Stress exposures, neurodevelopment and health measures in the ABCD study

The Association between Family Environment and Subsequent Risk of Cyberbullying Victimization in Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Family environment and parental monitoring have long been recognized as two important factors associated with adolescents' psychological development. Studies have suggested a potential link between parenting style/parental engagement and the likelihood of bullying victimization among adolescents. Nonetheless, no studies to date have investigated the association between family environment and the subsequent risk of cyberbullying victimization among adolescents. In this study, we assessed the association between family environment (eg, parental monitoring and family conflict) and subsequent risk of cyberbullying victimization using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD).

METHODS

We used multivariable logistic regressions to assess the association between parental monitoring and family conflict at year 1 and the subsequent risk of cyberbullying victimization at year 2 in 10,410 eligible ABCD study participants.

RESULTS

Adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, study sampling weights and study site, higher levels of parental monitoring at year 1 were associated with a lower reported past 12-month (OR: 0.61, 95% CI: 0.50-0.75) history of cyberbullying victimization at year 2. Higher levels of family conflict at year 1 were associated with a higher risk of reported past 12-month history (OR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.04-1.16) of cyberbullying victimization one year later.

CONCLUSION

Higher levels of parental monitoring and lower levels of family conflict are associated with a subsequent lower risk of cyberbullying victimization among adolescents. Cyberbullying victimization preventive programs should advocate for increased parental monitoring and minimize family conflict at home to reduce the risks of cyberbullying victimization among adolescents.

Associations between Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs), Discrimination, and Internalizing/Externalizing in Pre-Adolescents

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the relationships between four types of perceived discrimination (based on race and ethnicity, nationality/country of origin, gender identity, weight/body size), individually and cumulatively; positive childhood experiences (PCEs); and behavioral symptoms among pre-adolescent youth.

METHODS

This study was a secondary analysis of data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a US-based cohort study of pre-adolescent youth in the United States (N = 10,915). Our outcome was emotional/behavioral symptoms measured by the Child Behavior Checklist. Primary exposures were four types of discrimination, a count of 0-5 PCEs, and other adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Multiple logistic regression models were used to estimate the relationship between perceived discrimination and clinical-range behavioral symptoms, including the role of PCEs and ACEs.

RESULTS

Weight discrimination was the most frequent exposure (n = 643, 5.9%). Race and weight perceived discrimination were associated with clinical-range externalizing and internalizing symptoms, respectively, but these associations were non significant once other ACEs were added to models. Cumulative discrimination was associated with clinical-range Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores, even when accounting for other ACEs (aOR=1.47, 95% CI=1.2-1.8). PCEs slightly reduced the strength of this relationship and were independently associated with reduced symptoms (aOR=0.82, 95% CI=0.72-0.93).

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this national study suggest cumulative discrimination can exert emotional/behavioral health harm among youth. PCEs were independently associated with reduced behavioral symptoms. There is a need for further research on how to prevent discrimination and bolster PCEs by targeting upstream social inequities in communities.

Parental Legal System Involvement, Positive Childhood Experiences, and Suicide Risk

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether adverse parental legal system involvement (incarceration, arrest) was associated with suicide risk, accounting for other adverse childhood experiences, and whether there was a moderating relationship between positive childhood experiences (PCEs) and parental legal system involvement in suicide risk.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study used 2-year follow-up data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study when children were age 11 to 12 years. Outcomes were lifetime suicidal ideation, attempts, and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). Exposures were parent incarceration or arrest. We used generalized linear models to estimate the relative risk of suicide outcomes from adverse parent legal involvement and whether there was an interaction between parent legal system involvement and PCE count, controlling for adverse childhood experiences and demographic factors.

RESULTS

Among our sample (n = 10 532;), 687 children (6.5%) reported parent incarceration and 1265 (12.0%) reported parent arrest. Suicidal ideation was the most frequent risk outcome (n = 490; 4.7%). Children whose parents had been incarcerated had a relative risk of suicidal ideation of 1.74 (95% CI: 1.32-2.31). Children whose parents had been arrested had a relative risk of suicidal ideation of 1.89 (95% CI: 1.53-2.37) and a relative risk of suicide attempt of 2.69 (95% CI: 1.7-4.25). Parental incarceration/arrest were not associated with NSSI. PCEs were associated with reduced relative risk of suicidal ideation and NSSI, though there was no significant interaction between PCEs and adverse parent legal system involvement exposures.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental legal system involvement may negatively affect child mental health. Strengthening PCEs in childhood may mitigate suicide-related risks.

Childhood adversity is associated with reduced BOLD response in inhibitory control regions amongst preadolescents from the ABCD study

Adolescence is characterized by dynamic neurodevelopment, which poses opportunities for risk and resilience. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) confer additional risk to the developing brain, where ACEs have been associated with alterations in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) BOLD signaling in brain regions underlying inhibitory control. Socioenvironmental factors like the family environment may amplify or buffer against the neurodevelopmental risks associated with ACEs. Using baseline to Year 2 follow-up data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, the current study examined how ACEs relate to fMRI BOLD signaling during successful inhibition on the Stop Signal Task in regions associated with inhibitory control and examined whether family conflict levels moderated that relationship. Results showed that greater ACEs were associated with reduced BOLD response in the right opercular region of the inferior frontal gyrus and bilaterally in the pre-supplementary motor area, which are key regions underlying inhibitory control. Further, greater BOLD response was correlated with less impulsivity behaviorally, suggesting reduced activation may not be behaviorally adaptive at this age. No significant two or three-way interactions with family conflict levels or time were found. Findings highlight the continued utility of examining the relationship between ACEs and neurodevelopmental outcomes and the importance of intervention/prevention of ACES.

Longitudinal associations between neighborhood safety and adolescent adjustment: The moderating role of affective neural sensitivity

Research on social determinants of health has highlighted the influence of neighborhood characteristics (e.g., neighborhood safety) on adolescents' health. However, it is less clear how changes in neighborhood environments play a role in adolescent development, and who are more sensitive to such changes. Utilizing the first three waves of data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) project (N = 7932, M (SD) age = 9.93 (.63) years at T1; 51% boys), the present study found that increases in neighborhood safety were associated with decreased adolescent externalizing symptoms, internalizing symptoms, but not sleep disturbance over time, controlling for baseline neighborhood safety. Further, adolescents' insula and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) reactivity to positive emotional stimuli moderated the association between changes in neighborhood safety and adolescent adjustment. Among youth who showed higher, but not lower, insula and ACC reactivity to positive emotion, increases in neighborhood safety were linked with better adjustment. The current study contributes to the differential susceptibility literature by identifying affective neural sensitivity as a marker of youth's susceptibility to changes in neighborhood environment. The findings highlight the importance of neighborhood safety for youth during the transition to adolescence, particularly for those with heightened affective neural sensitivity.

Examining the Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Lifetime History of Head or Neck Injury and Concussion in Children From the United States

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to determine whether there is an association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and lifetime history of early childhood mild head or neck injury and concussion in a nationally representative US cohort.

SETTING AND DESIGN

This is a cross-sectional study using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (data release 3.0), a prospective investigation of child brain development and health.

PARTICIPANTS

There were 11 878 children aged 9 or 10 years at baseline, recruited from 21 school-based sites in the United States. After excluding children with missing questionnaires for the primary exposure variable and children with severe brain injuries involving more than 30-minute loss of consciousness, the final sample size was 11 230 children.

MEASURES

The primary exposure variable was ACEs. We measured eight ACEs: sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional neglect, parent domestic violence, parent substance use disorder, parental mental illness, parent criminal involvement, and parent divorce. The primary outcomes were head or neck injury and concussion, measured using the Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Screen-Identification Method Short Form.

RESULTS

The sample ( N = 11 230) was 52% boys with a mean age of 9.9 years (SD = 0.62 years). The racial and ethnic makeup was reflective of national demographics. Having a higher overall ACE count was associated with higher odds of head or neck injury, with greater odds with more ACEs reported. Children with 2 ACEs had 24% greater odds of head or neck injury (AOR = 1.24, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.06-1.45) and 64% greater odds of concussion (AOR = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.18-2.22), and children with 4 or more ACEs had 70% greater odds of head or neck injury (AOR = 1.7, 95% CI = 1.14, 2.49) and 140% greater odds of concussion (AOR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.15-4.47). The individual ACE categories of sexual abuse, parent domestic violence, parental mental illness, and parent criminal involvement were significantly associated with increased risk of head or neck injury and parental mental illness with increased risk of concussion.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

ACEs are associated with early childhood mild head or neck injury and concussion and should be integrated in head injury prevention and intervention efforts.

Associations Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Early Adolescent Physical Activity in the United States

OBJECTIVE

To determine the associations between the number of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and objectively-measured physical activity (PA) in a population-based, demographically diverse cohort of 9-14-year-olds and to determine which subtypes of ACEs were associated with physical activity levels.

METHODS

We analyzed data (n = 7046) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study 4.0 release at baseline and year 2 follow-up. ACE (cumulative score and subtypes) and physical activity (average Fitbit daily steps assessed at Year 2) were analyzed using linear regression analyses. Covariates included race and ethnicity, sex, household income, parent education, body mass index, study site, twins/siblings, and data collection period.

