Major royal jelly protein 3 modulates immune responses in vitro and in vivo

Royal jelly a promising therapeutic intervention and functional food supplement: A systematic review

Royal jelly (RJ), a secretion produced by honeybees, has garnered significant interest for its potential as a therapeutic intervention and functional food supplement. This systematic review aims to synthesize current research on the health benefits, bioactive components, and mechanisms of action of RJ. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted across multiple databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, focusing on studies published from 2000 to 2024 (April). Findings indicate that RJ exhibits a wide range of pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-aging effects. Beneficial biological properties of RJ might be due to the presence of flavonoids proteins, peptides, fatty acids. Both preclinical and clinical studies have reported that RJ improves the immune function such as wound healing, and also decreases the severity of chronic diseases including diabetes and cardiovascular disorders. The molecular mechanisms underlying these effects involve modulation of signalling pathways such as NF-κB, MAPK, and AMPK. Despite promising results, the review identifies several gaps in the current knowledge, including the need for standardized dosing regimens and long-term safety assessments. Furthermore, variations in RJ composition due to geographic and botanical factors necessitate more rigorous quality control measures. This review underscores the potential of RJ as a multifunctional therapeutic agent and highlights the necessity for further well designed studies to fully elucidate its health benefits and optimize its use as a functional food supplement.

Identification of low-abundance proteins in the royal jelly using the Osborne classification method

Royal jelly (RJ) is recognized as healthy food, with a high content of proteins. These proteins play important roles in honeybee caste and human health, but the proteomic analysis of low-abundance proteins in RJ has long been a challenge. Herein, we used the Osborne classification method to separate the RJ proteins of Xinjiang black bees into various fractions. The globulin, ethanol-soluble protein, and glutelin fractions were further separated by SDS-PAGE, and proteomic analysis was carried out by LC-MS/MS and searched against the UniProt database. A total of 23 secretory proteins were identified by proteomic analysis, in which 7 proteins were identified for the first time in RJ. The Osborne classification method combining one-dimensional gel electrophoresis-based proteomic analysis allows the identification of low-abundance proteins in the RJ and greatly extends the knowledge about the components and functions of RJ proteins. The raw data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifier PXD023315. SIGNIFICANCE: This study makes an important contribution to the research of the components and functions of low-abundance royal jelly proteins for the following reasons.

Royal Jelly: Biological Action and Health Benefits

Royal jelly (RJ) is a highly nutritious natural product with great potential for use in medicine, cosmetics, and as a health-promoting food. This bee product is a mixture of important compounds, such as proteins, vitamins, lipids, minerals, hormones, neurotransmitters, flavonoids, and polyphenols, that underlie the remarkable biological and therapeutic activities of RJ. Various bioactive molecules like 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), antibacterial protein, apisin, the major royal jelly proteins, and specific peptides such as apisimin, royalisin, royalactin, apidaecin, defensin-1, and jelleins are characteristic ingredients of RJ. RJ shows numerous physiological and pharmacological properties, including vasodilatory, hypotensive, antihypercholesterolaemic, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, estrogenic, anti-allergic, anti-osteoporotic, and anti-tumor effects. Moreover, RJ may reduce menopause symptoms and improve the health of the reproductive system, liver, and kidneys, and promote wound healing. This article provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of RJ in various diseases, aging, and aging-related complications, with special emphasis on the bioactive components of RJ and their health-promoting properties. The data presented should be an incentive for future clinical studies that hopefully will advance our knowledge about the therapeutic potential of RJ and facilitate the development of novel RJ-based therapeutic opportunities for improving human health and well-being.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

Effects of the royal jelly consumption on post-stroke complications in patients with ischemic stroke: results of a randomized controlled trial

Aims

There is a paucity of evidence regarding the benefit of royal jelly (RJ) on post-stroke complications in patients with ischemic stroke. To address this knowledge gap, this randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was carried out to determine the effects of RJ consumption on post-stroke clinical outcomes.

Methods

Of 64 eligible ischemic stroke patients (45-80 years), 32 were randomized to the RJ and 32 to the placebo groups and completed a 12-week intervention. The intervention group was advised to receive 1,000 mg of RJ dragee daily after breakfast. Post-stroke complications including cognition, fatigue, mental health, and appetite, along with serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) were assessed in groups pre-and post-intervention.

Results

After 12 weeks of RJ consumption, cognitive function [adjusted mean difference, 4.71; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.75 to 7.67], serum levels of BDNF (adjusted mean difference, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.05 to 0.67), stress (adjusted mean difference, -3.33; 95% CI, -6.50 to -0.17), and appetite (adjusted mean difference, 1.38; 95% CI, 0.19 to 2.56) were significantly improved. However, the findings for fatigue (adjusted mean difference, -4.32; 95% CI, -10.28 to 1.63), depression (adjusted mean difference, -1.71; 95% CI, -5.58 to 2.16), anxiety (adjusted mean difference, -2.50; 95% CI, -5.50 to 0.49), and MUAC (adjusted mean difference, 0.36; 95% CI, -0.11 to 0.84) were less favorable.

Conclusion

Findings support the benefits of RJ consumption in improving post-stroke complications and clinical outcomes.Clinical trial registration: https://www.irct.ir/trial/59275, Identifier IRCT20180818040827N4.

Exploring the Potential of Bee-Derived Antioxidants for Maintaining Oral Hygiene and Dental Health: A Comprehensive Review

Honey bee products comprise various compounds, including honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, bee wax and bee venom, which have long been recognized for their pharmacological and health-promoting benefits. Scientists have discovered that periodontal disorders stem from dental biofilm, an inflammatory response to bacterial overgrowth produced by dysbiosis in the oral microbiome. The bee products have been investigated for their role in prevention of oral diseases, which are attributed to a myriad of biologically active compounds including flavonoids (pinocembrin, catechin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and galangin), phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, p-coumaric, ellagic, caffeic and ferulic acids) and terpenoids. This review aims to update the current understanding of role of selected bee products, namely, honey, propolis and royal jelly, in preventing oral diseases as well as their potential biological activities and mechanism of action in relation to oral health have been discussed. Furthermore, the safety of incorporation of bee products is also critically discussed. To summarize, bee products could potentially serve as a therapy option for people suffering from a variety of oral disorders.

