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Rahimi A, Sameei P, Mousavi S, Ghaderi K, Hassani A, Hassani S, Alipour S. Application of CRISPR/Cas9 System in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04143-2. [PMID: 38639864 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04143-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's are some of the most common neurological disorders, which affect millions of people worldwide. Although there have been many treatments for these diseases, there are still no effective treatments to treat or completely stop these disorders. Perhaps the lack of proper treatment for these diseases can be related to various reasons, but the poor results related to recent clinical research also prompted doctors to look for new treatment approaches. In this regard, various researchers from all over the world have provided many new treatments, one of which is CRISPR/Cas9. Today, the CRISPR/Cas9 system is mostly used for genetic modifications in various species. In addition, by using the abilities available in the CRISPR/Cas9 system, researchers can either remove or modify DNA sequences, which in this way can establish a suitable and useful treatment method for the treatment of genetic diseases that have undergone mutations. We conducted a non-systematic review of articles and study results from various databases, including PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus, in recent years. and have investigated new treatment methods in neurodegenerative diseases with a focus on Alzheimer's disease. Then, in the following sections, the treatment methods were classified into three groups: anti-tau, anti-amyloid, and anti-APOE regimens. Finally, we discussed various applications of the CRISPR/Cas-9 system in Alzheimer's disease. Today, using CRISPR/Cas-9 technology, scientists create Alzheimer's disease models that have a more realistic phenotype and reveal the processes of pathogenesis; following the screening of defective genes, they establish treatments for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araz Rahimi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Parsa Sameei
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Sana Mousavi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Kimia Ghaderi
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Amin Hassani
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran
| | - Sepideh Hassani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University Medical Sciences (UMSU), Urmia, Iran.
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
| | - Shahriar Alipour
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Cellular and Molecular Medicine Institute, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University Medical Sciences (UMSU), Urmia, Iran.
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
- Student Research Committee, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran.
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2
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Sharif A, Mamo J, Lam V, Al-Salami H, Mooranian A, Watts GF, Clarnette R, Luna G, Takechi R. The therapeutic potential of probucol and probucol analogues in neurodegenerative diseases. Transl Neurodegener 2024; 13:6. [PMID: 38247000 PMCID: PMC10802046 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-024-00398-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders present complex pathologies characterized by various interconnected factors, including the aggregation of misfolded proteins, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and compromised blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Addressing such multifaceted pathways necessitates the development of multi-target therapeutic strategies. Emerging research indicates that probucol, a historic lipid-lowering medication, offers substantial potential in the realm of neurodegenerative disease prevention and treatment. Preclinical investigations have unveiled multifaceted cellular effects of probucol, showcasing its remarkable antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, its ability to fortify the BBB and its direct influence on neural preservation and adaptability. These diverse effects collectively translate into enhancements in both motor and cognitive functions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent findings highlighting the efficacy of probucol and probucol-related compounds in the context of various neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and cognitive impairment associated with diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arazu Sharif
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - John Mamo
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Research, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Virginie Lam
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Hani Al-Salami
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Armin Mooranian
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Gerald F Watts
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Roger Clarnette
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Giuseppe Luna
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Ryu Takechi
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
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3
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Gamit N, Patil M, B Sundrappa S, Sundaram SM, Sethi G, Dharmarajan A, Warrier S. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived rapid drug screening system for Alzheimer's disease for the identification of novel drugs. Drug Dev Res 2023; 84:1496-1512. [PMID: 37571798 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.22102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
A reliable and efficient in vitro model is needed to screen drugs for Alzheimer's disease (AD), as many drugs are currently in the developmental stage. To address this, we developed an in vitro model using amniotic membrane-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AM-MSCs) to screen novel drugs for AD. We differentiated AM-MSCs into neurons and degenerated them using beta amyloid1-42 (Aß). We then tested AD drugs, which are commercially available such as donepezil, rivastigmine, memantine, citicoline, and two novel drugs, that is, probucol, an anti-hyperlipidaemic drug, and NMJ-2, a cinnamic acid analogue for their potential to protect the cells against neurodegeneration. We used gene expression and immunofluorescence staining to assess the neuroprotective ability of these drugs. We also measured the ability of these drugs to reduce lactate dehydrogenase, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide levels, as well as their ability to stabilize the mitochondrial membrane potential and increase acetylcholine (ACh) levels. The AD drugs and novel drugs reduced cytotoxicity and oxidative stress, stabilized mitochondrial membrane potential, and restored ACh levels. Furthermore, they reduced BACE1 expression, with a concomitant increase in the expression of cholinergic markers. This AM-MSCs-based AD-like model has immense potential to be an accurate human model and an alternative to animal models for testing a large number of lead compounds in a short time. Our results also suggest that the novel drugs probucol and NMJ-2 may protect against Aß-induced neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naisarg Gamit
- Division of Cancer Stem Cells and Cardiovascular Regeneration, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
| | - Manasi Patil
- Division of Cancer Stem Cells and Cardiovascular Regeneration, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
| | - Soumya B Sundrappa
- Division of Cancer Stem Cells and Cardiovascular Regeneration, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
| | - S Mohana Sundaram
- Division of Cancer Stem Cells and Cardiovascular Regeneration, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Arun Dharmarajan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, India
| | - Sudha Warrier
- Division of Cancer Stem Cells and Cardiovascular Regeneration, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
- Cuor Stem Cellutions Pvt Ltd, Manipal Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bangalore, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, India
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Colavitta MF, Barrantes FJ. Therapeutic Strategies Aimed at Improving Neuroplasticity in Alzheimer Disease. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2052. [PMID: 37631266 PMCID: PMC10459958 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia among elderly people. Owing to its varied and multicausal etiopathology, intervention strategies have been highly diverse. Despite ongoing advances in the field, efficient therapies to mitigate AD symptoms or delay their progression are still of limited scope. Neuroplasticity, in broad terms the ability of the brain to modify its structure in response to external stimulation or damage, has received growing attention as a possible therapeutic target, since the disruption of plastic mechanisms in the brain appear to correlate with various forms of cognitive impairment present in AD patients. Several pre-clinical and clinical studies have attempted to enhance neuroplasticity via different mechanisms, for example, regulating glucose or lipid metabolism, targeting the activity of neurotransmitter systems, or addressing neuroinflammation. In this review, we first describe several structural and functional aspects of neuroplasticity. We then focus on the current status of pharmacological approaches to AD stemming from clinical trials targeting neuroplastic mechanisms in AD patients. This is followed by an analysis of analogous pharmacological interventions in animal models, according to their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- María F. Colavitta
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Research Institute (BIOMED), Universidad Católica Argentina (UCA)—National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1107AAZ, Argentina