RESULTS

Adjusted models suggest an inverse association between number of ACEs and Fitbit daily steps, with ≥4 (compared to 0) ACEs associated with 567 fewer daily steps (95% CI -902.2, -232.2). Of the ACEs subtypes, emotional abuse (B = -719.3, 95% CI -1430.8, -7.9), physical neglect (B = -423.7, 95% CI -752.8, -94.6), household mental illness (B = -317.1, 95% CI -488.3, -145.9), and household divorce or separation (B = -275.4, 95% CI -521.5, -29.2) were inversely and statistically significant associated with Fitbit daily steps after adjusting for confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that there is an inverse, dose-dependent relationship between cumulative number of ACEs and physical activity as measured by daily steps. This work highlights the importance of screening for ACEs among young people at an early age to help identify those who could benefit from interventions or community programs that support increased physical activity.

Recommendations for the responsible use and communication of race and ethnicity in neuroimaging research

The growing availability of large-population human biomedical datasets provides researchers with unique opportunities to conduct rigorous and impactful studies on brain and behavioral development, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of neurodevelopment in diverse populations. However, the patterns observed in these datasets are more likely to be influenced by upstream structural inequities (that is, structural racism), which can lead to health disparities based on race, ethnicity and social class. This paper addresses the need for guidance and self-reflection in biomedical research on conceptualizing, contextualizing and communicating issues related to race and ethnicity. We provide recommendations as a starting point for researchers to rethink race and ethnicity choices in study design, model specification, statistical analysis and communication of results, implement practices to avoid the further stigmatization of historically minoritized groups, and engage in research practices that counteract existing harmful biases.

Neuroendocrine mechanisms in the links between early life stress, affect, and youth substance use: A conceptual model for the study of sex and gender differences

Early life stress (ELS) is defined as an acute or chronic stressor that negatively impacts a child's development. ELS is associated with substance use and mental health problems. This narrative literature review focuses on sex and gender differences in the effects of ELS on 1) adolescent neuroendocrine development; 2) pubertal brain maturation; and 3) development of internalizing symptoms and subsequent substance use. We posit that ELS may generate larger hormonal dysregulation in females than males during puberty, increasing internalizing symptoms and substance use. Future research should consider sex and gender differences in neuroendocrine developmental processes when studying the link between ELS and negative health outcomes.

Strengthening through adversity: The hormesis model in developmental psychopathology

BACKGROUND

Employing a developmental psychopathology framework, we tested the utility of the hormesis model in examining the strengthening of children and youth through limited levels of adversity in relation to internalizing and externalizing outcomes within a brain-by-development context.

METHODS

Analyzing data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study (N = 11,878), we formed latent factors of threat, deprivation, and unpredictability. We examined linear and nonlinear associations between adversity dimensions and youth psychopathology symptoms and how change of resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) in the default mode network (DMN) from Time 1 to Time 5 moderates these associations.

RESULTS

A cubic association was found between threat and youth internalizing problems; low-to-moderate family conflict levels reduced these problems. Deprivation also displayed a cubic relation with youth externalizing problems, with moderate deprivation levels associated with fewer problems. Unpredictability linearly increased both problem types. Change in DMN rsFC significantly moderated the cubic link between threat levels and internalizing problems, with declining DMN rsFC levels from Time 1 to Time 5 facilitating hormesis. Hormetic effects peaked earlier, emphasizing the importance of sensitive periods and developmental timing of outcomes related to earlier experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

Strengthening through limited environmental adversity is crucial for developing human resilience. Understanding this process requires considering both linear and nonlinear adversity-psychopathology associations. Testing individual differences by brain and developmental context will inform preventive intervention programming.

Sex Differences in the Relationship Between Nucleus Accumbens Volume and Youth Tobacco or Marijuana Use Following Stressful Life Events

Background

Exposure to stressful life events (SLEs) can upset balance and affect the healthy brain development of children and youths. These events may influence substance use by altering brain reward systems, especially the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which plays a key role in motivated behaviors and reward processing. The interaction between sensitization to SLEs, depression, and substance use might vary between male and female youths, potentially due to differences in how each sex responds to SLEs.

Aims

This study aims to examine the effect of sex on the relationship between SLEs, Nucleus Accumbens activity, and substance use in a nationwide sample of young individuals.

Methods

We utilized data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (ABCD), a longitudinal study of pre-adolescents aged 9-10 years, comprising 11,795 participants tracked over 36 months. Structured interviews measuring SLEs were conducted using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Initial linear regression analyses explored if SLEs could predict volumes of the right and left NAc. Subsequently, Cox regression models were used to investigate how SLEs and NAc volume might predict the initiation of tobacco and marijuana use, with the analysis stratified by sex to address potential sex differences.

Results

Our findings reveal that SLEs significantly predicted marijuana use in males but not in females, and tobacco use was influenced by SLEs in both sexes. A higher number of SLEs was linked with decreased left NAc volume in males, a trend not seen in females. The right NAc volume did not predict substance use in either sex. However, volumes of both the right and left NAc were significant predictors of future tobacco use, with varying relationships across sexes. In females, an inverse relationship was observed between both NAc volumes and the risk of tobacco use. In contrast, a positive correlation existed between the left NAc volume and tobacco and marijuana use in males, with no such relationship for females.

Conclusion

This study underscores that the associations between SLEs, NAc volume, and subsequent substance use are influenced by a nuanced interplay of sex, brain hemisphere, and substance type.

Evaluating the sensitivity to threat and affiliative reward (STAR) model in relation to the development of conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits across early adolescence

BACKGROUND

The Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward (STAR) model proposes low threat sensitivity and low affiliation as risk factors for callous-unemotional (CU) traits. Preliminary evidence for the STAR model comes from work in early childhood. However, studies are needed that explore the STAR dimensions in late childhood and adolescence when severe conduct problems (CP) emerge. Moreover, it is unclear how variability across the full spectrum of threat sensitivity and affiliation gives rise to different forms of psychopathology beyond CU traits.

METHODS

The current study addressed these gaps using parent- and child-reported data from three waves and a sub-study of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study® of 11,878 youth (48% female; ages 9-12).

RESULTS

Consistent with the STAR model, low threat sensitivity and low affiliation were independently related to CU traits across informants and time. Moreover, there was significant interaction between the STAR dimensions, such that children with lower sensitivity to threat and lower affiliation had higher parent-reported CU traits. Unlike CU traits, children with higher threat sensitivity had higher parent-reported CP and anxiety. Finally, children with lower affiliation had higher parent-reported CP, anxiety, and depression. Results largely replicated across informants and time, and sensitivity analysis revealed similar findings in children with and without DSM-5 defined CP.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support the STAR model hypotheses as they pertain to CU traits and delineate threat sensitivity and affiliation as independent transdiagnostic risk factors for different types of psychopathology. Future research is needed to develop fuller and more reliable and valid measures of affiliation and threat sensitivity across multiple assessment modalities.

Making Connections: Neurodevelopmental Changes in Brain Connectivity After Adverse Experiences in Early Adolescence

Adverse childhood experiences have been linked to detrimental mental health outcomes in adulthood. This study investigates a potential neurodevelopmental pathway between adversity and mental health outcomes: brain connectivity. We used data from the prospective, longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (N ≍ 12.000, participants aged 9-13 years, male and female) and assessed structural brain connectivity using fractional anisotropy (FA) of white matter tracts. The adverse experiences modeled included family conflict and traumatic experiences. K-means clustering and latent basis growth models were used to determine subgroups based on total levels and trajectories of brain connectivity. Multinomial regression was used to determine associations between cluster membership and adverse experiences. The results showed that higher family conflict was associated with higher FA levels across brain tracts (e.g., t (3) = -3.81, β = -0.09, p bonf = 0.003) and within the corpus callosum (CC), fornix, and anterior thalamic radiations (ATR). A decreasing FA trajectory across two brain imaging timepoints was linked to lower socioeconomic status and neighborhood safety. Socioeconomic status was related to FA across brain tracts (e.g., t (3) = 3.44, β = 0.10, p bonf = 0.01), the CC and the ATR. Neighborhood safety was associated with FA in the Fornix and ATR (e.g., t (1) = 3.48, β = 0.09, p bonf = 0.01). There is a complex and multifaceted relationship between adverse experiences and brain development, where adverse experiences during early adolescence are related to brain connectivity. These findings underscore the importance of studying adverse experiences beyond early childhood to understand lifespan developmental outcomes.

The association between neighborhood-level social fragmentation and distressing psychotic-like experiences in early adolescence: the moderating role of close friends

BACKGROUND

Early exposure to neighborhood social fragmentation has been shown to be associated with schizophrenia. The impact of social fragmentation and friendships on distressing psychotic-like experiences (PLE) remains unknown. We investigate the relationships between neighborhood social fragmentation, number of friends, and distressing PLE among early adolescents.