Molecular Insights into Royal Jelly Anti-Inflammatory Properties and Related Diseases

Royal jelly (RJ), a highly nutritious natural product, has gained recognition for its remarkable health-promoting properties, leading to its widespread use in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries. Extensive investigations have revealed that RJ possesses a broad spectrum of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-aging, and antibacterial activities. Distinctive among bee products, RJ exhibits a significantly higher water and relatively lower sugar content. It is characterized by its substantial protein content, making it a valuable source of this essential macronutrient. Moreover, RJ contains a diverse array of bioactive substances, such as lipids, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, organic acids, minerals, vitamins, enzymes, and hormones. This review aims to provide an overview of current research on the bioactive components present in RJ and their associated health-promoting qualities. According to existing literature, these bioactive substances hold great potential as alternative approaches to enhancing human health. Notably, this review emphasizes the anti-inflammatory properties of RJ, particularly in relation to inflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Furthermore, we delve into the antitumor and antioxidant activities of RJ, aiming to deepen our understanding of its biological functions. By shedding light on the multifaceted benefits of RJ, this review seeks to encourage its utilization and inspire further investigation in this field.

Royal jelly extracellular vesicles promote wound healing by modulating underlying cellular responses

Apis mellifera royal jelly (RJ) is a well-known remedy in traditional medicine around the world and its versatile effects range from antibacterial to anti-inflammatory properties and pro-regenerative properties. As a glandular product, RJ has been shown to contain a substantial number of extracellular vesicles (EVs), and, in this study, we aimed to investigate the extent of involvement of RJEVs in wound healing-associated effects. Molecular analysis of RJEVs verified the presence of exosomal markers such as CD63 and syntenin, and cargo molecules MRJP1, defensin-1, and jellein-3. Furthermore, RJEVs were demonstrated to modulate mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation and secretome, as well as decrease LPS-induced inflammation in macrophages by blocking the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. In vivo studies confirmed antibacterial effects of RJEVs and demonstrated an acceleration of wound healing in a splinted mouse model. This study suggests that RJEVs play a crucial role in the known effects of RJ by modulating the inflammatory phase and cellular response in wound healing. Transfer of RJ into the clinics has been impeded by the high complexity of the raw material. Isolating EVs from the raw RJ decreases the complexity while allowing standardization and quality control, bringing a natural nano-therapy one step closer to the clinics.

Effects of Major Royal Jelly Proteins on the Immune Response and Gut Microbiota Composition in Cyclophosphamide-Treated Mice

Increasing evidence suggests that royal jelly (RJ) has exceptional biological properties, and that major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) are the key active factors in RJ. The objective of this study was to compare the difference in the protein content between RJ and MRJPs using non-labeled, quantitative proteomics technology, and to investigate the adjustment features and mechanisms of MRJPs on murine immune functions and the composition of intestinal flora in cyclophosphamide-treated mice. Results showed that, during the process of extracting MRJPs, the ratio of the protein types in the main protein and other proteins decreased significantly, except for MRJP1 and MRJP7, which demonstrated that an enriching effect of MRJP1 and MRJP7 was present during the extraction process. Cyclophosphamide-induced mice were orally administered MRJPs. Results showed that the middle-dose group, which received 0.25 g/(kg·bw) of royal jelly main protein, demonstrated a clear impact on the development of the spleen and liver, the quantity of peripheral blood leukocytes, immunoglobulin content, immune factor level, and the proliferation ability of spleen lymphocytes. A 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology analysis showed that MRJPs could improve the component and richness of intestinal flora and raise the immunity of mice. The above-mentioned results indicated that the application of MRJPs is very likely to have an advantage effect on murine immune functions.

A review on the phytochemical composition and health applications of honey

Background

Though honey has long been used as medicine, there is a scarcity of knowledge on how it interacts with the body.

Scope and approach

While different types of honey have different chemical and medicinal properties according to their origin, this narrative review seeks to analyse the current knowledge on the chemical composition and therapeutic use of honey. With numerous chemical components, honey has a range of health benefits in multiple disciplines of medicine, and provides an interesting prospect in chemical analysis with regards to identification of its origin.

Key findings and conclusions

There is a great potential for the use of honey in medicine, primarily due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Recent studies on the phenolic and enzymatic components of honey have made honey's therapeutic method of action in relation to the above properties clearer, still more research needs to be conducted and more innovations need to be tested, for the full potential of honey to be understood.

Differential Gene Expression of Innate Immune Response Genes Consequent to Solenopsis invicta Virus-3 Infection

The red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren (fire ant hereafter) is a global pest that inflicts billions of dollars in damages to the United States economy and poses a major threat on a global scale. Concerns with the broad-spectrum application of insecticides have facilitated the hunt for natural enemy-mediated controls. One of these, the virus Solenopsis invicta virus-3 (SINV-3 hereafter) is exceptionally virulent in laboratory settings. However, despite high mortality rates in the laboratory and documented widespread SINV-3 prevalence in the southern United States, the fire ant remains a major pest. To explore this paradox, we document the immune response elicited by the fire ant when infected with SINV-3. We sequence the fire ant transcriptome prior to and following infection with SINV-3, and identify and discuss in detail genes in immune response pathways differentially expressed following infection with SINV-3. This information provides insights into genes and pathways involved in the SINV-3 infection response in the fire ant and offers avenues to pursue, to suppress key immune response genes and force the fire ant to succumb to SINV-3 infection in the field.

Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Application Value of Edible Insects: A Review

For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.

