi-Hong Li
- School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Water, Sediment Sciences & Flood Hazard Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China
| | - Yuan-Nan Long
- School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Water, Sediment Sciences & Flood Hazard Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China
| | - Pan-Pan He
- School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Water, Sediment Sciences & Flood Hazard Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China
| | - Chao Xu
- School of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China; Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Water, Sediment Sciences & Flood Hazard Prevention, Changsha, Hunan, 410114, PR China
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Brié A, Razafimahefa R, Loutreul J, Robert A, Gantzer C, Boudaud N, Bertrand I. The Effect of Heat and Free Chlorine Treatments on the Surface Properties of Murine Norovirus. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:149-158. [PMID: 27888443 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-016-9271-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Heat and free chlorine are among the most efficient and commonly used treatments to inactivate enteric viruses, but their global inactivation mechanisms have not been elucidated yet. These treatments have been shown to affect at least the capsid proteins of viruses and thus may affect the surface properties (i.e. electrostatic charge and hydrophobicity) of such particles. Our aim was to study the effects of heat and free chlorine on surface properties for a murine norovirus chosen as surrogate for human norovirus. No changes in the surface properties were observed with our methods for murine norovirus exposed to free chlorine. Only the heat treatment led to major changes in the surface properties of the virus with the expression of hydrophobic domains at the surface of the particles after exposure to a temperature of 55 °C. No modification of the expression of hydrophobic domains occurred after exposure to 60 °C, and the low hydrophobic state exhibited by infectious and inactivated particles after exposure to 60 °C appeared to be irreversible for inactivated particles only, which may provide a means to discriminate infectious from inactivated murine noroviruses. When exposed to a temperature of 72 °C or to free chlorine at a concentration of 50 mg/L, the genome became available for RNases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Brié
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | | | | | - Aurélie Robert
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
- Food Safety Department, ACTALIA, Saint Lô, France
| | - Christophe Gantzer
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France
| | | | - Isabelle Bertrand
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Faculté de Pharmacie, CNRS-Université de Lorraine, 5 Rue Albert Lebrun, 54000, Nancy, France.
- CNRS, LCPME, UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.
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Quantitative reverse transcription PCR to determine the inactivation of Human Rotavirus by chlorine. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:719-725. [PMID: 28292642 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Human rotaviruses (HRVs) are the major cause of acute diarrhea in infants and young children. Here, a real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay targeting the rotaviral VP4 gene (VP4-RT-qPCR) was established to evaluate the inactivation of HRV upon chlorine disinfection, based on a previous report that damage to the 1227-2354bp region of the VP4 gene was associated with eliminated HRV infectivity by chlorine. In this study, inactivation of HRV by 0.6mg/L free chlorine was assessed in phosphate buffered saline (PBS; pH 7.2), and tap and river water samples, using both TCID50 and RT-qPCR (VP2- and VP4-RT-qPCR) assays, respectively. Among the samples tested, the VP2-RT-qPCR method did not show significant inactivation after chlorine disinfection; however, the reduction in VP4-RT-qPCR signal was correlated with decreased HRV infectivity. Moreover, the higher sensitivity of the VP4-RT-qPCR assay allowed for assessment of chlorine HRV inactivation at longer exposure times compared with the conventional TCID50 assay. Collectively, these results indicated that the VP4-RT-qPCR assay is a rapid, sensitive, and reliable tool to detect infectious HRV following chlorine inactivation, and highlights the potential for further development of qPCR/RT-qPCR assays to provide information regarding viral infectivity from drinking water plants.
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Shirasaki N, Matsushita T, Matsui Y, Murai K, Aochi A. Elimination of representative contaminant candidate list viruses, coxsackievirus, echovirus, hepatitis A virus, and norovirus, from water by coagulation processes. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 326:110-119. [PMID: 28011355 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We examined the removal of representative contaminant candidate list (CCL) viruses (coxsackievirus [CV] B5, echovirus type [EV] 11, and hepatitis A virus [HAV] IB), recombinant norovirus virus-like particles (rNV-VLPs), and murine norovirus (MNV) type 1 by coagulation. Water samples were subjected to coagulation with polyaluminum chloride (PACl, basicity 1.5) followed by either settling or settling and filtration. Together with our previously published results, the removal ratio order, as evaluated by a plaque-forming-unit method or an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay after settling, was HAV>EV=rNV-VLPs≥CV=poliovirus type 1=MNV>adenovirus type 40 (range, 0.1-2.7-log10). Infectious HAV was likely inactivated by the PACl and therefore was removed to a greater extent than the other viruses. A nonsulfated high-basicity PACl (basicity 2.1), removed the CCL viruses more efficiently than did two other sulfated PACls (basicity 1.5 or 2.1), alum, or ferric chloride. We also examined the removal ratio of two bacteriophages. The removal ratios for MS2 tended to be larger than those of the CCL viruses, whereas those for φX174 were comparable with or smaller than those of the CCL viruses. Therefore, φX174 may be a useful conservative surrogate for CCL viruses during coagulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Shirasaki
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13W8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan.