METHODS

Data were collected from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. Generalized linear mixed models tested associations between social fragmentation and distressing PLE, as well as the moderating role of the number of total and close friends.

RESULTS

Participants included 11 133 adolescents aged 9 to 10, with 52.3% being males. Greater neighborhood social fragmentation was associated with higher levels of distressing PLE (adjusted β = 0.05; 95% CI: 0.01-0.09). The number of close but not total friends significantly interacted with social fragmentation to predict distressing PLE (adjusted β = -0.02; 95% CI: -0.04 to <-0.01). Among those with fewer close friends, the association between neighborhood social fragmentation and distressing PLE was significant (adjusted β = 0.07; 95% CI: 0.03-0.11). However, among those with more close friends, the association was non-significant (adjusted β = 0.03; 95% CI: -0.01 to 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

Greater neighborhood social fragmentation is associated with higher levels of distressing PLE, particularly among those with fewer close friends. Further research is needed to disentangle aspects of the interaction between neighborhood characteristics and the quality of social interactions that may contribute to psychosis, which would have implications for developing effective interventions at the individual and community levels.

Early life stress modulates the genetic influence on brain structure and cognitive function in children

The enduring influence of early life stress (ELS) on brain and cognitive development has been widely acknowledged, yet the precise mechanisms underlying this association remain elusive. We hypothesize that ELS might disrupt the genome-wide influence on brain morphology and connectivity development, consequently exerting a detrimental impact on children's cognitive ability. We analyzed the multimodal data of DNA genotypes, brain imaging (structural and diffusion MRI), and neurocognitive battery (NIH Toolbox) of 4276 children (ages 9-10 years, European ancestry) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The genome-wide influence on cognitive function was estimated using the polygenic score (GPS). By using brain morphometry and tractography, we identified the brain correlates of the cognition GPSs. Statistical analyses revealed relationships for the gene-brain-cognition pathway. The brain structural variance significantly mediated the genetic influence on cognition (indirect effect = 0.016, PFDR < 0.001). Of note, this gene-brain relationship was significantly modulated by abuse, resulting in diminished cognitive capacity (Index of Moderated Mediation = -0.007; 95 % CI = -0.012 ∼ -0.002). Our results support a novel gene-brain-cognition model likely elucidating the long-lasting negative impact of ELS on children's cognitive development.

Preterm birth associated alterations in brain structure, cognitive functioning and behavior in children from the ABCD dataset

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth is a global health problem and associated with increased risk of long-term developmental impairments, but findings on the adverse outcomes of prematurity have been inconsistent.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the baseline session of the ongoing longitudinal Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. We identified 1706 preterm children and 1865 matched individuals as Control group and compared brain structure (MRI data), cognitive function and mental health symptoms.

RESULTS

Results showed that preterm children had higher psychopathological risk and lower cognitive function scores compared to controls. Structural MRI analysis indicated that preterm children had higher cortical thickness in the medial orbitofrontal cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, temporal and occipital gyrus; smaller volumes in the temporal and parietal gyrus, cerebellum, insula and thalamus; and smaller fiber tract volumes in the fornix and parahippocampal-cingulum bundle. Partial correlation analyses showed that gestational age and birth weight were associated with ADHD symptoms, picvocab, flanker, reading, fluid cognition composite, crystallized cognition composite and total cognition composite scores, and measures of brain structure in regions involved with emotional regulation, attention and cognition.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a complex interplay between psychopathological risk and cognitive deficits in preterm children that is associated with changes in regional brain volumes, cortical thickness, and structural connectivity among cortical and limbic brain regions critical for cognition and emotional well-being.

Impact of Childhood Trauma Exposure, Genetic Variation in Endocannabinoid Signaling, and Anxiety on Frontolimbic Pathways in Children

Introduction: The endocannabinoid (eCB) system plays a key role in modulating brain development, including myelination processes. Recent studies link a common variant (C385A, rs324420) in the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) gene to higher circulating eCB levels, lower anxiety, and altered frontolimbic development. Frontolimbic pathways, which demonstrate a protracted maturational course across childhood and adolescence, are associated with anxiety, and are vulnerable to environmental stressors such as trauma exposure. Here, we examined the impact of trauma exposure, FAAH genotype, and anxiety on frontolimbic white matter microstructure in children. Materials and Methods: We leveraged baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (n=9969; mean±standard deviation age=9.92±0.62 years; 47.1% female). Saliva samples were used for genotyping, and caregivers reported on their child's anxiety symptoms and trauma exposure. Fractional anisotropy (FA), a nonspecific measure of white matter integrity, was estimated for frontolimbic tracts. Results: Thirty-six percent of youth experienced one or more potentially traumatic events according to DSM-5 Criterion A (64% controls), and 45% were FAAH A-allele carriers (55% noncarriers). Relative to controls, trauma-exposed youth demonstrated higher anxiety and higher FA of the left uncinate. The FAAH A-allele (vs. CC) was associated with lower FA in the left fornix and left parahippocampal cingulum, and there was an indirect effect of FAAH genotype on anxiety through FA of the left fornix. Moreover, genotype moderated the association between FA of the left cingulum and anxiety. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate distinct effects of trauma exposure and the FAAH C385A variant on frontolimbic pathways and subsequent anxiety risk in preadolescent children. This line of work may provide important insights into neurodevelopmental mechanisms leading to anxiety risk, and potential targets for intervention.

Characterizing experiential elements of early-life stress to inform resilience: Buffering effects of controllability and predictability and the importance of their timing

Key theoretical frameworks have proposed that examining the impact of exposure to specific dimensions of stress at specific developmental periods is likely to yield important insight into processes of risk and resilience. Utilizing a sample of N = 549 young adults who provided a detailed retrospective history of their lifetime exposure to numerous dimensions of traumatic stress and ratings of their current trauma-related symptomatology via completion of an online survey, here we test whether an individual's perception of their lifetime stress as either controllable or predictable buffered the impact of exposure on trauma-related symptomatology assessed in adulthood. Further, we tested whether this moderation effect differed when evaluated in the context of early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood stress. Consistent with hypotheses, results highlight both stressor controllability and stressor predictability as buffering the impact of traumatic stress exposure on trauma-related symptomatology and suggest that the potency of this buffering effect varies across unique developmental periods. Leveraging dimensional ratings of lifetime stress exposure to probe heterogeneity in outcomes following stress - and, critically, considering interactions between dimensions of exposure and the developmental period when stress occurred - is likely to yield increased understanding of risk and resilience following traumatic stress.

Validation of an electronic self-administered version of the Dimensional Inventory of Stress and Trauma Across the Lifespan in a large sample of young adults

Recent advances in the dimensional assessment of traumatic stress have initiated research examining correlates of exposure to specific features of stress. However, existing tools require intensive, in-person, clinician administration to generate the rich phenotypic data required for such analyses. These approaches are time consuming, costly, and substantially restrict the degree to which assessment tools can be disseminated in large-scale studies, constraining the refinement of existing dimensional models of early adversity. Here, we present an electronic adaptation of the Dimensional Inventory of Stress and Trauma Across the Lifespan (DISTAL), called the DISTAL-Electronic (DISTAL-E), present descriptive statistics drawn from a large sample of N = 500 young adult participants who completed the novel measure, and provide information about its psychometric properties. Results suggest that the DISTAL-E adequately assesses the following dimensional indices of traumatic stress exposure: type, chronicity, age of onset, severity, proximity, caregiver involvement, controllability, predictability, betrayal, threat, and deprivation and that it has excellent content and convergent validity and good test-retest reliability over a 7-11 day period. Although the development of the DISTAL-E facilitates the broad assessment of dimensions of stress exposure in large-scale datasets and has the potential to increase access to stress-related research to a wider group of participants who may not be able to access clinical research in traditional, in-person, clinic-based settings, the generalizability of results of the present study may be constrained by the fact that study participants were primarily White, educated, and with middle-to-high income. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations between adverse childhood experiences and early adolescent problematic screen use in the United States

BACKGROUND

Problematic screen use, defined as an inability to control use despite private, social, and professional life consequences, is increasingly common among adolescents and can have significant mental and physical health consequences. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are important risk factors in the development of addictive behaviors and may play an important role in the development of problematic screen use.

METHODS

Prospective data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (Baseline and Year 2; 2018-2020; N = 9,673, participants who did not use screens were excluded) were analyzed in 2023. Generalized logistic mixed effects models were used to determine associations with ACEs and the presence of problematic use among adolescents who used screens based on cutoff scores. Secondary analyses used generalized linear mixed effects models to determine associations between ACEs and adolescent-reported problematic use scores of video games (Video Game Addiction Questionnaire), social media (Social Media Addiction Questionnaire), and mobile phones (Mobile Phone Involvement Questionnaire). Analyses were adjusted for potential confounders including age, sex, race/ethnicity, highest parent education, household income, adolescent anxiety, depression, and attention-deficit symptoms, study site, and participants who were twins.