Evaluation of the estrogenic action potential of royal jelly by genomic signaling pathway in vitro and in vivo

Royal jelly (RJ) has beneficial effects on human health, and some of these effects are reported to be the result of its estrogenic activity; however, chemicals with estrogenic activities may disrupt physiological estrogen signaling leading to adverse effects on human health. Thus, clarification of the mode of action of RJ is needed. Here, we investigated whether the estrogen-like actions of RJ are induced via estrogen receptors (ERs)-mediated genomic actions by using an in vitro reporter assay in human choriocarcinoma JEG3 cells and an estrogen-responsive reporter (E-Rep) mouse line that can be used to sensitively detect transactivation of ERs in multiple organs simultaneously. In the in vitro reporter assay, ERs-dependent transcriptional activity was significantly increased by 17β-estradiol (E2) treatment at concentrations of 1 nM and above, confirming that the assay was highly responsive to estrogen; however, RJ did not exhibit any agonist activity via either the α or β form of ER. Similarly, in E-Rep mice, E2 showed significant ERs-dependent genomic action in 17 tissue types including uterus and mammary gland, whereas RJ did not. Thus, unlike endocrine-disrupting chemicals, the estrogen-like activity of RJ is unlikely to be due to genomic actions via ERs.

Integrated Approach to Extract and Purify Proteins from Honey by Ionic Liquid-Based Three-Phase Partitioning

The purification of value-added compounds by three-phase partitioning (TPP) is a promising alternative to conventional processes since the target compound can be easily recovered from the liquid-liquid interphase. Although this technique has been successfully applied to the recovery of proteins, the minimization of the use of salts and solvents must be pursued to improve the overall process sustainability. Accordingly, we have here investigated the use of biobased glycine-betaine ionic liquids (IL) directly with honey, a carbohydrate-rich matrix, as phase-forming components of TPP systems. These ILTPP systems were applied in the purification of major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) from honey. The results obtained show that MRJPs mostly precipitate in the ILTPP interphase, with a recovery yield ranging between 82.8% and 97.3%. In particular, MRJP1 can be obtained with a purity level up to 90.1%. Furthermore, these systems allow the simultaneous separation of antioxidants and carbohydrates to different liquid phases. The proposed approach allows the separation of proteins, antioxidants, and carbohydrates from honey in a single step, while using only ILs and a real carbohydrate-rich matrix, thus being sustainable TPP processes.

Arabinoxylan-Based Microcapsules Being Loaded with Bee Products as Bioactive Food Components Are Able to Modulate the Cell Migration and Inflammatory Response-In Vitro Study

The aim of the research was to use bioactive heteropolysaccharides isolated from rye bran to obtain innovative systems for the controlled release of bioactive compounds. The core of the obtained encapsulates was honey and royal jelly. It was shown for the first time that preparations effectively ameliorated inflammatory response in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, decreasing the secretion of interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO). The in vitro digestion process revealed that bee products’ encapsulates were stronger oxidative stress reducers and had sustained ability to reduction in inflammation state mediators. The lack of inhibitory effect on migration rate of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) endothelial cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (NIH-3T3), both cell models involved in wound healing process, additionally identified these preparations as agents potentially used in the management of inflammatory response. In the process of a simulated digestion in vitro, the innovative microcapsules showed 85% higher biostability and two to ten times better bioavailability, compared to natural bee products.

Sericulture and the edible-insect industry can help humanity survive: insects are more than just bugs, food, or feed

The most serious threat which humans face is rapid global climate change, as the Earth shifts rapidly into a regime less hospitable to humans. To address the crisis caused by severe global climate change, it will be necessary to modify humankind's way of life. Because livestock production accounts for more than 14.5% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is critical to reduce the dependence of humans on protein nutrients and calories obtained from livestock. One way to do so is to use insects as food. Compared with typical livestock, farming edible insects (or "mini-livestock") produce fewer GHG emissions, require less space and water, involve shorter life cycles, and have higher feed conversion rates. It has been recently reported that consumption of certain insects can prevent or treat human diseases. This review goes beyond entomophagy to entomotherapy and their application to the food industry.

Proteomic profiling of royal jelly produced by Apis mellifera L. exposed to food containing herbicide-based glyphosate

Royal jelly (RJ) is rich in protective elements associated with collective immune defenses in the hive of Apis mellifera. Exposure of bees to glyphosate-based herbicides causes ultrastructural changes in the hypopharyngeal glands and a reduction in the production of RJ. However, the effects of glyphosate-based herbicides on the protein composition of RJ and consequences for the hive are unknown. Thus, we performed proteomic profiling of royal jelly produced in hives of A. mellifera exposed to food containing 1,5 μL of Roundup® (2.16 mg. g-1 of glyphosate). The production of RJ was carried out in six hives, following the method of artificial production of queens. The combs containing 80 grafting cells were introduced into the hives, and the collection of royal jelly was performed after 72 h. Two treatments were determined based on hive feeding and the hive as the experimental unit: Control and "Roundup®". Royal jelly from the Roundup® treatment hives was compared to the Control hives. Proteins with differences in expression were identified by mass spectrometry. Only the proteins present in all three biological replicates were considered in the differential abundance analysis, using Student's t-test (p-value < 0.05, two-tailed). Hives that received food containing Roundup®, analysis showed alterations in protein profile in the RJ produced therein. In total, 24 proteins were identified, and the accumulation of Major royal jelly protein 3 (MRJP3) was downregulated, showing a significant reduction in hives exposed to food containing Roundup® in relation to control hives (t = 0.0017). MRJP3 acts analogously to polyclonal antigen-antibody reactions, performing functions related to immunity in bees of different ages and castes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate changes in the proteomic profile of RJ caused by glyphosate-based herbicides, indicating its negative effects on the nutrition and social immunity of bees.