| | - T Matsushita
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13W8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - Y Matsui
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13W8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - K Murai
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13W8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - A Aochi
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13W8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
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Feng Z, Lu R, Yuan B, Zhou Z, Wu Q, Nguyen TH. Influence of solution chemistry on the inactivation of particle-associated viruses by UV irradiation. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 148:622-628. [PMID: 27694052 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
MS2 inactivation by UV irradiance was investigated with the focus on how the disinfection efficacy is influenced by bacteriophage MS2 aggregation and adsorption to particles in solutions with different compositions. Kaolinite and Microcystis aeruginosa were used as model inorganic and organic particles, respectively. In the absence of model particles, MS2 aggregates formed in either 1mM NaCl at pH=3 or 50-200mM ionic strength CaCl2 solutions at pH=7 led to a decrease in the MS2 inactivation efficacy because the virions located inside the aggregate were protected from the UV irradiation. In the presence of kaolinite and Microcystis aeruginosa, MS2 adsorbed onto the particles in either 1mM NaCl at pH=3 or 50-200mM CaCl2 solutions at pH=7. In contrast to MS2 aggregates formed without the presence of particles, more MS2 virions adsorbed on these particles were exposed to UV irradiation to allow an increase in MS2 inactivation. In either 1mM NaCl at pH from 4 to 8 or 2-200mM NaCl solutions at pH=7, the absence of MS2 aggregation and adsorption onto the model particles explained why MS2 inactivation was not influenced by pH, ionic strength, and the presence of model particles in these conditions. The influence of virus adsorption and aggregation on the UV disinfection efficiency found in this research suggests the necessity of accounting for particles and cation composition in virus inactivation for drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Feng
- Institute of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, PR China
| | - Ruiqing Lu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, United States
| | - Baoling Yuan
- Institute of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, PR China.
| | - Zhenming Zhou
- Institute of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, PR China
| | - Qingqing Wu
- Institute of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, PR China
| | - Thanh H Nguyen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, United States.
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Pelleieux S, Mathieu L, Block JC, Gantzer C, Bertrand I. The effect of chlorination and hydrodynamic shear stress on the persistence of bacteriophages associated with drinking water biofilms. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 121:1189-97. [PMID: 27452787 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This work aimed to assess at pilot scale the effect of chlorination and water flushing on 2-month-old drinking water biofilms and, above all, on biofilm-associated F-specific RNA bacteriophages MS2, GA and Qβ. METHODS AND RESULTS Chlorination (4 mg l(-1) ) was applied first with a hydrodynamic shear stress of 1 Pa and second with an increase in hydrodynamic shear stress to 10 Pa. Despite a rapid decrease in the number of biofilm bacteria and associated phages, infectious phages were still detected on surfaces after completion of the 150 min cleaning procedure. The resulting sequence of phage removal was: GA > Qβ ≫ MS2. CONCLUSIONS The effect of chlorine on biofilm bacteria and biofilm-associated phages was limited to the upper layers of the biofilm and was not enhanced by an increase in hydrodynamic shear stress. A smaller decrease was observed for MS2 than for GA or Qβ after completion of the cleaning procedure. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The differences observed between the three phages suggest that the location of the viral particles in the biofilm, which is related to their surface properties, affects the efficiency of chlorine disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pelleieux
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.,LCPME, UMR 7564, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - L Mathieu
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.,EPHE, UL, CNRS, UMR 7564 LCPME, PSL Research University, Nancy, France
| | - J-C Block
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.,LCPME, UMR 7564, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - C Gantzer
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France.,LCPME, UMR 7564, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - I Bertrand
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement (LCPME), UMR 7564, Institut Jean Barriol, Nancy, France. .,LCPME, UMR 7564, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France.