RESULTS

The 9,673 screen-using adolescents ages 11-12 years old (mean age 12.0) were racially and ethnically diverse (52.9% White, 17.4% Latino/Hispanic, 19.4% Black, 5.8% Asian, 3.7% Native American, 0.9% Other). Problematic screen use rates among adolescents were identified to be 7.0% (video game), 3.5% (social media), and 21.8% (mobile phone). ACEs were associated with higher problematic video game and mobile phone use in both unadjusted and adjusted models, though problematic social media use was associated with mobile screen use in the unadjusted model only. Adolescents exposed to 4 or more ACEs experienced 3.1 times higher odds of reported problematic video game use and 1.6 times higher odds of problematic mobile phone use compared to peers with no ACEs.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the significant associations between adolescent ACE exposure and rates of problematic video and mobile phone screen use among adolescents who use screens, public health programming for trauma-exposed youth should explore video game, social media, and mobile phone use among this population and implement interventions focused on supporting healthy digital habits.

Food insecurity and binge-eating disorder in early adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Food insecurity is defined as lack of consistent access to adequate food for healthy living. The objective of this study was to determine the associations between food insecurity and binge-eating disorder in a national cohort of 9- to 14-year-old children.

METHOD

We analyzed prospective cohort data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (N = 10,035, 2016-2020). Logistic regression analyses estimated the associations between food insecurity at baseline, year 1, or year 2 (exposure) and binge eating, subclinical binge-eating disorder (Other Specified Feeding and Eating Disorder-Binge-Eating Disorder [OSFED-BED]), and binge-eating disorder (BED) (outcome) based on the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (KSADS-5) at 2-year follow-up.

RESULTS

The prevalence of food insecurity in the study was 15.8%. At 2-year follow-up, 1.71% of the sample received a diagnosis of BED or OSFED-BED, while 6.62% reported binge eating. Food insecurity was associated with 1.67 higher odds of BED or OSFED-BED (95% CI 1.04-2.69) and 1.31 higher odds of binge-eating symptoms (95% CI 1.01-1.71).

DISCUSSION

Food insecurity in early adolescence is associated with higher odds of developing future binge-eating and BED or OSFED-BED. Clinicians may consider assessing for binge eating in adolescents with food insecurity and provide support in accessing appropriate food resources.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Prior research has shown that food insecurity is associated with disordered eating behaviors, including binge eating in adulthood. This study explored whether food insecurity in early adolescence increases risk for developing binge-eating disorder (BED). Targeted screening for BED in adolescents experiencing FI, and vice versa, may be warranted.

Characterizing the dimensional structure of early-life adversity in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

Early-life adversity has profound consequences for youth neurodevelopment and adjustment; however, experiences of adversity are heterogeneous and interrelated in complex ways that can be difficult to operationalize and organize in developmental research. We sought to characterize the underlying dimensional structure of co-occurring adverse experiences among a subset of youth (ages 9-10) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (N = 7115), a community sample of youth in the United States. We identified 60 environmental and experiential variables that reflect adverse experiences. Exploratory factor analysis identified 10 robust dimensions of early-life adversity co-occurrence, corresponding to conceptual domains such as caregiver substance use and biological caregiver separation, caregiver psychopathology, caregiver lack of support, and socioeconomic disadvantage / neighborhood lack of safety. These dimensions demonstrated distinct associations with internalizing problems, externalizing problems, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. Non-metric multidimensional scaling characterized qualitative similarity among the 10 identified dimensions. Results supported a nonlinear three-dimensional structure representing early-life adversity, including continuous gradients of "perspective", "environmental uncertainty", and "acts of omission/commission". Our findings suggest that there are distinct dimensions of early-life adversity co-occurrence in the ABCD sample at baseline, and the resulting dimensions may have unique implications for neurodevelopment and youth behavior.

The role of perceived threats on mental health, social, and neurocognitive youth outcomes: A multicontextual, person-centered approach

Perceived threat in youth's environments can elevate risk for mental health, social, and neurocognitive difficulties throughout the lifespan. However, few studies examine variability in youth's perceptions of threat across multiple contexts or evaluate outcomes across multiple domains, ultimately limiting our understanding of specific risks associated with perceived threats in different contexts. This study examined associations between perceived threat in youth's neighborhood, school, and family contexts at ages 9-10 and mental health, social, and neurocognitive outcomes at ages 11-12 within a large US cohort (N = 5525) enrolled in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM Study (ABCD Study®). Latent profile analysis revealed four distinct profiles: Low Threat in all contexts, Elevated Family Threat, Elevated Neighborhood Threat, and Elevated Threat in all contexts. Mixed-effect models and post hoc pairwise comparisons showed that youth in Elevated Threat profile had poorer mental health and social outcomes 2 years later. Youth in the Elevated Family Threat profile uniquely showed increased disruptive behavior symptoms, whereas youth in the Elevated Neighborhood Threat profile predominantly displayed increased sleep problems and worse neurocognitive outcomes 2 years later. Together, findings highlight the importance of considering perceptions of threat across multiple contexts to achieve a more nuanced developmental picture.

Gene-by-Environment Interaction Effects of Social Adversity on Externalizing Behavior in ABCD Youth

This study tested whether multiple domains of social adversity, including neighborhood opportunity/deprivation and life stress, moderate genetic (A), common environmental (C), and unique environmental (E) influences on externalizing behaviors in 760 same-sex twin pairs (332 monozygotic; 428 dizygotic) ages 10-11 from the ABCD Study. Proportion of C influences on externalizing behavior increased at higher neighborhood adversity (lower overall opportunity). A decreased and C and E increased at lower levels of educational opportunity. A increased at lower health-environment and social-economic opportunity levels. For life stress, A decreased and E increased with number of experienced events. Results for educational opportunity and stressful life experiences suggest a bioecological gene-environment interaction pattern such that environmental influences predominate at higher levels of adversity, whereas limited access to healthcare, housing, and employment stability may potentiate genetic liability for externalizing behavior via a diathesis-stress mechanism. More detailed operationalization of social adversity in gene-environment interaction studies is needed.

A genetically informed Registered Report on adverse childhood experiences and mental health

Children who experience adversities have an elevated risk of mental health problems. However, the extent to which adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) cause mental health problems remains unclear, as previous associations may partly reflect genetic confounding. In this Registered Report, we used DNA from 11,407 children from the United Kingdom and the United States to investigate gene-environment correlations and genetic confounding of the associations between ACEs and mental health. Regarding gene-environment correlations, children with higher polygenic scores for mental health problems had a small increase in odds of ACEs. Regarding genetic confounding, elevated risk of mental health problems in children exposed to ACEs was at least partially due to pre-existing genetic risk. However, some ACEs (such as childhood maltreatment and parental mental illness) remained associated with mental health problems independent of genetic confounding. These findings suggest that interventions addressing heritable psychiatric vulnerabilities in children exposed to ACEs may help reduce their risk of mental health problems.

Why weight? Analytic approaches for large-scale population neuroscience data

Population-based neuroimaging studies that feature complex sampling designs enable researchers to generalize their results more widely. However, several theoretical and analytical questions pose challenges to researchers interested in these data. The following is a resource for researchers interested in using population-based neuroimaging data. We provide an overview of sampling designs and describe the differences between traditional model-based analyses and survey-oriented design-based analyses. To elucidate key concepts, we leverage data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development℠ Study (ABCD Study®), a population-based sample of 11,878 9-10-year-olds in the United States. Analyses revealed modest sociodemographic discrepancies between the target population of 9-10-year-olds in the U.S. and both the recruited ABCD sample and the analytic sample with usable structural and functional imaging data. In evaluating the associations between socioeconomic resources (i.e., constructs that are tightly linked to recruitment biases) and several metrics of brain development, we show that model-based approaches over-estimated the associations of household income and under-estimated the associations of caregiver education with total cortical volume and surface area. Comparable results were found in models predicting neural function during two fMRI task paradigms. We conclude with recommendations for ABCD Study® users and users of population-based neuroimaging cohorts more broadly.

Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Diet, Exercise, and Sleep in Pre-adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To understand the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and diet, sleep, and exercise in pre-adolescents.

METHODS

Baseline and 1-year follow-up data from the adolescent brain and cognitive development (ABCD) study were analyzed (age 10-11, n = 11,875). ACEs were measured by parent report at baseline. Three levels of ACEs were created: none, exposure to one ACE, and exposure to two or more ACEs. Health-promoting behaviors were assessed at 1 year. Diet quality was measured from parent report; sleep problems were measured by parent report, with higher scores indicating worse sleep; and amount of exercise was measured by youth report. Linear regression analyses were used to assess the relationship between ACEs and each health-promoting behavior, adjusting for family income and sex.

RESULTS

Compared to children with no adversity, ACEs were associated with worse diet - one ACE (β = -0.30 [95% CI, -0.49 to -0.12], P = .002) and 2 or more ACEs (β = -0.56 [-0.78 to -0.34, P < .001). Similarly, ACEs were associated with poor sleep - one ACE (β = 1.51 [1.00-2.03], P < .001) and 2 or more ACEs (β = 2.96 [2.38-3.53], P < .001). Finally, amount of exercise was not different in children with ACEs - 2 or more ACEs (β = -0.24, 95% CI, -0.51 to 0.04, P = .08).