- Centro de Investigaciones en Psicología y Psicopedagogía (CIPP-UCA), Facultad de Psicología, Av. Alicia Moreau de Justo, Buenos Aires C1107AAZ, Argentina;
| | - Francisco J. Barrantes
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Research Institute (BIOMED), Universidad Católica Argentina (UCA)—National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1107AAZ, Argentina
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Chemparathy A, Guen YL, Chen S, Lee EG, Leong L, Gorzynski J, Xu G, Belloy M, Kasireddy N, Tauber AP, Williams K, Stewart I, Wingo T, Lah J, Jayadev S, Hales C, Peskind E, Child DD, Keene CD, Cong L, Ashley E, Yu CE, Greicius MD. APOE loss-of-function variants: Compatible with longevity and associated with resistance to Alzheimer's Disease pathology. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2023:2023.07.20.23292771. [PMID: 37547016 PMCID: PMC10402217 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.20.23292771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
The ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE) is the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Knockdown of this allele may provide a therapeutic strategy for AD, but the effect of APOE loss-of-function (LoF) on AD pathogenesis is unknown. We searched for APOE LoF variants in a large cohort of older controls and patients with AD and identified six heterozygote carriers of APOE LoF variants. Five carriers were controls (ages 71-90) and one was an AD case with an unremarkable age-at-onset between 75-79. Two APOE ε3/ε4 controls (Subjects 1 and 2) carried a stop-gain affecting the ε4 allele. Subject 1 was cognitively normal at 90+ and had no neuritic plaques at autopsy. Subject 2 was cognitively healthy within the age range 75-79 and underwent lumbar puncture at between ages 75-79 with normal levels of amyloid. The results provide the strongest human genetics evidence yet available suggesting that ε4 drives AD risk through a gain of abnormal function and support knockdown of APOE ε4 or its protein product as a viable therapeutic option.
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Affiliation(s)
- Augustine Chemparathy
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Yann Le Guen
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Quantitative Sciences Unit, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Sunny Chen
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA
| | - Eun-Gyung Lee
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA
| | - Lesley Leong
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA
| | - John Gorzynski
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Guangxue Xu
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Michael Belloy
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Nandita Kasireddy
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Andrés Peña Tauber
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Kennedy Williams
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Ilaria Stewart
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Thomas Wingo
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
- Goizueta Alzheimer’s Disease Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - James Lah
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Suman Jayadev
- Department of Neurology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Chad Hales
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
- Goizueta Alzheimer’s Disease Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Elaine Peskind
- Veterans Affairs Northwest Network Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Veteran Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Daniel D Child
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - C Dirk Keene
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Le Cong
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Euan Ashley
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
- Center for Inherited Cardiovascular Disease, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
| | - Chang-En Yu
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Michael D. Greicius
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
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6
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Zarini-Gakiye E, Amini J, Sanadgol N, Vaezi G, Parivar K. Recent Updates in the Alzheimer's Disease Etiopathology and Possible Treatment Approaches: A Narrative Review of Current Clinical Trials. Curr Mol Pharmacol 2021; 13:273-294. [PMID: 32321414 DOI: 10.2174/1874467213666200422090135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent subtype of incurable neurodegenerative dementias and its etiopathology is still not clearly elucidated. OBJECTIVE Outline the ongoing clinical trials (CTs) in the field of AD, in order to find novel master regulators. METHODS We strictly reviewed all scientific reports from Clinicaltrials.gov and PubMed databases from January 2010 to January 2019. The search terms were "Alzheimer's disease" or "dementia" and "medicine" or "drug" or "treatment" and "clinical trials" and "interventions". Manuscripts that met the objective of this study were included for further evaluations. RESULTS Drug candidates have been categorized into two main groups including antibodies, peptides or hormones (such as Ponezumab, Interferon β-1a, Solanezumab, Filgrastim, Levemir, Apidra, and Estrogen), and naturally-derived ingredients or small molecules (such as Paracetamol, Ginkgo, Escitalopram, Simvastatin, Cilostazo, and Ritalin-SR). The majority of natural candidates acted as anti-inflammatory or/and anti-oxidant and antibodies exert their actions via increasing amyloid-beta (Aβ) clearance or decreasing Tau aggregation. Among small molecules, most of them that are present in the last phases act as specific antagonists (Suvorexant, Idalopirdine, Intepirdine, Trazodone, Carvedilol, and Risperidone) or agonists (Dextromethorphan, Resveratrol, Brexpiprazole) and frequently ameliorate cognitive dysfunctions. CONCLUSION The presences of a small number of candidates in the last phase suggest that a large number of candidates have had an undesirable side effect or were unable to pass essential eligibility for future phases. Among successful treatment approaches, clearance of Aβ, recovery of cognitive deficits, and control of acute neuroinflammation are widely chosen. It is predicted that some FDA-approved drugs, such as Paracetamol, Risperidone, Escitalopram, Simvastatin, Cilostazoand, and Ritalin-SR, could also be used in off-label ways for AD. This review improves our ability to recognize novel treatments for AD and suggests approaches for the clinical trial design for this devastating disease in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elahe Zarini-Gakiye
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Javad Amini
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
| | - Nima Sanadgol
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran,Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Gholamhassan Vaezi
- Department of Biology, Damghan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Damghan, Iran
| | - Kazem Parivar
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
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García-Viñuales S, Sciacca MFM, Lanza V, Santoro AM, Grasso G, Tundo GR, Sbardella D, Coletta M, Grasso G, La Rosa C, Milardi D. The interplay between lipid and Aβ amyloid homeostasis in Alzheimer's Disease: risk factors and therapeutic opportunities. Chem Phys Lipids 2021; 236:105072. [PMID: 33675779 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2021.105072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's Diseases (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid deposits of Aβ peptide in the brain. Besides genetic background, the presence of other diseases and an unhealthy lifestyle are known risk factors for AD development. Albeit accumulating clinical evidence suggests that an impaired lipid metabolism is related to Aβ deposition, mechanistic insights on the link between amyloid fibril formation/clearance and aberrant lipid interactions are still unavailable. Recently, many studies have described the key role played by membrane bound Aβ assemblies in neurotoxicity. Moreover, it has been suggested that a derangement of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway and autophagy is significantly correlated with toxic Aβ aggregation and dysregulation of lipid levels. Thus, studies focusing on the role played by lipids in Aβ aggregation and proteostasis could represent a promising area of investigation for the design of valuable treatments. In this review we examine current knowledge concerning the effects of lipids in Aβ aggregation and degradation processes, focusing on the therapeutic opportunities that a comprehensive understanding of all biophysical, biochemical, and biological processes involved may disclose.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michele F M Sciacca
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Cristallografia, Catania, Italy
| | - Valeria Lanza
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Cristallografia, Catania, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Santoro
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Cristallografia, Catania, Italy
| | - Giulia Grasso
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Cristallografia, Catania, Italy
| | - Grazia R Tundo
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Massimiliano Coletta
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Translational Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Grasso
- Department of Chemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Carmelo La Rosa
- Department of Chemistry, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Danilo Milardi
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Cristallografia, Catania, Italy.