Differential Expression of Major Royal Jelly Proteins in the Hypopharyngeal Glands of the Honeybee Apis mellifera upon Bacterial Ingestion

Simple Summary

Transgenerational immune priming (TGIP) to elicit social immunity in the honeybee Apis mellifera has two axes: the first is the ingested pathogen fragments–vitellogenin (Vg)–queen’s ovary axis for the developing embryo, and the second is the ingested pathogen fragments–Vg–nurse’s hypopharyngeal gland axis for the queen and young larvae through royal jelly. However, the dynamics of the expression of the major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) in the hypopharyngeal glands of A. mellifera nurse bees after bacterial ingestion must be determined to improve our understanding of the second axis of TGIP. In this study, we investigated the expression patterns of MRJPs 1–7 and defensin-1 in the hypopharyngeal glands and Vg in the fat body of nurse bees fed with live or heat-killed Paenibacillus larvae over 12 h or 24 h by using northern blot analysis. We found that the expression of MRJPs and defensin-1 in the hypopharyngeal glands and Vg in the fat body was significantly induced in nurse bees upon bacterial ingestion, indicating that the differential expression patterns of MRJPs, defensin-1, and Vg were dependent on the bacterial status and timing of bacterial ingestion. We also found that antimicrobial peptide (AMP) genes showed induced expression in young larvae upon bacterial ingestion. In summary, our findings indicate that MRJPs in the hypopharyngeal glands are upregulated along with Vg in the fat body of nurse bees upon bacterial ingestion, providing novel insights into the ingested pathogen fragments–Vg–nurse’s hypopharyngeal gland axis for TGIP.

Abstract

Honeybee vitellogenin (Vg) transports pathogen fragments from the gut to the hypopharyngeal glands and is also used by nurse bees to synthesize royal jelly (RJ), which serves as a vehicle for transferring pathogen fragments to the queen and young larvae. The proteomic profile of RJ from bacterial-challenged and control colonies was compared using mass spectrometry; however, the expression changes of major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) in hypopharyngeal glands of the honeybee Apis mellifera in response to bacterial ingestion is not well-characterized. In this study, we investigated the expression patterns of Vg in the fat body and MRJPs 1–7 in the hypopharyngeal glands of nurse bees after feeding them live or heat-killed Paenibacillus larvae. The expression levels of MRJPs and defensin-1 in the hypopharyngeal glands were upregulated along with Vg in the fat body of nurse bees fed with live or heat-killed P. larvae over 12 h or 24 h. We observed that the expression patterns of MRJPs and defensin-1 in the hypopharyngeal glands and Vg in the fat body of nurse bees upon bacterial ingestion were differentially expressed depending on the bacterial status and the time since bacterial ingestion. In addition, the AMP genes had increased expression in young larvae fed heat-killed P. larvae. Thus, our findings indicate that bacterial ingestion upregulates the transcriptional expression of MRJPs in the hypopharyngeal glands as well as Vg in the fat body of A. mellifera nurse bees.

Royal Jelly Proteins and Their Derived Peptides: Preparation, Properties, and Biological Activities

Royal jelly, also called bee milk, is a source of high-quality proteins. Royal jelly proteins serve as not only a rich source of essential amino acids and functional donors but also an excellent substrate for preparing bioactive peptides. Most naturally occurring bioactive peptides in royal jelly are antibacterial, while peptides derived from proteolytic reactions are shown to exert antihypertensive, antioxidative, and anti-aging activities. Further studies are warranted to characterize the functional properties of major royal jelly proteins and peptides, to explore the preparation of bioactive peptides and the potential novel activities, to improve their bioavailability, to enhance the production efficiency for commercial availability, and finally to open up new applications for royal jelly as a functional food and potential therapeutic agent.

Bee Products: A Representation of Biodiversity, Sustainability, and Health

Biodiversity strengthens the productivity of any ecosystem (agricultural land, forest, lake, etc.). The loss of biodiversity contributes to food and energy insecurity; increases vulnerability to natural disasters, such as floods or tropical storms; and decreases the quality of both life and health. Wild and managed bees play a key role in maintaining the biodiversity and in the recovery and restoration of degraded habitats. The novelty character of this perspective is to give an updated representation of bee products’ biodiversity, sustainability, and health relationship. The role of bees as bioindicators, their importance in the conservation of biodiversity, their ecosystem services, and the variety of the bee products are described herein. An overview of the main components of bee products, their biological potentials, and health is highlighted and detailed as follows: (i) nutritional value of bee products, (ii) bioactive profile of bee products and the related beneficial properties; (iii) focus on honey and health through a literature quantitative analysis, and (iv) bee products explored through databases. Moreover, as an example of the interconnection between health, biodiversity, and sustainability, a case study, namely the “Cellulose Park”, realized in Rome (Italy), is presented here. This case study highlights how bee activities can be used to assess and track changes in the quality of agricultural ecosystems—hive products could be valid indicators of the quality and health of the surrounding environment, as well as the changes induced by the biotic and abiotic factors that impact the sustainability of agricultural production and biodiversity conservation in peri-urban areas.

Royal Jelly Improves the Morphology of the Reproductive Tract, Internal Egg Quality, and Blood Biochemical Parameters in Laying Hens at the Late Stage of Production

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of royal jelly (RJ) on the morphology of the reproductive tract, egg production, and blood biochemical indices of aged laying hens. In total, 120 Lohman Brown laying hens at week 58 of age were randomly assigned into three equal groups. Pure RJ was dissolved in distilled water and injected subcutaneously as follows: the first treatment (R₁; 100 mg RJ kg^-1); the second treatment (R₂; 200 mg RJ kg^-1); the control treatment (CON; 1 mL distilled water). Both RJ-treated groups exhibited a significantly higher number of large yellow follicles (LYFs), small yellow follicles (SYFs), and large white follicles (LWFs) (p ˂ 0.05). Furthermore, RJ treatment significantly increased the diameter and weight of the F1 follicles. However, only the R2 group exhibited significantly greater ovary and uterus weights. RJ treatment did not affect the percentage of oviduct and weight of ovarian stroma. In addition, RJ increased the hen-day egg production rate compared with the CON group; however, only the R₂ group showed greater egg weight (p = 0.032). RJ treatment also improved the albumen height, Haugh units, and yolk index. The administration of RJ significantly decreased the serum glucose, but increased the levels of serum albumen and cholesterol. In conclusion, RJ treatment may improve the morphology of the reproductive tract (including follicular growth and oviduct morphology), egg production rate, and internal egg quality traits of aged laying hens.