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs in pre-adolescents show a dose-response relationship with unhealthy diet and sleep disruption. These findings suggest potential behaviors to target to mitigate the negative impact of childhood adversity on adult health.

Associations Between Adverse Childhood Experiences, Adolescent Screen Time and Physical Activity During the COVID-19 Pandemic

OBJECTIVE

To determine the associations between Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), adolescent screen time, and physical activity during the early COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Data (2016-2020) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study were analyzed. Linear regression analyses estimated associations between ACE score and screen time and physical activity in May 2020, adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Of the 6749 adolescent respondents primarily aged 12-13, 81.6% reported a history of one ACE or more. In adjusted models, a higher ACE score was significantly associated with greater hours per day of screen time, with youth with ≥4 ACEs associated with 2.3 more hours of screen time per day compared to youth with 0 ACEs. In addition, the adjusted models found that a higher ACE score was associated with lower physical activity; youth with ≥4 ACEs averaged 0.8 fewer hours per week of physical activity and 0.5 fewer days per week of 60 minutes of physical activity compared to youth with 0 ACEs. Gender and race were also significantly associated with changes in screen time and physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

ACEs are associated with higher adolescent sedentary behaviors, particularly greater screen time, during the early COVID-19 pandemic (May 2020). Clinicians caring for youth exposed to trauma in the postpandemic environment should explore screen time and physical activity behaviors.

Prediction of the trajectories of depressive symptoms among children in the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study using machine learning approach

BACKGROUND

Depression often first emerges during adolescence and evidence shows that the long-term patterns of depressive symptoms over time are heterogeneous. It is meaningful to predict the trajectory of depressive symptoms in adolescents to find early intervention targets.

METHODS

Based on the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, we included 4962 participants aged 9-10 who were followed-up for 2 years. Trajectories of depressive symptoms were identified by Latent Class Growth Analyses (LCGA). Four types of machine learning models were built to predict the identified trajectories and to obtain variables with predictive value based on the best performance model.

RESULTS

Of all participants, 536 (10.80%) were classified as increasing, 269 (5.42%) as persistently high, 433 (8.73%) as decreasing, and 3724 (75.05%) as persistently low by LCGA. Gradient Boosting Machine (GBM) model got the highest discriminant performance. Sleep quality, parental emotional state and family financial adversities were the most important predictors and three resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging functional connectivity data were also helpful to distinguish trajectories.

LIMITATION

We only have depressive symptom scores at three time points. Some valuable predictors are not specific to depression. External validation is an important next step. These predictors should not be interpreted as etiology and some variables were reported by parents/caregivers.

CONCLUSION

Using GBM combined with baseline characteristics, the trajectories of depressive symptoms with two years among adolescents aged 9-10 years can be well predicted, which might further facilitate the identification of adolescents at high risk of depressive symptoms and development of effective early interventions.

A practical guide for researchers and reviewers using the ABCD Study and other large longitudinal datasets

As the largest longitudinal study of adolescent brain development and behavior to date, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study® has provided immense opportunities for researchers across disciplines since its first data release in 2018. The size and scope of the study also present a number of hurdles, which range from becoming familiar with the study design and data structure to employing rigorous and reproducible analyses. The current paper is intended as a guide for researchers and reviewers working with ABCD data, highlighting the features of the data (and the strengths and limitations therein) as well as relevant analytical and methodological considerations. Additionally, we explore justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion efforts as they pertain to the ABCD Study and other large-scale datasets. In doing so, we hope to increase both accessibility of the ABCD Study and transparency within the field of developmental cognitive neuroscience.

Association of Cyberbullying Experiences and Perpetration With Suicidality in Early Adolescence

IMPORTANCE

Adolescent suicidality (ie, suicidal ideation or attempts) is a major public health concern. Cyberbullying experiences and perpetration have become increasingly prevalent and are associated with mental health burden, but their roles as independent suicidality risk factors remain unclear. Data are needed to clarify their contribution to teen suicidality to inform suicide prevention efforts.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether cyberbullying experiences and perpetration are distinct stressors divergent from other forms of peer aggression experiences in their association with suicidality in early adolescence.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cross-sectional analysis used data collected between July 2018 and January 2021 from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, a large, diverse sample of US children aged 10 to 13 years.

EXPOSURES

Youth reports of cyberbullying experiences or perpetration.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The main outcome was youth-reported suicidality (past or present, as reported in the ABCD 2-year follow-up assessment). Covariates included demographics, established environmental risk and protective factors for youth suicidality, psychopathology, and experiences or perpetration of offline peer aggression.

RESULTS

A total of 10 414 ABCD participants were included in this study. Participants had a mean (SD) age of 12.0 (0.7) years and 4962 (47.6%) were female; 796 (7.6%) endorsed suicidality. A total of 930 (8.9%) reported experiencing cyberbullying and 96 (0.9%) reported perpetrating cyberbullying. Of the perpetrators, 66 (69.0%) also endorsed experiencing cyberbullying. Controlling for demographics, experiencing cyberbullying was associated with suicidality (odds ratio [OR], 4.2 [95% CI, 3.5-5.1]; P < .001), whereas perpetrating cyberbullying was not (OR, 1.3 [95% CI, 0.8-2.3]; P = .30). Experiencing cyberbullying remained associated with suicidality when accounting for negative life events, family conflict, parental monitoring, school environment, and racial and ethnic discrimination (OR, 2.5 [95% CI, 2.0-3.0]; P < .001) and when further covarying for internalizing and externalizing psychopathology (OR, 1.8 [95% CI, 1.4-2.4]; P < .001). Both being a target and being a perpetrator of offline peer aggression were associated with suicidality (OR, 1.5 [95% CI, 1.1-2.0] for both), controlling for all covariates described earlier. Cyberbullying experiences remained associated with suicidality (OR, 1.7 [95% CI, 1.3-2.2]; P < .001, controlling for all covariates) when included with offline peer aggression experiences and perpetration.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cross-sectional study, experiencing-but not perpetrating-cyberbullying was associated with suicidality in early adolescence. This association was significant over and above other suicidality risk factors, including offline peer aggression experiences or perpetration. These findings can inform adolescent suicide prevention strategies, and they suggest that clinicians and educational staff working with this population should routinely evaluate for adolescents' experience with cyberbullying.

The positive-negative mode link between brain connectivity, demographics and behaviour: a pre-registered replication of Smith et al. (2015)

In mental health research, it has proven difficult to find measures of brain function that provide reliable indicators of mental health and well-being, including susceptibility to mental health disorders. Recently, a family of data-driven analyses have provided such reliable measures when applied to large, population-level datasets. In the current pre-registered replication study, we show that the canonical correlation analysis (CCA) methods previously developed using resting-state magnetic resonance imaging functional connectivity and subject measures (SMs) of cognition and behaviour from healthy adults are also effective in measuring well-being (a 'positive-negative axis') in an independent developmental dataset. Our replication was successful in two out of three of our pre-registered criteria, such that a primary CCA mode's weights displayed a significant positive relationship and explained a significant amount of variance in both functional connectivity and SMs. The only criterion that was not successful was that compared to other modes the magnitude of variance explained by the primary CCA mode was smaller than predicted, a result that could indicate a developmental trajectory of a primary mode. This replication establishes a signature neurotypical relationship between connectivity and phenotype, opening new avenues of research in neuroscience with clear clinical applications.

Early life stress and substance use disorders: The critical role of adolescent substance use

Early life stress (ELS) is a well-established risk factor for many psychiatric and medical disorders, including substance use disorders (SUDs). The relationship between ELS and SUDs is complex and there are likely multiple pathways from ELS to adverse substance use outcomes. The association between ELS and substance use emerges in adolescence. Adolescence is a critical period in development during which substance exposure markedly increases risk for SUDs. Therefore, this review focuses on the literature supporting the hypothesis that ELS increases risk for the development of SUDs through its influence on adolescent substance use. We discuss studies substantiating the role of ELS in adolescent substance use and explore how internalizing and externalizing psychopathology may be antecedents of substance use in adolescence. We examine clinical work suggesting ELS sculpts the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis and developing brain-particularly subcortical brain regions that underlie stress response, mesocorticolimbic brain systems associated with reward sensitivity, and prefrontal regions that underlie executive control-in a way that increases risk for adolescent substance use and SUDs. We further explore how substance use during adolescence alters structure and function of these same systems, and how brain changes following ELS and adolescent substance use may independently, additively, or interactively contribute to risk for addiction. We conclude by discussing how the current literature can inform interventions aimed at reducing risk for SUDs in individuals with a history of ELS.

Motor abnormalities, depression risk, and clinical course in adolescence

Background

Motor abnormalities, such as psychomotor agitation and retardation, are widely recognized as core features of depression. However, it is not currently known if motor abnormalities connote risk for depression.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a nationally representative sample of youth (n=10,835, 9-11 years old), the present paper examines whether motor abnormalities are associated with (a) depression symptoms in early adolescence, (b) familial risk for depression (familial risk loading), and (c) future depression symptoms. Motor abnormalities measures included traditional (DSM) motor signs such as psychomotor agitation and retardation as well as other motor domains such as developmental motor delays and dyscoordination.