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Serrano-Pozo A, Das S, Hyman BT. APOE and Alzheimer's disease: advances in genetics, pathophysiology, and therapeutic approaches. Lancet Neurol 2021; 20:68-80. [PMID: 33340485 PMCID: PMC8096522 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(20)30412-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 396] [Impact Index Per Article: 132.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The APOE ε4 allele remains the strongest genetic risk factor for sporadic Alzheimer's disease and the APOE ε2 allele the strongest genetic protective factor after multiple large scale genome-wide association studies and genome-wide association meta-analyses. However, no therapies directed at APOE are currently available. Although initial studies causally linked APOE with amyloid-β peptide aggregation and clearance, over the past 5 years our understanding of APOE pathogenesis has expanded beyond amyloid-β peptide-centric mechanisms to tau neurofibrillary degeneration, microglia and astrocyte responses, and blood-brain barrier disruption. Because all these pathological processes can potentially contribute to cognitive impairment, it is important to use this new knowledge to develop therapies directed at APOE. Several therapeutic approaches have been successful in mouse models expressing human APOE alleles, including increasing or reducing APOE levels, enhancing its lipidation, blocking the interactions between APOE and amyloid-β peptide, and genetically switching APOE4 to APOE3 or APOE2 isoforms, but translation to human clinical trials has proven challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Serrano-Pozo
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sudeshna Das
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Bradley T Hyman
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA, USA; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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9
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González-Guevara E, Cárdenas G, Pérez-Severiano F, Martínez-Lazcano JC. Dysregulated Brain Cholesterol Metabolism Is Linked to Neuroinflammation in Huntington's Disease. Mov Disord 2020; 35:1113-1127. [PMID: 32410324 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease is an autosomal-dominant, neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in exon-1 of the huntingtin gene. Alterations in cholesterol metabolism and distribution have been reported in Huntington's disease, including abnormal interactions between mutant huntingtin and sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, decreased levels of apolipoprotein E/cholesterol/low-density lipoprotein receptor complexes, and alterations in the synthesis of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1. Plasma levels of 24S-hydroxycholestrol, a key intermediary in cholesterol metabolism and a possible marker in neurodegenerative diseases, decreased proportionally to the degree of caudate nucleus atrophy. The interaction of mutant huntingtin with sterol regulatory element-binding proteins is of particular interest given that sterol regulatory element-binding proteins play a dual role: They take part in lipid and cholesterol metabolism, but also in the inflammatory response that induces immune cell migration as well as toxic effects, particularly in astrocytes. This work summarizes current evidence on the metabolic and immune implications of sterol regulatory element-binding protein dysregulation in Huntington's disease, highlighting the potential use of drugs that modulate these alterations. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edith González-Guevara
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "MVS", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Graciela Cárdenas
- Departamento de Neurología y Enfermedades Neuro-Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "MVS", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Francisca Pérez-Severiano
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "MVS", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos Martínez-Lazcano
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "MVS", Mexico City, Mexico
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10
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Williams T, Borchelt DR, Chakrabarty P. Therapeutic approaches targeting Apolipoprotein E function in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:8. [PMID: 32005122 PMCID: PMC6995170 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-0358-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the primary genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the presence of the Ɛ4 allele of apolipoprotein E (APOE). APOE is a polymorphic lipoprotein that is a major cholesterol carrier in the brain. It is also involved in various cellular functions such as neuronal signaling, neuroinflammation and glucose metabolism. Humans predominantly possess three different allelic variants of APOE, termed E2, E3, and E4, with the E3 allele being the most common. The presence of the E4 allele is associated with increased risk of AD whereas E2 reduces the risk. To understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie APOE-related genetic risk, considerable effort has been devoted towards developing cellular and animal models. Data from these models indicate that APOE4 exacerbates amyloid β plaque burden in a dose-dependent manner. and may also enhance tau pathogenesis in an isoform-dependent manner. Other studies have suggested APOE4 increases the risk of AD by mechanisms that are distinct from modulation of Aβ or tau pathology. Further, whether plasma APOE, by influencing systemic metabolic pathways, can also possibly alter CNS function indirectly is not complete;y understood. Collectively, the available studies suggest that APOE may impact multiple signaling pathways and thus investigators have sought therapeutics that would disrupt pathological functions of APOE while preserving or enhancing beneficial functions. This review will highlight some of the therapeutic strategies that are currently being pursued to target APOE4 towards preventing or treating AD and we will discuss additional strategies that holds promise for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tosha Williams
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - David R Borchelt
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Paramita Chakrabarty