Beehive Products as Antibacterial Agents: A Review

Honeybees are one of the most marvelous and economically beneficial insects. As pollinators, they play a vital role in every aspect of the ecosystem. Beehive products have been used for thousands of years in many cultures for the treatment of various diseases. Their healing properties have been documented in many religious texts like the Noble Quran and the Holy Bible. Honey, bee venom, propolis, pollen and royal jelly all demonstrated a richness in their bioactive compounds which make them effective against a variety of bacterial strains. Furthermore, many studies showed that honey and bee venom work as powerful antibacterial agents against a wide range of bacteria including life-threatening bacteria. Several reports documented the biological activities of honeybee products but none of them emphasized on the antibacterial activity of all beehive products. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the antibacterial activity of honey, bee venom, propolis, pollen and royal jelly, that are produced by honeybees.

Formulation of Ocular In Situ Gels with Lithuanian Royal Jelly and Their Biopharmaceutical Evaluation In Vitro

Royal jelly is a natural substance produced by worker bees that possesses a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and protective. Although fresh royal jelly is kept at low temperatures, to increase its stability, it needs to be incorporated into pharmaceutical formulations, such as in situ gels. The aim of this study was to formulate in situ ocular gels containing Lithuanian royal jelly for topical corneal use in order to increase the retention time of the formulation on the ocular surface and bioavailability. Gels were evaluated for physicochemical characteristics (pH, rheological properties, refractive index) and in vitro drug release measuring the amount of 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA). An ocular irritation test and cell viability tests were performed using the SIRC (Statens Seruminstitut Rabbit Cornea) cell culture line. Results indicated that all the in situ gels were within an acceptable pH and refractive index range close to corneal properties. Rheology studies have shown that the gelation temperature varies between 25 and 32 °C, depending on the amount of poloxamers. The release studies have shown that the release of 10-HDA from in situ gels is more sustained than royal jelly suspension. All gel formulations were non-irritant according to the short-time exposure test (STE) using the SIRC cell culture line, and long-term cell viability studies indicated that the formulations used in small concentrations did not induce cell death. Prepared in situ gels containing royal jelly have potential for ocular drug delivery, and they may improve the bioavailability, stability of royal jelly, and formation of non-irritant ocular formulations.

The Bioactive Compound Contents and Potential Protective Effects of Royal Jelly Protein Hydrolysates against DNA Oxidative Damage and LDL Oxidation

In this study, the inhibition of DNA oxidative damage and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation of royal jelly protein (RJP) hydrolysates obtained from two commercial proteases were investigated. The results showed that the inhibition of DNA oxidative damage induced by the Fenton reaction, RJP, RJPs hydrolyzed by alcalase (RJP-A), RJPs hydrolyzed by flavourzyme (RPJ-F) and RJP two-stage hydrolysates (RPJ-AF) all had the effect of inhibiting deoxyribose oxidative damage. The inhibition effect of RJP, RJP-A, RJP-F and RJP-AF (1.0 mg/mL) were 47.06%, 33.70%, 24.19% and 43.09%, respectively. In addition, studies have also found that both RJP and RJP hydrolysates can reduce the production of 8-OH-2'-dG and the order of its inhibitory ability is RJP-AF ≒ RJP-A > RJP-F > RJP. The inhibition of DNA damage induced by bleomycin-Fe³⁺/ascorbic acid (Asc) with the addition of RJP, RJP-A, RPJ-F and RPJ-AF were 17.16%, 30.88%, 25.00% and 37.25%, respectively. The results of LDL oxidation inhibition showed that RJP-AF (1 mg/mL) not only had the most effective inhibitory Cu²⁺-induced LDL oxidation to produce a thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) but also extended the lag time of conjugated diene formation to 300 min, which was 3.3 times that of the control group.

Social immunity in honey bees: royal jelly as a vehicle in transferring bacterial pathogen fragments between nestmates

Social immunity is a suite of behavioral and physiological traits that allow colony members to protect one another from pathogens, and includes the oral transfer of immunological compounds between nestmates. In honey bees, royal jelly is a glandular secretion produced by a subset of workers that is fed to the queen and young larvae, and which contains many antimicrobial compounds. A related form of social immunity, transgenerational immune priming (TGIP), allows queens to transfer pathogen fragments into their developing eggs, where they are recognized by the embryo's immune system and induce higher pathogen resistance in the new offspring. These pathogen fragments are transported by vitellogenin (Vg), an egg-yolk precursor protein that is also used by nurses to synthesize royal jelly. Therefore, royal jelly may serve as a vehicle to transport pathogen fragments from workers to other nestmates. To investigate this, we recently showed that ingested bacteria are transported to nurses' jelly-producing glands, and here, we show that pathogen fragments are incorporated into the royal jelly. Moreover, we show that consuming pathogen cells induces higher levels of an antimicrobial peptide found in royal jelly, defensin-1.

Multifunctionality and intrinsic disorder of royal jelly proteome

Royal Jelly (RJ) is a gelatinous white-yellowish fluid, possessing a sour taste and a slight phenolic smell that is secreted by the hypopharyngeal and mandibular salivary glands of the nurse honeybees, and is used in nutrition of larvae and adult queens. Similar to other substances associated with the activities of honeybees, RJ not only contains nutritive components, such as carbohydrates, proteins, peptides, lipids, vitamins, and mineral salts, but also represents a natural ingredient with cosmetic and health-promoting properties. RJ is characterized by remarkable multifunctionality, possessing numerous biological activities. Although this multifunctionality of RJ can be considered as a consequence of its complex nature, many proteins and peptides in RJ are polyfunctional entities themselves. In this article, we show that RJ proteins contain different levels of intrinsic disorder, have sites of post-translational modifications, can be found in multiple isoforms, and many of them possess disorder-based binding sites, suggesting that the conformational ensembles of the RJ proteins might undergo change as a result of their interaction with specific binding partners. All these observations suggest that the multifunctionality of proteins and peptides from RJ is determined by their structural heterogeneity and polymorphism, and serve as an illustration of the protein structure-function continuum concept.