Results

Traditional motor abnormalities were less prevalent (agitation=3.2%, retardation=0.3%) than non-traditional domains (delays=13.79%, coordination=35.5%) among adolescents. Motor dysfunction was associated with depression symptoms (Cohen's ds=0.02 to 0.12). Familial risk for depression was related to motor abnormalities (Cohen's ds=0.08 to 0.27), with the exception of motor retardation. Family vulnerability varied in sensitivity to depression risk (e.g., retardation: .53%; dyscoordination: 32.05%). Baseline endorsement of motor abnormalities predicted future depression symptoms at one-year follow-up.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that motor signs reflect a novel, promising future direction for examining vulnerability to depression risk in early adolescence.

Perceived stress and rejection associated with functional network strength during memory retrieval in adolescents

The brain undergoes substantial structural and functional remodeling during adolescence, including alterations in memory-processing regions influenced by stress. This study evaluated brain activation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during spatial memory performance using a virtual Morris water task (MWT) and examined the associations between default mode network (DMN) activation, task performance, and perceived stress and rejection. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired at 3 Tesla from 59 (34 female) adolescents (13-14 years). The NIH Emotion Toolbox was used to measure perceived stress and rejection. During the MWT, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex showed greater activation during memory retrieval relative to motor performance. Templates of brain functional networks from the Human Connectome Project study were used to extract individual participants' brain network activation strengths for the retrieval > motor contrast for two sub-networks of the default mode network: medial temporal lobe (MTL-DMN) and dorsomedial prefrontal (dMPFC-DMN). For the MTL-DMN sub-network only, activation was significantly associated with worse MWT performance (p = .008) and greater perceived stress (p = .008) and perceived rejection (p = .002). Further, MWT performance was negatively associated with perceived rejection (p = .007). These findings suggest that perceived stress and rejection are related to engagement of MTL-DMN during spatial memory and that engagement of this network impacts performance. These findings also demonstrate the utility of examining task-related network activation strength to identify the impact of perceived stress and rejection on large-scale brain network functioning during adolescence.

Modeling environment through a general exposome factor in two independent adolescent cohorts

Exposures to perinatal, familial, social, and physical environmental stimuli can have substantial effects on human development. We aimed to generate a single measure that capture's the complex network structure of the environment (ie, exposome) using multi-level data (participant's report, parent report, and geocoded measures) of environmental exposures (primarily from the psychosocial environment) in two independent adolescent cohorts: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (ABCD Study, N = 11 235; mean age, 10.9 years; 47.7% females) and an age- and sex-matched sample from the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort (PNC, N = 4993). We conducted a series of data-driven iterative factor analyses and bifactor modeling in the ABCD Study, reducing dimensionality from 348 variables tapping to environment to six orthogonal exposome subfactors and a general (adverse) exposome factor. The general exposome factor was associated with overall psychopathology (B = 0.28, 95% CI, 0.26-0.3) and key health-related outcomes: obesity (odds ratio [OR] , 1.4; 95% CI, 1.3-1.5) and advanced pubertal development (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.2-1.5). A similar approach in PNC reduced dimensionality of environment from 29 variables to 4 exposome subfactors and a general exposome factor. PNC analyses yielded consistent associations of the general exposome factor with psychopathology (B = 0.15; 95% CI, 0.13-0.17), obesity (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.3-1.6), and advanced pubertal development (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1-1.6). In both cohorts, inclusion of exposome factors greatly increased variance explained in overall psychopathology compared with models relying solely on demographics and parental education (from <4% to >38% in ABCD; from <4% to >18.5% in PNC). Findings suggest that a general exposome factor capturing multi-level environmental exposures can be derived and can consistently explain variance in youth's mental and general health.

Contributions of PTSD polygenic risk and environmental stress to suicidality in preadolescents

Suicidal ideation and attempts (i.e., suicidality) are complex behaviors driven by environmental stress, genetic susceptibility, and their interaction. Preadolescent suicidality is a major health problem with rising rates, yet its underlying biology is understudied. Here we studied effects of genetic stress susceptibility, approximated by the polygenic risk score (PRS) for post-traumatic-stress-disorder (PTSD), on preadolescent suicidality in participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®. We further evaluated PTSD-PRS effects on suicidality in the presence of environmental stressors that are established suicide risk factors. Analyses included both European and African ancestry participants using PRS calculated based on summary statistics from ancestry-specific genome-wide association studies. In European ancestry participants (N = 4,619, n = 378 suicidal), PTSD-PRS was associated with preadolescent suicidality (odds ratio [OR] = 1.12, 95%CI 1-1.25, p = 0.038). Results in African ancestry participants (N = 1,334, n = 130 suicidal) showed a similar direction but were not statistically significant (OR = 1.21, 95%CI 0.93-1.57, p = 0.153). Sensitivity analyses using non-psychiatric polygenic score for height and using cross-ancestry PTSD-PRS did not reveal any association with suicidality, supporting the specificity of the association of ancestry-specific PTSD-PRS with suicidality. Environmental stressors were robustly associated with suicidality across ancestries with moderate effect size for negative life events and family conflict (OR 1.27-1.6); and with large effect size (OR ∼ 4) for sexual-orientation discrimination. When combined with environmental factors, PTSD-PRS showed marginal additive effects in explaining variability in suicidality, with no evidence for G × E interaction. Results support use of cross-phenotype PRS, specifically stress-susceptibility, as a genetic marker for suicidality risk early in the lifespan.

Effects of Screen Time and Season on Cardiovascular System Indicators in Primary Schoolchildren

Indicators of the cardiovascular system, including heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) variability parameters, were analyzed in primary school students with different computer screen times. The study included 4084 students of grades 1–4 (age 7–12 years) from 66 Moscow schools. The screen time at school and out of school was assessed by teachers, based on the national Sanitary Rules and Regulations: 0, no screen time; 1, screen time matching hygienic standards; 2, screen time at least twice greater than recommended. Physiological examinations were carried out by spiroarteriocardiorhythmography with a face mask, the conditions corresponding to the functional stress test (mild hypercapnia/hypoxia). Testing took place in spring and autumn (independent samples). Statistical data processing was performed using nonparametric criteria. It was revealed that the introduction of computer technologies in school lessons within the limits of hygienic standards was accompanied by an increase, within the normal range, of systolic BP in girls at the end of grade 2 and 4 and in boys at the beginning and end of grade 4. Screen time at least twice higher than the hygienic standard did not have an additional effect on BP, but provoked shifts in the function of autonomic regulation. Boys were more sensitive to the influence of this environmental factor. Their pattern of seasonal variability in total power (TP) of the HR variability spectrum was reversed compared to that of children who did not use computers at school; i.e., higher TP values were observed in spring. In grade 4, the process was accompanied by an increase in spontaneous arterial baroreflex sensitivity and a decrease in the relative power of the LF range in the variability spectrum of systolic BP. The changes were assumed to reflect the adaptive response to changes in educational environment.

Associations among negative life events, changes in cortico-limbic connectivity, and psychopathology in the ABCD Study

Adversity exposure is a risk factor for psychopathology, which most frequently onsets during adolescence, and prior research has demonstrated that alterations in cortico-limbic connectivity may account in part for this association. In a sample of youth from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (N = 4006), we tested a longitudinal structural equation model to examine the indirect effect of adversity exposure (negative life events) on later psychopathology via changes in cortico-limbic resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC). We also examined the potential protective effects of parental acceptance. Generally, cortico-limbic connectivity became more strongly negative between baseline and year 2 follow-up, suggesting that stronger negative correlations within these cortico-limbic networks may reflect a more mature phenotype. Exposure to a greater number of negative life events was associated with stronger negative cortico-limbic rsFC which, in turn, was associated with lower internalizing (but not externalizing) symptoms. The indirect effect of negative life events on internalizing symptoms via cortico-limbic rsFC was significant. Parental acceptance did not moderate the association between negative life events and rsFC. Our findings highlight how stressful childhood experiences may accelerate neurobiological maturation in specific cortico-limbic connections, potentially reflecting an adaptive process that protects against internalizing problems in the context of adversity.

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Childhood adversity shapes cortico-limbic connectivity and mental health.

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In the ABCD Study, cortico-limbic functional connectivity changed over time.

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These changes explain the association between adversity and internalizing symptoms.

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Adversity exposure may accelerate corticolimbic development.

Longitudinal Impact of Childhood Adversity on Early Adolescent Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the ABCD Study® Cohort: Does Race or Ethnicity Moderate Findings?

Background

During the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, mental health among youth has been negatively affected. Youth with a history of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), as well as youth from minoritized racial-ethnic backgrounds, may be especially vulnerable to experiencing COVID-19–related distress. The aims of this study are to examine whether exposure to pre-pandemic ACEs predicts mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in youth and whether racial-ethnic background moderates these effects.