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA. .,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Ghosh S, Durgvanshi S, Agarwal S, Raghunath M, Sinha JK. Current Status of Drug Targets and Emerging Therapeutic Strategies in the Management of Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18:883-903. [PMID: 32348223 PMCID: PMC7569315 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200429011823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease affecting the elderly. AD is associated with a progressive decline in memory and cognitive abilities, drastic changes in behavioural patterns and other psychiatric manifestations. It leads to a significant decline in the quality of life at personal, household as well as national level. Although AD was described about hundred years back and multiple theories have been proposed, its exact pathophysiology is unknown. There is no cure for AD and the life expectancy of AD patients remains low at 3-9 years. An accurate understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) involved in the pathogenesis of AD is imperative to devise a successful treatment strategy. This review explains and summarises the current understanding of different therapeutic strategies based on various molecular pathways known to date. Different strategies based on anti-amyloid pathology, glutamatergic pathway, anti-tau, neuroprotection through neurotrophic factors and cholinergic neurotransmission have been discussed. Further, the use of anti-inflammatory drugs, nutraceuticals, and dietary interventions has also been explained in the management of AD. It further describes different pharmacological and dietary interventions being used in treating and/or managing AD. Additionally, this article provides a thorough review of the literature for improving the therapeutic paradigm of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jitendra Kumar Sinha
- Address correspondence to this author at the Amity Institute of Neuropsychology and Neurosciences (AINN), Amity University UP, Sector-125, Noida 201303, India; Tel: +91-120-4392971, +91-8919679822; Emails: ,
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12
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Zaghloul A, Lila A, Abd-Allah F, Nada A. Probucol Self-Emulsified Drug Delivery System: Stability Testing and Bioavailability Assessment in Human Volunteers. Curr Drug Deliv 2018; 16:325-330. [PMID: 30588885 DOI: 10.2174/1567201816666181227111912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS), if taken orally, is expected to self-emulsify in GIT and improve the absorption and bioavailability. Probucol (PB) is a highly lipophilic compound with very low and variable bioavailability. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study were to examine the stability and conduct bioavailability of the prepared Probucol Self-Emulsified Drug Delivery System (PBSEDDS) in human volunteers. METHODS The methods included preparation of different PBSEDDS using soybean oil (solvent), Labrafil M1944CS (surfactant) and Capmul MCM-C8 (co-surfactant). The formulations were characterized in vitro for spontaneity of emulsification, droplet size, turbidity and dissolution in water after packing in HPMC capsules. The optimized formulations were evaluated for stability at different storage temperatures and human bioavailability compared with the drug dissolved in soybean oil (reference). RESULTS The results showed that formulations (F1-F4) were stable if stored at 20 °C. The mean (n=3) pharmacokinetic parameters for stable formulations were: The Cmax, 1070.76, 883.16, 2876.43, 3513.46 and 1047.37 ng/ml; the Tmax, 7.93, 7.33, 3.96, 3.67 and 4.67 hr.; the AUC (0-t), 41043.41, 37763.23, 75006.26, 46731.36 and 26966.43 ng.hr/ml for F1, F2, F3, F4 and reference, respectively. The percentage relative bioavailability was in this order: F3> F4> F1> F2>. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the PBSEDDS formulations were stable at room temperature. F4 showed the highest Cmax and the shortest Tmax. All the formulations showed significant enhancement of bioavailability compared with the reference. The results illustrated the potential use of SEDDS for the delivery of probucol hydrophobic compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelazim Zaghloul
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait
| | - Ahmed Lila
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Fathy Abd-Allah
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Aly Nada
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait
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Antidepressant Effects of Probucol on Early-Symptomatic YAC128 Transgenic Mice for Huntington's Disease. Neural Plast 2018; 2018:4056383. [PMID: 30186318 PMCID: PMC6112232 DOI: 10.1155/2018/4056383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by a trinucleotide expansion in the HD gene, resulting in an extended polyglutamine tract in the protein huntingtin. HD is traditionally viewed as a movement disorder, but cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms also contribute to the clinical presentation. Depression is one of the most common psychiatric disturbances in HD, present even before manifestation of motor symptoms. Diagnosis and treatment of depression in HD-affected individuals are essential aspects of clinical management in this population, especially owing to the high risk of suicide. This study investigated whether chronic administration of the antioxidant probucol improved motor and affective symptoms as well as hippocampal neurogenic function in the YAC128 transgenic mouse model of HD during the early- to mild-symptomatic stages of disease progression. The motor performance and affective symptoms were monitored using well-validated behavioral tests in YAC128 mice and age-matched wild-type littermates at 2, 4, and 6 months of age, after 1, 3, or 5 months of treatment with probucol (30 mg/kg/day via water supplementation, starting on postnatal day 30). Endogenous markers were used to assess the effect of probucol on cell proliferation (Ki-67 and proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)) and neuronal differentiation (doublecortin (DCX)) in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Chronic treatment with probucol reduced the occurrence of depressive-like behaviors in early- and mild-symptomatic YAC128 mice. Functional improvements were not accompanied by increased progenitor cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation. Our findings provide evidence that administration of probucol may be of clinical benefit in the management of early- to mild-symptomatic HD.