Major royal jelly proteins prevents NAFLD by improving mitochondrial function and lipid accumulation through activating the AMPK / SIRT3 pathway in vitro

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic syndrome, whose main characteristics are excessive lipid accumulation and oxidative stress. Major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) is a kind of water-soluble protein, which is abundant in royal jelly (RJ). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of MRJPs on lipid accumulation and oxidative stress of liver cells. Here, we first optimized the conditions for extracting MRJPs from RJ and identified the extraction effect and product by SDS-PAGE. Then, we used oleic acid (OA) of 1.0 mM to induce hepatocytes for 24 hr to establish a stable cell models of lipid accumulation, and we found that pre-administration (24 hr) of MRJPs (0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 g/L) could significantly reduce the lipid drop content and triglyceride level in the model cells, and simultaneously reduce the alanine aminotransferase and aspertate aminotransferase levels in the cell culture supernatant. In addition, pre-incubation (24 hr) with MRJPs (0.2, 0.5, and 1.0 g/L) could restore superoxide dismutase (SOD) level and mitochondrial membrane potential as compared with OA group. Furthermore, MRJPs administration significantly upregulated the expression of Silent Information Regulator 2 Associated Protein 3, mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2), and cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV in OA-treated HepG2 cells. The study for the first time provides evidences on the lipid-lowering effect of MRJPs at the cellular level, which can further provide support for the development and application of polypeptide drugs in the future, and can also provide a choice for the prevention and treatment of liver metabolic diseases represented by NAFLD. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Our study proved that MRJPs had substantial preventing effect on OA-induced lipid accumulation and mitochondrial dysfunction in HepG2 cells. This research can further provide theoretical support for the development and application of peptide drugs in the future. Besides, it can not only further broaden our understanding of NAFLD and other diseases, but also provide ideas for research on oxidative stress and lipid accumulation in the body.

Health Promoting Properties of Bee Royal Jelly: Food of the Queens

Royal jelly (RJ) demand is growing every year and so is the market for functional foods in general. RJ is formed by different substances, mainly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, but also vitamins, minerals, and phenolic or volatile compounds in lower proportion. Major royal jelly proteins (MRJP) are, together with 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), key substances of RJ due to their different biological properties. In particular, 10-HDA is a unique substance in this product. RJ has been historically employed as health enhancer and is still very relevant in China due to the traditional medicine and the apitherapy. Nowadays, it is mainly consumed as a functional food or is found in supplements and other formulations for its health-beneficial properties. Within these properites, anti-lipidemic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiaging, and estrogenic activities have been reported for RJ or its specific components. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the current knowledge on RJ components, their assessment in terms of authenticity, their biological activities, and related health applications.

The Potential of Honeybee Products for Biomaterial Applications

The development of biomaterials required continuous improvements in their properties for new tissue engineering applications. Implants based on biocompatible materials and biomaterial-based dressings are susceptible to infection threat; moreover, target tissues can suffer injuring inflammation. The inclusion of nature-derived bioactive compounds usually offers a suitable strategy to expand or increase the functional properties of biomaterial scaffolds and can even promote tissue healing. Honey is traditionally known for its healing property and is a mixture of phytochemicals that have a proven reputation as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant agents. This review discusses on the potential of honey and other honeybee products for biomaterial improvements. Our study illustrates the available and most recent literature reporting the use of these natural products combined with different polymeric scaffolds, to provide original insights in wound healing and other tissue regenerative approaches.

The Carboxyl-Terminal Penta-Peptide Repeats of Major Royal Jelly Protein 3 Enhance Cell Proliferation

Royal jelly (RJ) is known as an important functional foodstuff that promotes several health benefits and contains various bioactive substances, including major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs). Among the MRJPs, MRJP3 possesses both cell proliferation and wound healing effects. As the carboxyl domain of MRJP3 contains tandem penta-peptide repeat (TPR) sequences unique to MRJP3 among the MRJPs, we purified the TPRs as glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-fusion proteins and demonstrated their dose-dependent effects on THP-1 and Vero cell proliferation. The GST-TPR protein with 19 repeats (GST-TPR19) showed cell proliferative activity equivalent to MRJP3 and higher than GST-TPR6. GST-TPR19 also exhibited wound healing activity at a level similar to MRJP3. Digestion of GST-TPR19 with trypsin had no effect on its cell proliferative activity, suggesting that the main digested products; i.e., penta-peptides (Q-N-x-N-[K/R]), maintain the cell proliferative ability of MRJP3. In conclusion, the TPRs of MRJP3 are critical to the beneficial effect(s) of RJ.

Structural characterization of ginseng oligopeptides and anti-aging potency evaluation in Caenorhabditis elegans

The functions of ginseng polysaccharide have been widely explored, yet, the antiaging activity of ginseng oligopeptides (GOPs) has not been well explored. In the current study, seven novel GOPs were isolated, and their antiaging activity was explored in a Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) model. Of interest, all the GOPs showed lifespan extending effects in C. elegans models. Out of the GOPs treatments, 0.75 mM GOP-1 (EHGEYE) prolonged the N2 nematodes lifespan by 42.5%. Additionally, GOP-1 had a strong free radical-scavenging activity, and up-regulated the survival of the N2 C. elegans under oxidative and thermal stresses. Further study revealed that GOP-1 up-regulated the transcription factor daf-16 and jnk-1 expressions, thus we inferred that GOP-1 promotes the lifespan and stress resistances through a JNK-1-DAF-16 pathway. The current study revealed that the ginseng oligopeptides are potential antiaging agents.