Methods

From May to August 2020, 7983 youths (mean age, 12.5 years; range, 10.6–14.6 years) in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study completed at least one of three online surveys measuring the impact of the pandemic on their mental health. Data were evaluated in relation to youths' pre-pandemic mental health and ACEs.

Results

Pre-pandemic ACE history significantly predicted poorer mental health across all outcomes and greater COVID-19–related stress and impact of fears on well-being. Youths reported improved mental health during the pandemic (from May to August 2020). While reporting similar levels of mental health, youths from minoritized racial-ethnic backgrounds had elevated COVID-19–related worry, stress, and impact on well-being. Race and ethnicity generally did not moderate ACE effects. Older youths, girls, and those with greater pre-pandemic internalizing symptoms also reported greater mental health symptoms.

Conclusions

Youths who experienced greater childhood adversity reported greater negative affect and COVID-19–related distress during the pandemic. Although they reported generally better mood, Asian American, Black, and multiracial youths reported greater COVID-19–related distress and experienced COVID-19–related discrimination compared with non-Hispanic White youths, highlighting potential health disparities.

Association of Local Variation in Neighborhood Disadvantage in Metropolitan Areas With Youth Neurocognition and Brain Structure

Importance

Neighborhood disadvantage is an important social determinant of health in childhood and adolescence. Less is known about the association of neighborhood disadvantage with youth neurocognition and brain structure, and particularly whether associations are similar across metropolitan areas and are attributed to local differences in disadvantage.

Objective

To test whether neighborhood disadvantage is associated with youth neurocognitive performance and with global and regional measures of brain structure after adjusting for family socioeconomic status and perceptions of neighborhood characteristics, and to assess whether these associations (1) are pervasive or limited, (2) vary across metropolitan areas, and (3) are attributed to local variation in disadvantage within metropolitan areas.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study analyzed baseline data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a cohort study conducted at 21 sites across the US. Participants were children aged 9.00 to 10.99 years at enrollment. They and their parent or caregiver completed a baseline visit between October 1, 2016, and October 31, 2018.

Exposures

Neighborhood disadvantage factor based on US census tract characteristics.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Neurocognition was measured with the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery, and T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess whole-brain and regional measures of structure. Linear mixed-effects models examined the association between neighborhood disadvantage and outcomes after adjusting for sociodemographic factors.

Results

Of the 11 875 children in the ABCD Study cohort, 8598 children (72.4%) were included in this analysis. The study sample had a mean (SD) age of 118.8 (7.4) months and included 4526 boys (52.6%). Every 1-unit increase in the neighborhood disadvantage factor was associated with lower performance on 6 of 7 subtests, such as Flanker Inhibitory Control and Attention (unstandardized Β = -0.5; 95% CI, -0.7 to -0.2; false discovery rate (FDR)-corrected P = .001) and List Sorting Working Memory (unstandardized Β = -0.7; 95% CI, -1.0 to -0.3; FDR-corrected P < .001), as well as on all composite measures of neurocognition, such as the Total Cognition Composite (unstandardized Β = -0.7; 95% CI, -0.9 to -0.5; FDR-corrected P < .001). Each 1-unit increase in neighborhood disadvantage was associated with lower whole-brain cortical surface area (unstandardized Β = -692.6 mm2; 95% CI, -1154.9 to -230.4 mm2; FDR-corrected P = .007) and subcortical volume (unstandardized Β = -113.9 mm3; 95% CI, -198.5 to -29.4 mm3; FDR-corrected P = .03) as well as with regional surface area differences, primarily in the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. Associations largely remained after adjusting for perceptions of neighborhood safety and were both consistent across metropolitan areas and primarily explained by local variation in each area.

Conclusions and Relevance

This study found that, in the US, local variation in neighborhood disadvantage was associated with lower neurocognitive performance and smaller cortical surface area and subcortical volume in young people. The findings demonstrate that neighborhood disadvantage is an environmental risk factor for neurodevelopmental and population health and enhancing the neighborhood context is a promising approach to improving the health and development of children and adolescents.

Prediction of suicidal ideation and attempt in 9 and 10 year-old children using transdiagnostic risk features

The objective of the current study was to build predictive models for suicidal ideation in a sample of children aged 9–10 using features previously implicated in risk among older adolescent and adult populations. This case-control analysis utilized baseline data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, collected from 21 research sites across the United States (N = 11,369). Several regression and ensemble learning models were compared on their ability to classify individuals with suicidal ideation and/or attempt from healthy controls, as assessed by the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia–Present and Lifetime Version. When comparing control participants (mean age: 9.92±0.62 years; 4944 girls [49%]) to participants with suicidal ideation (mean age: 9.89±0.63 years; 451 girls [40%]), both logistic regression with feature selection and elastic net without feature selection predicted suicidal ideation with an AUC of 0.70 (CI 95%: 0.70–0.71). The random forest with feature selection trained to predict suicidal ideation predicted a holdout set of children with a history of suicidal ideation and attempt (mean age: 9.96±0.62 years; 79 girls [41%]) from controls with an AUC of 0.77 (CI 95%: 0.76–0.77). Important features from these models included feelings of loneliness and worthlessness, impulsivity, prodromal psychosis symptoms, and behavioral problems. This investigation provided an unprecedented opportunity to identify suicide risk in youth. The use of machine learning to examine a large number of predictors spanning a variety of domains provides novel insight into transdiagnostic factors important for risk classification.

Polygenic Risk for Insomnia in Adolescents of Diverse Ancestry

Background: Insomnia is a common mental disorder, affecting nearly one fifth of the pre-adult population in the United States. The recent, largest genome-wide association study (GWAS) conducted on the United Kingdom Biobank cohort identified hundreds of significant single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), allowing the epidemiologists to quantify individual genetic predisposition in the subsequent studies via the polygenic risk scoring technique. The nucleotide polymorphisms and risk scoring, while being able to generalize to other adult populations of European origin, are not yet tested on pediatric and adolescent populations of diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds, and our study intends to fill these gaps.

Materials and Methods: We took the summary of the same United Kingdom Biobank study and conducted a polygenic risk score (PRS) analysis on a multi-ethnicity, pre-adult population provided by the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study.

Results: The PRSs according to the significant nucleotide polymorphisms found in white British adults is a strong predictor of insomnia in children of similar European background but lacks power in non-European groups.

Conclusions: Through polygenic risk scoring, the knowledge of insomnia genetics summarized from a white adult study population is transferable to a younger age group, which aids the search of actionable targets of early insomnia prevention. Yet population stratification may prevent the easy generalization across ethnic lines; therefore, it is necessary to conduct group specific studies to aid people of non-European genetic background.

Association Between Habitual Snoring and Cognitive Performance Among a Large Sample of Preadolescent Children

Importance

Previous studies have identified an association between habitual snoring and lower cognitive performance in children. However, whether and to what extent this association is confounded by pertinent demographic, anthropometric, and socioeconomic characteristics is unknown.

Objective

To assess the extent to which potential confounding factors modify the association between parent-reported habitual snoring and cognitive outcomes among a large and diverse sample of typically developing preadolescent children.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional analysis used a baseline data set (version 2.0.1) from children enrolled in the ongoing Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study between September 1, 2016, and October 15, 2018. Children aged 9 to 10 years without serious psychiatric or neurological comorbidities were recruited at 21 research sites in the US. Study recruitment was designed to approximate the racial and socioeconomic diversity of the US population. Data were analyzed from February 1 to March 31, 2020.

Exposures

Parent-reported habitual snoring in children that occurs 3 or more nights per week.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Associations between habitual snoring and cognitive performance were assessed using the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children and the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery, which includes 7 domain-specific and 3 composite (total cognitive function, fluid cognition, and crystallized cognition) standard scores that are uncorrected for covariates. Cognitive performance was examined before and after adjustment for covariates, which included age, sex, body mass index percentile, annual household income before taxes, and highest educational level of caregiver. The extent of confounding was assessed by the effect size, represented by Cohen d, before and after inclusion of covariates using linear mixed-effects models.

Results

A total of 11 873 children aged 9 to 10 years (6187 boys [52.1%]; 6174 White [52.0%]) with available data were included in the study. Of those, habitual snoring (≥3 nights per week) was reported in 810 children (6.8%), and nonhabitual snoring (1-2 nights per week) was reported in 4058 children (34.2%). In the unadjusted models, the total cognitive function composite score among children who habitually snored was significantly lower compared with children who never snored (Cohen d, 0.35; 95% CI, 0.28-0.42). Differences were also identified in the crystallized cognition (Cohen d, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.26-0.41) and fluid cognition (Cohen d, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.21-0.35) composite scores. The association between habitual snoring and cognitive performance was substantially attenuated after adjustment for covariates (Cohen d, 0.16 [95% CI, 0.09 to 0.24] for total cognitive function, 0.14 [95% CI, 0.07 to 0.21] for crystallized cognition, and 0.13 [95% CI, 0.06 to 0.21] for fluid cognition). Similar mitigation was also observed for all domain-specific scores.