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Jan AT, Azam M, Rahman S, Almigeiti AMS, Choi DH, Lee EJ, Haq QMR, Choi I. Perspective Insights into Disease Progression, Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Approaches in Alzheimer's Disease: A Judicious Update. Front Aging Neurosci 2017; 9:356. [PMID: 29163138 PMCID: PMC5671974 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2017.00356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive accumulation of β-amyloid fibrils and abnormal tau proteins in and outside of neurons. Representing a common form of dementia, aggravation of AD with age increases the morbidity rate among the elderly. Although, mutations in the ApoE4 act as potent risk factors for sporadic AD, familial AD arises through malfunctioning of APP, PSEN-1, and−2 genes. AD progresses through accumulation of amyloid plaques (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in brain, which interfere with neuronal communication. Cellular stress that arises through mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum malfunction, and autophagy contributes significantly to the pathogenesis of AD. With high accuracy in disease diagnostics, Aβ deposition and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) are useful core biomarkers in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of AD patients. Although five drugs are approved for treatment in AD, their failures in achieving complete disease cure has shifted studies toward a series of molecules capable of acting against Aβ and p-tau. Failure of biologics or compounds to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in most cases advocates development of an efficient drug delivery system. Though liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles are widely adopted for drug delivery modules, their use in delivering drugs across the BBB has been overtaken by exosomes, owing to their promising results in reducing disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arif Tasleem Jan
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
| | - Mudsser Azam
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Safikur Rahman
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
| | - Angham M S Almigeiti
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
| | - Duk Hwan Choi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
| | - Eun Ju Lee
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
| | | | - Inho Choi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, South Korea
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Feng CZ, Yin JB, Yang JJ, Cao L. Regulatory factor X1 depresses ApoE-dependent Aβ uptake by miRNA-124 in microglial response to oxidative stress. Neuroscience 2017; 344:217-228. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 12/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Dose J, Huebbe P, Nebel A, Rimbach G. APOE genotype and stress response - a mini review. Lipids Health Dis 2016; 15:121. [PMID: 27457486 PMCID: PMC4960866 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-016-0288-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The APOE gene is one of currently only two genes that have consistently been associated with longevity. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is a plasma protein which plays an important role in lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. In humans, there are three major APOE isoforms, designated APOE2, APOE3, and APOE4. Of these three isoforms, APOE3 is most common while APOE4 was shown to be associated with age-related diseases, including cardiovascular and Alzheimer’s disease, and therefore an increased mortality risk with advanced age. Evidence accumulates, showing that oxidative stress and, correspondingly, mitochondrial function is affected in an APOE isoform-dependent manner. Accordingly, several stress response pathways implicated in the aging process, including the endoplasmic reticulum stress response and immune function, appear to be influenced by the APOE genotype. The investigation and development of treatment strategies targeting APOE4 have not resolved any therapeutic yet that could be entirely recommended. This mini-review provides an overview on the state of research concerning the impact of the APOE genotype on stress response-related processes, emphasizing the strong interconnection between mitochondrial function, endoplasmic reticulum stress and the immune response. Furthermore, this review addresses potential treatment strategies and associated pitfalls as well as lifestyle interventions that could benefit people with an at risk APOE4 genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Dose
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Kiel University, Hermann-Rodewald-Str. 6, D-24118, Kiel, Germany. .,Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Kiel University, Schittenhelmstr. 12, D-24105, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Patricia Huebbe
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Kiel University, Hermann-Rodewald-Str. 6, D-24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Almut Nebel
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Kiel University, Schittenhelmstr. 12, D-24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Gerald Rimbach
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Kiel University, Hermann-Rodewald-Str. 6, D-24118, Kiel, Germany
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Design and Rationale for a Cognitive Outcome Substudy in Ischemic Stroke Patients with High Risk of Cerebral Hemorrhage. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2016; 25:2061-6. [PMID: 27263034 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
GOAL Cognitive impairment and dementia are common disabilities after stroke and are associated with increased risks of mortality and recurrent stroke. The prevention of dementia and preserving cognitive function are also important in stroke patients, but its strategy is not established yet. This PICASSO-COG (PreventIon of CArdiovascular events in iSchemic Stroke patients with high risk of cerebral hemOrrhage for reducing COGnitive decline) substudy aims to assess the effects of cilostazol and/or probucol on cognitive function. MATERIALS AND METHODS The substudy aims to assess the reduction in cognitive decline of patients treated with cilostazol and/or probucol in the PICASSO trial. Patients will be assessed using the Korean version of mini-mental state examination and Montreal Cognitive Assessment at 4, 7, 10, 13, 25, 37, and 49 months after randomization. The primary outcome is the change in mini-mental status examination score, compared between treatment groups, with a modified intention-to-treat population using a restricted maximum likelihood-based mixed effects model repeat measurement. This will allow a within-subject correlation due to repeated cognitive tests as well as a different number of measurements among subjects at baseline and each follow-up period. CONCLUSION PICASSO-COG is a novel study for assessing the effect on cognitive function of different antiplatelet regimens and the addition of a nonstatin lipid-lowering agent to the current standard statin therapy in patients who have a recent ischemic lesion and prior intracerebral macro- or microbleeds.