Use of black seed (Nigella sativa) honey bee to improve sheep oocyte maturation medium

Sheep are important livestock and a source of milk, meat, and wool globally. The increasing demand for animal protein requires increased productivity in sheep. In vitro fertilization and maturation can improve sheep productivity. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effects of honey bee addition as a supplementation medium on in vitro maturation improvement, gene expression of matured sheep oocytes, and determine the optimum concentration from honey bee for in vitro maturation of sheep oocytes. Cumulus oocyte complexes were obtained from the ovaries of slaughtered female sheep. Grade A and B oocytes were cultured for 24 h in medium without honey bee (control, G1) or medium supplemented with 5% (G2), 10% (G3), or 20% (G4) honey bee. Oocyte maturation rate, glutathione concentration, and the expression of candidate genes (GDF-9, BAX, Cyclin B, C-MOS, IGF1) were determined in the matured oocytes. The maturation rate of sheep oocyte was better in the presence of 5% and 10% honey bee; the mean number of oocytes in metaphase II stage was higher than that in G1 and G4 groups. Glutathione concentration was highest in G2 (10.93 ± 0.57). In general, gene expression levels were similar in G2 and G3, which were greater that in G1 and G4. In conclusion, the optimal concentration of black seeds honey bee that can be added to the maturation medium is 5% to obtain the highest mean MII and glutathione concentration values, and to improve gene expression in in vitro matured sheep oocytes.

Honeybee products and edible insect powders improve locomotive and learning abilities of Ubiquilin-knockdown Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Mutations in the human Ubiquilin 2 gene are associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) with or without frontotemporal dementia (FTD), the fatal neurodegenerative disease that progressively affected neuronal cells in both brain and spinal cord. There is currently no effective therapy for these diseases. Over the last decade, researchers have focused on the potential use of natural products especially in neurodegenerative studies. Insect products have been used as traditional medicines, however, scientific information is still lacking. Fruit fly is recently used as a model organism to investigate degenerative diseases related to the nervous system because it has a short life span and produces a large number of offspring.

METHODS

The present study investigated the effects of honeybee products and edible insect powders on the locomotive and learning abilities, neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) structure, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in larval brains of Ubiquilin- knockdown Drosophila.

RESULTS

dUbqn knockdown flies showed defects in locomotive and learning abilities accompanied with structural defects in NMJs. The results obtained revealed that the recovery of locomotive defects was significantly greater in dUbqn knockdown flies fed with coffee honey from Apis cerana (1% v/v) or Apis dorsata melittin (0.5 μg/ml) or wasp powder (2 mg/ml) than that of in untreated dUbqn knockdown flies. Furthermore, dUbqn knockdown flies fed with coffee honey showed the partial rescue of structural defects in NMJs, improved learning ability, and reduced the accumulation of ROS caused by dUbqn depletion in the brain over the untreated group.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that coffee honey from Apis cerana contains a neuroprotective agent that will contribute to the development of a novel treatment for ALS/FTD.

New Insights into the Biological and Pharmaceutical Properties of Royal Jelly

Royal jelly (RJ) is a yellowish-white and acidic secretion of hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of nurse bees used to feed young worker larvae during the first three days and the entire life of queen bees. RJ is one of the most appreciated and valued natural product which has been mainly used in traditional medicines, health foods, and cosmetics for a long time in different parts of the world. It is also the most studied bee product, aimed at unravelling its bioactivities, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-aging, immunomodulatory, and general tonic action against laboratory animals, microbial organisms, farm animals, and clinical trials. It is commonly used to supplement various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular, and Alzheimer's disease. Here, we highlight the recent research advances on the main bioactive compounds of RJ, such as proteins, peptides, fatty acids, and phenolics, for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemistry, biological, and pharmaceutical responses to human health promotion and life benefits. This is potentially important to gain novel insight into the biological and pharmaceutical properties of RJ.

Effects of Royal Jelly Administration on Lipid Profile, Satiety, Inflammation, and Antioxidant Capacity in Asymptomatic Overweight Adults

Objectives

Obesity and overweight are chronic disorders of multifactorial origin that are characterized by high oxidative status and by chronic activation of macrophages in peripheral tissues. Effective therapeutic approaches to lower inflammation and oxidative stress are currently of general interest. Royal jelly (RJ) is a functional food with a broad range of pharmacological activities, mainly used by healthy individuals or borderline patients to protect themselves against disease onset. The objective of this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was to investigate the effects of RJ supplementation on metabolic profile and oxidative and inflammatory parameters in asymptomatic overweight adults, considered at an early stage of developing metabolic syndrome.

Material and Methods

The experimental group (n=30) was given RJ and the control group (n=30) was provided with a placebo for eight weeks. Anthropometric, biochemical parameters, biomarkers of oxidative stress, and inflammation were assessed at baseline, after 4 and 8 weeks of the intervention, and after additional 2 weeks of follow up.

Results and Conclusion

Compared with the placebo, RJ supplementation demonstrated a statistically significant decrease in total cholesterol (6.7%; p=0.041) and inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (19%; p=0.027), whereas significant increases were observed in anti-inflammatory marker adiponectin (34%; p=0.011), endogenous antioxidants bilirubin (35%; p=0.002) and uric acid (5%; p=0.018), total antioxidant capacity in serum (54%; p=0.005), and leptin (17%; p=0.025). The present study demonstrated positive effects of RJ administration on lipid profile, satiety, inflammation, and antioxidant capacity in overweight adults. Therefore, our study supports the benefits of RJ supplementation for the improvement of human health.

A Secreted RNA Binding Protein Forms RNA-Stabilizing Granules in the Honeybee Royal Jelly

RNA flow between organisms has been documented within and among different kingdoms of life. Recently, we demonstrated horizontal RNA transfer between honeybees involving secretion and ingestion of worker and royal jellies. However, how the jelly facilitates transfer of RNA is still unknown. Here, we show that worker and royal jellies harbor robust RNA-binding activity. We report that a highly abundant jelly component, major royal jelly protein 3 (MRJP-3), acts as an extracellular non-sequence-specific RNA-aggregating factor. Multivalent RNA binding stimulates higher-order assembly of MRJP-3 into extracellular ribonucleoprotein granules that protect RNA from degradation and enhance RNA bioavailability. These findings reveal that honeybees have evolved a secreted dietary RNA-binding factor to concentrate, stabilize, and share RNA among individuals. Our work identifies high-order ribonucleoprotein assemblies with functions outside cells and organisms.