Conclusions

In this cross-sectional study, when adjusted for baseline demographic, anthropometric, and socioeconomic characteristics, the association between parent-reported habitual snoring and cognitive performance was substantially attenuated among children aged 9 to 10 years.

The role of family conflict in mediating impulsivity to early substance exposure among preteens

OBJECTIVES

Preadolescence substance exposure, which increases the risk of regular substance use, has been a public health concern. Although studies found that impulsivity is a predisposing factor of early substance exposure, the pathways through which impulsivity is associated with early substance exposure remain unclear. This study examined how family conflict mediates this association among U.S. preteens as family environment plays an essential role in pre-adolescent development.

METHODS

Respondents (N = 11,800, 9-10 years old) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study Release 2.01 (July 2019) were included in this study. Generalized structural equation modeling was performed to investigate the mediation effects of family conflict on the associations between childhood impulsivity and early exposure to alcohol and tobacco use, controlling for covariates based on the Problem Behavior Theory.

RESULTS

Pre-adolescents with high impulsivity levels (≥90^th percentile) were more likely to report early alcohol and tobacco exposure (total effect: ORs = 1.49 and 1.70, respectively), where 4.13% and 12.41% of the associations, respectively, were meditated by family conflict (indirect effect: ORs = 1.02 and 1.07; Sobel test ps = 0.022 and 0.005, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Family conflict mediates the associations between childhood impulsivity and early substance exposure among preteens, with higher impulsivity leading to more severe family conflicts that are, in turn, associated with a higher likelihood of early substance exposure. To prevent preteens with high impulsivity level from early use of substances, interventions may focus on reducing family conflicts such as parenting counseling that guides parents to strengthen conflict-resolution skills and create a stable home environment for preteens.

Decomposing complex links between the childhood environment and brain structure in school-aged youth

Childhood experiences play a profound role in conferring risk and resilience for brain and behavioral development. However, how different facets of the environment shape neurodevelopment remains largely unknown. Here we sought to decompose heterogeneous relationships between environmental factors and brain structure in 989 school-aged children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. We applied a cross-modal integration and clustering approach called 'Similarity Network Fusion', which combined two brain morphometrics (i.e., cortical thickness and myelin-surrogate markers), and key environmental factors (i.e., trauma exposure, neighborhood safety, school environment, and family environment) to identify homogeneous subtypes. Depending on the subtyping resolution, results identified two or five subgroups, each characterized by distinct brain structure-environment profiles. Notably, more supportive caregiving and school environments were associated with greater myelination, whereas less supportive caregiving, higher family conflict and psychopathology, and higher perceived neighborhood safety were observed with greater cortical thickness. These subtypes were highly reproducible and predicted externalizing symptoms and overall mental health problems. Our findings support the theory that distinct environmental exposures are differentially associated with alterations in structural neurodevelopment. Delineating more precise associations between risk factors, protective factors, and brain development may inform approaches to enhance risk identification and optimize interventions targeting specific experiences.

Parental Education and Left Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortical Activity during N-Back Task: An fMRI Study of American Adolescents

Introduction. The Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) is a cortical structure that has implications in cognition, memory, reward anticipation, outcome evaluation, decision making, and learning. As such, OFC activity correlates with these cognitive brain abilities. Despite research suggesting race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education may be associated with OFC activity, limited knowledge exists on multiplicative effects of race and parental education on OFC activity and associated cognitive ability. Purpose. Using functional brain imaging data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we tested the multiplicative effects of race and parental education on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task. In our study, we used a sociological rather than biological theory that conceptualizes race and SES as proxies of access to the opportunity structure and exposure to social adversities rather than innate and non-modifiable brain differences. We explored racial variation in the effect of parental educational attainment, a primary indicator of SES, on left lateral OFC activity during an N-Back task between Black and White 9–10 years old adolescents. Methods. The ABCD study is a national, landmark, multi-center brain imaging investigation of American adolescents. The total sample was 4290 9–10 years old Black or White adolescents. The independent variables were SES indicators, namely family income, parental education, and neighborhood income. The primary outcome was the average beta weight for N-Back (2 back versus 0 back contrast) in ASEG ROI left OFC activity, measured by functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during an N-Back task. Ethnicity, age, sex, subjective SES, and family structure were the study covariates. For data analysis, we used linear regression models. Results. In White but not Black adolescents, parental education was associated with higher left lateral OFC activity during the N-Back task. In the pooled sample, we found a significant interaction between race and parental education on the outcome, suggesting that high parental education is associated with a larger increase in left OFC activity of White than Black adolescents. Conclusions. For American adolescents, race and SES jointly influence left lateral OFC activity correlated with cognition, memory, decision making, and learning. Given the central role of left lateral OFC activity in learning and memory, our finding calls for additional research on contextual factors that reduce the gain of SES for Black adolescents. Cognitive inequalities are not merely due to the additive effects of race and SES but also its multiplicative effects.

A High Psychological and Somatic Symptom Profile and Family Health Factors Predict New or Persistent Pain During Early Adolescence

OBJECTIVES

Persistent or recurrent pain is common among adolescents and is associated with poor functioning. The purpose of this study was to determine whether preteens who present with pain, and higher, co-occurring psychological and somatic symptoms (PSS) are at higher risk for persistent pain than other children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis of the longitudinal Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development database (version 2.0.1) that includes 11,863 children aged 9 to 12 years. We differentiated children into baseline Pain/PSS profiles using the Child Behavior Checklist assessments of pain, cognitive-fogginess, somatic symptoms, depression, and anxiety and the Sleep Disorder Survey-Children somnolence subscale. We examined whether Pain/PSS profile predicted 1-year new/persistent pain when controlled for child characteristics and intergenerational mental health factors.

RESULTS

Four profiles were differentiated: No Pain/Low PSS, No Pain/High PSS, Pain/Low PSS, Pain/High PSS. Trauma exposure and family symptoms were associated with increased odds of being in the higher PSS groups. Baseline symptom profile predicted 14% of the variance in new/persistent pain at 1-year. Compared with the No Pain/Low PSS group, an increased odds of 1-year new or persistent pain was found in children with No Pain/High PSS (adjusted odds ratio [OR]: 1.44; [95% confidence interval: 1.14, 1.82]), Pain/Low PSS (adjusted OR: 4.69 [4.01, 5.48]) and Pain/High PSS (adjusted OR: 5.48 [4.35, 6.91]).

DISCUSSION

Preteen children with higher comorbid Pain/PSS symptomology were at higher risk for new or persistent pain at 1 year when controlled for important child and family characteristics. Findings support the importance of considering co-occurring symptoms when evaluating children with pain.

Criminal career duration: Predictability from self-reports and official records

Criminal career duration has not been well investigated. There are very few longitudinal data sets that last long enough and enough subjects to investigate criminal career duration, and especially the characteristics and risk profiles of especially life course persistent offenders. The aim of the study was to describe the predictability of criminal career duration based on both official records and self-reports of offending, and to put the results in the context of the Moffitt theory of "adolescent limited" and "life course persistent" offenders. The Pittsburgh Youth Study (n = 1517) is a seminal longitudinal study based on a community sample of high-risk boys from the city of Pittsburgh. Data was used from the oldest sample of boys in the PYS (N = 506). The participants were first assessed on average at age 12, and data was used up until age 36 for self-reported offending, and age 40 for police charges. The analyses were conducted on moderate and serious violence and moderate and serious theft. Career duration was based on self-reports and official charges in combination. The results show the extent to which commonly accepted and well validated risk factors predict criminal career duration with a special focus on individuals showing high rate/persistent offending in adolescence. Results show more pathways of delinquent development than have previously been described by Moffitt, (Psychological Review, 1993, 100(4), 674-701). Results also show that there is limited predictability of delinquency and offending over time. In addition, results show that only a small number of risk factors distinguish high and low rate adolescent offenders who become continuous offenders. Examples are peer factors. Implications for policy making and intervention science are discussed.

Influences of early-life stress on frontolimbic circuitry: Harnessing a dimensional approach to elucidate the effects of heterogeneity in stress exposure

Early-life stress confers profound and lasting risk for developing cognitive, social, emotional, and physical health problems. The effects of stress on the developing brain contribute to this risk, with frontolimbic circuitry particularly susceptible to early experiences, possibly due to its innervation with glucocorticoid receptors and the timing of frontolimbic circuit maturation. To date, the majority of studies on stress and frontolimbic circuitry have employed a categorical approach, comparing stress-exposed versus non-stress-exposed youth. However, there is vast heterogeneity in the nature of stress exposure and in outcomes. Recent forays into understanding the psychobiological effects of stress have employed a dimensional approach focused on experiential, environmental, and temporal factors that influence the association between stress and subsequent vulnerability. This review highlights empirical findings that inform a dimensional approach to understanding the effects of stress on frontolimbic circuitry. We identify the timing, type, severity, controllability, and predictability of stress, and the degree to which a caregiver is involved, as specific features of stress that may play a substantial role in differential outcomes. We propose a framework for the effects of these features of stress on frontolimbic development that may partially determine how heterogeneity in stress exposure influences this circuitry and, ultimately, mental health.