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18
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Nrf2–ARE pathway: An emerging target against oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases. Pharmacol Ther 2016; 157:84-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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19
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Baranello RJ, Bharani KL, Padmaraju V, Chopra N, Lahiri DK, Greig NH, Pappolla MA, Sambamurti K. Amyloid-beta protein clearance and degradation (ABCD) pathways and their role in Alzheimer's disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2015; 12:32-46. [PMID: 25523424 PMCID: PMC4820400 DOI: 10.2174/1567205012666141218140953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 11/16/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-β proteins (Aβ) of 42 (Aβ42) and 40 aa (Aβ40) accumulate as senile plaques (SP) and cerebrovascular amyloid protein deposits that are defining diagnostic features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A number of rare mutations linked to familial AD (FAD) on the Aβ precursor protein (APP), Presenilin-1 (PS1), Presenilin- 2 (PS2), Adamalysin10, and other genetic risk factors for sporadic AD such as the ε4 allele of Apolipoprotein E (ApoE-ε4) foster the accumulation of Aβ and also induce the entire spectrum of pathology associated with the disease. Aβ accumulation is therefore a key pathological event and a prime target for the prevention and treatment of AD. APP is sequentially processed by β-site APP cleaving enzyme (BACE1) and γ-secretase, a multisubunit PS1/PS2-containing integral membrane protease, to generate Aβ. Although Aβ accumulates in all forms of AD, the only pathways known to be affected in FAD increase Aβ production by APP gene duplication or via base substitutions on APP and γ-secretase subunits PS1 and PS2 that either specifically increase the yield of the longer Aβ42 or both Aβ40 and Aβ42. However, the vast majority of AD patients accumulate Aβ without these known mutations. This led to proposals that impairment of Aβ degradation or clearance may play a key role in AD pathogenesis. Several candidate enzymes, including Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), Neprilysin (NEP), Endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE), Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), Plasmin, and Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been identified and some have even been successfully evaluated in animal models. Several studies also have demonstrated the capacity of γ-secretase inhibitors to paradoxically increase the yield of Aβ and we have recently established that the mechanism is by skirting Aβ degradation. This review outlines major cellular pathways of Aβ degradation to provide a basis for future efforts to fully characterize the panel of pathways responsible for Aβ turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Kumar Sambamurti
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, BSB 403, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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Santos D, Colle D, Moreira E, Peres K, Ribeiro R, dos Santos A, de Oliveira J, Hort M, de Bem A, Farina M. Probucol mitigates streptozotocin-induced cognitive and biochemical changes in mice. Neuroscience 2015; 284:590-600. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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21
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FU HUAYING, LI GUANGPING, LIU CHANGLE, LI JIAN, WANG XINGHUA, CHENG LIJUN, LIU TONG. Probucol Prevents Atrial Remodeling by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and TNF-α/NF-κB/TGF-β Signal Transduction Pathway in Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Rabbits. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2014; 26:211-22. [PMID: 25199622 DOI: 10.1111/jce.12540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Revised: 08/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- HUAYING FU
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - GUANGPING LI
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - CHANGLE LIU
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - JIAN LI
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - XINGHUA WANG
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - LIJUN CHENG
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
| | - TONG LIU
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Ionic-Molecular Function of Cardiovascular disease; Department of Cardiology; Tianjin Institute of Cardiology; Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University; Tianjin People's Republic of China
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Villeneuve S, Brisson D, Marchant NL, Gaudet D. The potential applications of Apolipoprotein E in personalized medicine. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:154. [PMID: 25071563 PMCID: PMC4085650 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Personalized medicine uses various individual characteristics to guide medical decisions. Apolipoprotein (ApoE), the most studied polymorphism in humans, has been associated with several diseases. The purpose of this review is to elucidate the potential role of ApoE polymorphisms in personalized medicine, with a specific focus on neurodegenerative diseases, by giving an overview of its influence on disease risk assessment, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. This review is not a systematic inventory of the literature, but rather a summary and discussion of novel, influential and promising works in the field of ApoE research that could be valuable for personalized medicine. Empirical evidence suggests that ApoE genotype informs pre-symptomatic risk for a wide variety of diseases, is valuable for the diagnosis of type III dysbetalipoproteinemia, increases risk of dementia in neurodegenerative diseases, and is associated with a poor prognosis following acute brain damage. ApoE status appears to influence the efficacy of certain drugs, outcome of clinical trials, and might also give insight into disease prevention. Assessing ApoE genotype might therefore help to guide medical decisions in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Villeneuve
- Department of Medicine, ECOGENE-21 and Lipid Clinic, Chicoutimi Hospital, Université de Montréal Chicoutimi, QC, Canada ; Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Diane Brisson
- Department of Medicine, ECOGENE-21 and Lipid Clinic, Chicoutimi Hospital, Université de Montréal Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
| | - Natalie L Marchant
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London London, UK
| | - Daniel Gaudet
- Department of Medicine, ECOGENE-21 and Lipid Clinic, Chicoutimi Hospital, Université de Montréal Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
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Apolipoprotein E and lipid homeostasis in the etiology and treatment of sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2014; 35 Suppl 2:S3-10. [PMID: 24973118 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The discovery that the apolipoprotein E (apoE) ε4 allele is genetically linked to both sporadic and familial late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) raises the possibility that a dysfunction of the lipid transport system could seriously affect lipid homeostasis in the brain of AD subjects. The presence of the ε4 allele has been associated with lower levels of apoE in both serum and brain tissues of normal and AD subjects. In an attempt to reverse the apoE deficit in AD, we identified and characterized several apoE inducer agents using a low-throughput in vitro screening assay. The most promising of these compounds is called probucol. Administration of probucol, an old cholesterol-lowering drug, in a pilot trial in mild-to-moderate sporadic AD led to a significant increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) apoE levels and a decrease in CSF in both phosphorylated tau 181 and beta-amyloid 1-42 concentrations without significant modifications of lipid hydroperoxide levels.
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Therapeutic and space radiation exposure of mouse brain causes impaired DNA repair response and premature senescence by chronic oxidant production. Aging (Albany NY) 2014; 5:607-22. [PMID: 23928451 PMCID: PMC3796214 DOI: 10.18632/aging.100587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite recent epidemiological evidences linking radiation exposure and a number of human ailments including cancer, mechanistic understanding of how radiation inflicts long-term changes in cerebral cortex, which regulates important neuronal functions, remains obscure. The current study dissects molecular events relevant to pathology in cerebral cortex of 6 to 8 weeks old female C57BL/6J mice two and twelve months after exposure to a γ radiation dose (2 Gy) commonly employed in fractionated radiotherapy. For a comparative study, effects of 1.6 Gy heavy ion 56Fe radiation on cerebral cortex were also investigated, which has implications for space exploration. Radiation exposure was associated with increased chronic oxidative stress, oxidative DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and apoptosis. These results when considered with decreased cortical thickness, activation of cell-cycle arrest pathway, and inhibition of DNA double strand break repair factors led us to conclude to our knowledge for the first time that radiation caused aging-like pathology in cerebral cortical cells and changes after heavy ion radiation were more pronounced than γ radiation.