Royal Jelly Ameliorates Behavioral Deficits, Cholinergic System Deficiency, and Autonomic Nervous Dysfunction in Ovariectomized Cholesterol-Fed Rabbits

Estrogen deficiency after menopause is associated with autonomic nervous changes, leading to memory impairment and increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Royal jelly (RJ) from honeybees (Apis mellifera) has estrogenic activity. Here, we investigated whether RJ can improve behavior, cholinergic and autonomic nervous function in ovariectomized (OVX) cholesterol-fed rabbits. OVX rabbits on high-cholesterol diet were administered with RJ for 12 weeks. The results showed that RJ could significantly improve the behavioral deficits of OVX cholesterol-fed rabbits and image structure of the brain. RJ reduced body weight, blood lipid, as well as the levels of amyloid-beta (Aβ), acetylcholinesterase (AchE), and malonaldehyde (MDA) in the brain. Moreover, RJ also increased the activities of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the brain, and enhanced heart rate variability (HRV) and Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) in OVX cholesterol-fed rabbits. Furthermore, RJ was also shown to reduce the content of Evans blue and the expression levels of Aβ, beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1(BACE1), and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), and increase the expression level of LDL(low density lipoprotein) receptor-related protein 1 (LRP-1) in the brain. Our findings suggested that RJ has beneficial effects in neurological disorders of postmenopausal women, which were associated with reducing cholesterol and Aβ deposition, enhancing the estrogen levels and the activities of cholinergic and antioxidant systems, and ameliorating the blood⁻brain barrier (BBB) permeability and restoring autonomic nervous system.

The role of Vitellogenin in the transfer of immune elicitors from gut to hypopharyngeal glands in honey bees (Apis mellifera)

Female insects that survive a pathogen attack can produce more pathogen-resistant offspring in a process called trans-generational immune priming. In the honey bee (Apis mellifera), the egg-yolk precursor protein Vitellogenin transports fragments of pathogen cells into the egg, thereby setting the stage for a recruitment of immunological defenses prior to hatching. Honey bees live in complex societies where reproduction and communal tasks are divided between a queen and her sterile female workers. Worker bees metabolize Vitellogenin to synthesize royal jelly, a protein-rich glandular secretion fed to the queen and young larvae. We ask if workers can participate in trans-generational immune priming by transferring pathogen fragments to the queen or larvae via royal jelly. As a first step toward answering this question, we tested whether worker-ingested bacterial fragments can be transported to jelly-producing glands, and what role Vitellogenin plays in this transport. To do this, we fed fluorescently labelled Escherichia coli to workers with experimentally manipulated levels of Vitellogenin. We found that bacterial fragments were transported to the glands of control workers, while they were not detected at the glands of workers subjected to RNA interference-mediated Vitellogenin gene knockdown, suggesting that Vitellogenin plays a role in this transport. Our results provide initial evidence that trans-generational immune priming may operate at a colony-wide level in honey bees.

Royal Jelly Abrogates Cadmium-Induced Oxidative Challenge in Mouse Testes: Involvement of the Nrf2 Pathway

The current study examined the efficacy of royal jelly (RJ) against cadmium chloride (CdCl₂)-induced testicular dysfunction. A total of 28 Swiss male mice were allocated into four groups (n = 7), and are listed as follows: (1) the control group, who was intraperitoneally injected with physiological saline (0.9% NaCl) for 7 days; (2) the RJ group, who was orally supplemented with RJ (85 mg/kg daily equivalent to 250 mg crude RJ) for 7 days; (3) the CdCl₂ group, who was intraperitoneally injected with 6.5 mg/kg for 7 days; and (4) the fourth group, who was supplemented with RJ 1 h before CdCl₂ injection for 7 days. Cd-intoxicated mice exhibited a decrease in serum testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels. A disturbance in the redox status in the testicular tissue was recorded, as presented by the increase in lipid peroxidation and nitrate/nitrite levels and glutathione (GSH) depletion. Moreover, the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like-2 factor (Nrf2) and their gene expression were inhibited. In addition, interleukin-1ß (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were elevated. Furthermore, Cd triggered an apoptotic cascade via upregulation of caspase-3 and Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2. Histopathological examination showed degenerative changes in spermatogenic cells, detachment of the spermatogenic epithelium from the basement membrane, and vacuolated seminiferous tubules. Decreased cell proliferation was reflected by a decrease in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. Interestingly, RJ supplementation markedly minimized the biochemical and molecular histopathological changes in testes tissue in response to Cd exposure. The beneficial effects of RJ could be attributed to its antioxidative properties.

Anti-senescence effect and molecular mechanism of the major royal jelly proteins on human embryonic lung fibroblast (HFL-I) cell line

Royal jelly (RJ) from honeybee has been widely used as a health promotion supplement. The major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs) have been identified as the functional component of RJ. However, the question of whether MRJPs have anti-senescence activity for human cells remains. Human embryonic lung fibroblast (HFL-I) cells were cultured in media containing no MRJPs (A), MRJPs at 0.1 mg/ml (B), 0.2 mg/ml (C), or 0.3 mg/ml (D), or bovine serum albumin (BSA) at 0.2 mg/ml (E). The mean population doubling levels of cells in media B, C, D, and E were increased by 12.4%, 31.2%, 24.0%, and 10.4%, respectively, compared with that in medium A. The cells in medium C also exhibited the highest relative proliferation activity, the lowest senescence, and the longest telomeres. Moreover, MRJPs up-regulated the expression of superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) and down-regulated the expression of mammalian target of rapamycin (MTOR), catenin beta like-1 (CTNNB1), and tumor protein p53 (TP53). Raman spectra analysis showed that there were two unique bands related to DNA synthesis materials, amide carbonyl group vibrations and aromatic hydrogens. These results suggest that MRJPs possess anti-senescence activity for the HFL-I cell line, and provide new knowledge illustrating the molecular mechanism of MRJPs as anti-senescence factors.