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Quantitative Distribution of Infectious F-Specific RNA Phage Genotypes in Surface Waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82:4244-4252. [PMID: 27208125 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00621-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED F-specific RNA phages (FRNAPHs) are considered potential viral indicators of water pollution due to their occurrence and stability in water environments. However, their suitability as viral indicators is not fully elucidated because the characteristics of FRNAPHs are variable depending on the genotype. In this study, for the characterization of infectious FRNAPH genotypes, integrated culture reverse transcription-PCR coupled with the most probable number approach was applied to surface water samples. Further, to recover low concentrations of FRNAPH genotypes, an FRNAPH recovery method was developed. The novel FRNAPH recovery method using a noncharged microfiltration membrane could effectively recover FRNAPH strains without inactivation, while a method using an electronegative microfiltration membrane resulted in the inactivation of some strains. Infectious FRNAPH genotypes in surface water samples were successfully quantified with an efficiency comparable to that of the conventional plaque assay. Genotype I (GI) and GII FRNAPHs tended to be predominant at locations impacted by treated and untreated municipal wastewater, respectively. The numbers and proportions of infectious FRNAPHs tended to be higher during the winter season when water temperature decreased. IMPORTANCE Properties of FRNAPHs are highly variable depending on their genotypes. Previous typing methods for FRNAPHs are not quantitative and/or are based on molecular assays, which cannot differentiate infective strains from inactive strains. Due to the reasons mentioned above, the utility of FRNAPHs as viral indicators of water pollution has not been fully validated. In this study, a quantitative genotyping method for infectious FRNAPHs was developed and applied to surface water samples. The method enabled characterization of infectious FRNAPH genotypes in terms of their occurrence and seasonality. Moreover, comparison of the method to a conventional molecular assay (reverse transcription-quantitative PCR) enabled characterization of their stability. Our approach can provide novel findings for further validation of FRNAPHs as viral indicators of water pollution.
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Zonta W, Mauroy A, Farnir F, Thiry E. Comparative Virucidal Efficacy of Seven Disinfectants Against Murine Norovirus and Feline Calicivirus, Surrogates of Human Norovirus. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2016; 8:1-12. [PMID: 26445948 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-015-9216-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are the leading cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans and can be transmitted either by person-to-person contact or by consumption of contaminated food. A knowledge of an efficient disinfection for both hands and food-contact surfaces is helpful for the food sector and provides precious information for public health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of seven disinfectants belonging to different groups of biocides (alcohol, halogen, oxidizing agents, quaternary ammonium compounds, aldehyde and biguanide) on infectious viral titre and on genomic copy number. Due to the absence of a cell culture system for HuNoV, two HuNoV surrogates, such as murine norovirus and feline calicivirus, were used and the tests were performed in suspension, on gloves and on stainless steel discs. When, as criteria of efficacy, a log reduction >3 of the infectious viral titre on both surrogates and in the three tests is used, the most efficacious disinfectants in this study appear to be biocidal products B, C and D, representing the halogens, the oxidizing agents group and a mix of QAC, alcohol and aldehyde, respectively. In addition, these three disinfectants also elicited a significant effect on genomic copy number for both surrogate viruses and in all three tests. The results of this study demonstrate that a halogen compound, oxidizing agents and a mix of QAC, alcohol and aldehyde are advisable for HuNoV disinfection of either potentially contaminated surfaces or materials in contact with foodstuffs.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Zonta
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Axel Mauroy
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Frederic Farnir
- Biostatistics and Bioinformatics Applied to Veterinary Science, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium.
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Lin T, Chen W, Cai B. Inactivation mechanism of chlorination in Escherichia coli internalized in Limnoithona sinensis and Daphnia magna. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 89:20-27. [PMID: 26624518 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Zooplankton may harbor microorganisms in the aquatic environment, thus protecting them from disinfection during drinking water treatment. However, few studies have evaluated the protective effect of internalization by zooplankton against bacterial disinfection. In this study, we investigated the role of zooplankton (Limnoithona sinensis and Daphnia magna) as a refuge for ingested bacteria against inactivation by chlorination. Only 30% of chlorine reached the internalized bacteria inside the digestive tract of zooplankton. However, this was sufficient to achieve 1.4 log inactivation of internalized Escherichia coli in L. sinensis and 1.2 log inactivation in D. magna at Ct values of 80 mg min/L. Inactivation of internalized bacteria was achieved through the active transfer of free chlorine in the bulk water into the zooplankton digestive tract during grazing activity. D. magna was more sensitive to hypochlorous acid than L. sinensis, and its grazing behavior was inhibited during the inactivation experiment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Lin
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China.
| | - Wei Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China; College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China.
| | - Bo Cai
- College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, PR China
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50
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Ha JH, Choi C, Lee HJ, Ju IS, Lee JS, Ha SD. Efficacy of chemical disinfectant compounds against human norovirus. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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