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Takechi R, Galloway S, Pallebage-Gamarallage MM, Lam V, Dhaliwal SS, Mamo JC. Probucol prevents blood-brain barrier dysfunction in wild-type mice induced by saturated fat or cholesterol feeding. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2013; 40:45-52. [PMID: 23167559 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an early pathological feature of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is triggered by inflammatory stimuli. Probucol is a lipid-lowering agent with potent anti-oxidant properties once commonly used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Probucol therapy was found to stabilize cognitive symptoms in elderly AD patients, whereas in amyloid transgenic mice probucol was shown to attenuate amyloidosis. However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of probucol have note been determined. In the present study we investigated whether probucol can prevent BBB disturbances induced by chronic ingestion of proinflammatory diets enriched with either 20% (w/w) saturated fats (SFA) or 1% (w/w) cholesterol. Mice were fed the diets for 12 weeks before they were killed and BBB integrity was measured. Mice maintained on either the SFA- or cholesterol-supplemented diets were found to have a 30- and sevenfold greater likelihood of BBB dysfunction, respectively, as determined by the parenchymal extravasation of plasma-derived immunoglobulins and endogenous lipoprotein enrichment with β-amyloid. In contrast, mice fed the SFA- or cholesterol-enriched diets that also contained 1% (w/w) probucol showed no evidence of BBB disturbance. The parenchymal expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein, a marker of cerebrovascular inflammation, was significantly greater in mice fed the SFA-enriched diet. Plasma lipid, β-amyloid and apolipoprotein B levels were not increased by feeding of the SFA- or cholesterol-enriched diets. However, mice fed the SFA- or cholesterol-enriched diets did exhibit increased plasma non-esterified fatty acid levels that were not reduced by probucol. The data suggest that probucol prevents disturbances of BBB induced by chronic ingestion of diets enriched in SFA or cholesterol by suppressing inflammatory pathways rather than by modulating plasma lipid homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryusuke Takechi
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute Biosciences Research Precinct, Curtin University, Bentley, WA, Australia
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Cacabelos R, Fernández-Novoa L, Corzo L, Amado L, Pichel V, Lombardi V, Kubota Y. Phenotypic profiles and functional genomics in Alzheimer's disease and in dementia with a vascular component. Neurol Res 2013; 26:459-80. [PMID: 15265264 DOI: 10.1179/016164104225017677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia with vascular component (DVC) are the most prevalent forms of dementia. Both clinical entities share many similarities, but they differ in major phenotypic and genotypic profiles as revealed by structural and functional genomics studies. Comparative phenotypic studies have identified significant differences in 25% of more than 100 parametric variables, including anthropometry, cardiovascular function, aortic atherosclerosis, brain atrophy, blood pressure, blood biochemistry, hematology, thyroid function, folate and vitamin B12 levels, brain hemodynamics and lymphocyte markers. The phenotypic profile of patients with DVC differs from that of AD patients in the following: anthropometric values (weight, height); cardiovascular function (ECG, heart rate); blood pressure; lipid metabolism (HDL-CHO, TGs); uric acid metabolism; peripheral calcium homeostasis; liver function (GOT, GPT, GGT); alkaline phosphatase; lactate dehydrogenase; red and white blood cells; regional brain atrophy (left temporal region, inter-hippocampal distance); and left anterior blood flow velocity. Functional genomics studies incorporating APOE-related changes in biological markers extended the difference between AD and DVC up to 57%. Brain perfusion studies show a severe brain hypoperfusion in dementia associated with enlarged age-dependent arterial perfusion times. Structural genomics studies with AD-related genes, including APP, MAPT, APOE, PS1, PS2, A2M, ACE, AGT, cFOS and PRNP genes, demonstrate different genetic profiles in AD and DVC, with an absolute genetic variation rate ranging from 30% to 80%, depending upon genes and genetic clusters. Single gene analysis identifies relative genetic variations ranging from 0% to 5%. The relative polymorphic variation in genetic clusters integrated by two, three or four genes associated with AD ranges from 1% to 3%. The main phenotypic differences between AD and DVC are genotype-dependent, especially in AD, probably indicating that different genomic factors are determinant for the expression of dementia symptoms which might be accelerated or induced by environmental and/or cerebrovascular factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Cacabelos
- EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Institute for CNS Disorders, EuroEspes Biotechnology (EBIOTEC), Coruña, Spain and Department of Biotechnology and Genomics, Camilo José Cela University, Madrid, Spain.
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Ribeiro RP, Moreira ELG, Santos DB, Colle D, Dos Santos AA, Peres KC, Figueiredo CP, Farina M. Probucol affords neuroprotection in a 6-OHDA mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Res 2013; 38:660-8. [PMID: 23334712 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0965-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons. Although the etiology of the majority of human PD cases is unknown, experimental evidence points to oxidative stress as an early and causal event. Probucol is a lipid-lowering phenolic compound with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that has been recently reported as protective in neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration models. This study was designed to investigate the effects of probucol on the vulnerability of striatal dopaminergic neurons to oxidative stress in a PD in vivo model. Swiss mice were treated with probucol during 21 days (11.8 mg/kg; oral route). Two weeks after the beginning of treatment, mice received a single intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). On the 21st day, locomotor performance, striatal oxidative stress-related parameters, and striatal tyrosine hydroxylase and synaptophysin levels, were measured as outcomes of toxicity. 6-OHDA-infused mice showed hyperlocomotion and a significant decrease in striatal tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and synaptophysin levels. In addition, 6-OHDA-infused mice showed reduced superoxide dismutase activity and increased lipid peroxidation and catalase activity in the striatum. Notably, probucol protected against 6-OHDA-induced hyperlocomotion and striatal lipid peroxidation, catalase upregulation and decrease of TH levels. Overall, the present results show that probucol protects against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity in mice. These findings may render probucol as a promising molecule for further pharmacological studies on the search for disease-modifying treatment in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Pietsch Ribeiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Neurociências, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil.
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Sagare AP, Deane R, Zlokovic BV. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1: a physiological Aβ homeostatic mechanism with multiple therapeutic opportunities. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 136:94-105. [PMID: 22820095 PMCID: PMC3432694 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP1) is the main cell surface receptor involved in brain and systemic clearance of the Alzheimer's disease (AD) toxin amyloid-beta (Aβ). In plasma, a soluble form of LRP1 (sLRP1) is the major transport protein for peripheral Aβ. LRP1 in brain endothelium and mural cells mediates Aβ efflux from brain by providing a transport mechanism for Aβ across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). sLRP1 maintains a plasma 'sink' activity for Aβ through binding of peripheral Aβ which in turn inhibits re-entry of free plasma Aβ into the brain. LRP1 in the liver mediates systemic clearance of Aβ. In AD, LRP1 expression at the BBB is reduced and Aβ binding to circulating sLRP1 is compromised by oxidation. Cell surface LRP1 and circulating sLRP1 represent druggable targets which can be therapeutically modified to restore the physiological mechanisms of brain Aβ homeostasis. In this review, we discuss how increasing LRP1 expression at the BBB and liver with lifestyle changes, statins, plant-based active principles and/or gene therapy on one hand, and how replacing dysfunctional plasma sLRP1 on the other regulate Aβ clearance from brain ultimately controlling the onset and/or progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhay P. Sagare
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, and Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration at the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
| | - Rashid Deane
- Department of Neurosurgery, Arthur Kornberg Medical Research Building, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, United States
| | - Berislav V. Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, and Center for Neurodegeneration and Regeneration at the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, 1501 San Pablo Street, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States
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Probucol, a lipid-lowering drug, prevents cognitive and hippocampal synaptic impairments induced by amyloid β peptide in mice. Exp Neurol 2011; 233:767-75. [PMID: 22173317 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2011] [Revised: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by synaptic loss and cognitive impairments. The presence of extracellular senile plaques (mainly composed of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide) is an important molecular hallmark in AD and neuronal damage has been attributed, at least in part, to Aβ-mediated toxicity. Although the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of AD are not yet completely understood, several lines of evidence indicate that oxidative stress and cholesterol dyshomeostasis play crucial roles in mediating the synaptic loss and cognitive deficits observed in AD patients. This study evaluated the effects of Probucol, a phenolic lipid-lowering agent with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, on biochemical parameters related to oxidative stress and synaptic function (hippocampal glutathione and synaptophysin levels; glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and acetylcholinesterase activities; lipid peroxidation), as well as on behavioral parameters related to the cognitive function (displaced and new object recognition tasks) in Aβ-exposed mice. Animals were treated with a single intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of aggregated Aβ(1-40) (400 pmol/site) and, subsequently, received Probucol (10 mg/kg, i.p.) once a day, during the following 2 weeks. At the end of treatments, Aβ(1-40)-exposed animals showed a significant impairment on learning-memory ability, which was paralleled by a significant decrease in hippocampal synaptophysin levels, as well as by an increase in hippocampal acetylcholinesterase activity. Importantly, Probucol treatment blunted the deleterious effects of Aβ(1-40) on learning-memory ability and hippocampal biochemistry. Although Aβ(1-40) treatment did not change hippocampal glutathione levels and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities, Aβ(1-40)-exposed animals showed increased hippocampal lipid peroxidation and this event was completely blunted by Probucol treatment. These findings reinforce and extend the notion of the hazardous effects of Aβ(1-40) toward hippocampal synaptic homeostasis and cognitive functions. In addition, the present results indicate that Probucol is able to counteract the cognitive and biochemical impairments induced by i.c.v. Aβ(1-40) administration in mice. The study is the first to report the protective effects of Probucol (a "non-statin cholesterol-lowering drug") against Aβ(1-40)-induced synaptic and behavioral impairments, rendering this compound a promising molecule for further pharmacological studies on the search for therapeutic strategies to treat or prevent AD.
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Lu PH, Lee GJ, Raven EP, Tingus K, Khoo T, Thompson PM, Bartzokis G. Age-related slowing in cognitive processing speed is associated with myelin integrity in a very healthy elderly sample. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2011; 33:1059-68. [PMID: 22133139 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2011.595397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Performance on measures of cognitive processing speed (CPS) slows with age, but the biological basis associated with this cognitive phenomenon remains incompletely understood. We assessed the hypothesis that the age-related slowing in CPS is associated with myelin breakdown in late-myelinating regions in a very healthy elderly population. An in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) biomarker of myelin integrity was obtained from the prefrontal lobe white matter and the genu of the corpus callosum for 152 healthy elderly adults. These regions myelinate later in brain development and are more vulnerable to breakdown due to the effects of normal aging. To evaluate regional specificity, we also assessed the splenium of the corpus callosum as a comparison region, which myelinates early in development and primarily contains axons involved in visual processing. The measure of myelin integrity was significantly correlated with CPS in highly vulnerable late-myelinating regions but not in the splenium. These results have implications for the neurobiology of the cognitive changes associated with brain aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po H Lu
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Probucol suppresses enterocytic accumulation of amyloid-β induced by saturated fat and cholesterol feeding. Lipids 2011; 47:27-34. [PMID: 21805327 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-011-3595-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) is secreted from lipogenic organs such as intestine and liver as an apolipoprotein of nascent triacylglycerol rich lipoproteins. Chronically elevated plasma Aβ may compromise cerebrovascular integrity and exacerbate amyloidosis--a hallmark feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Probucol is a hypocholesterolemic agent that reduces amyloid burden in transgenic amyloid mice, but the mechanisms for this effect are presently unclear. In this study, the effect of Probucol on intestinal lipoprotein-Aβ homeostasis was explored. Wild-type mice were fed a control low-fat diet and enterocytic Aβ was stimulated by high-fat (HF) diet enriched in 10% (w/w) saturated fat and 1% (w/w) cholesterol for the duration of 1 month. Mice treated with Probucol had the drug incorporated into the chow at 1% (w/w). Quantitative immunofluorescence was utilised to determine intestinal apolipoprotein B (apo B) and Aβ abundance. We found apo B in both the perinuclear region of the enterocytes and the lacteals in all groups. However, HF feeding and Probucol treatment increased secretion of apo B into the lacteals without any change in net villi abundance. On the other hand, HF-induced enterocytic perinuclear Aβ was significantly attenuated by Probucol. No significant changes in Aβ were observed within the lacteals. The findings of this study support the notion that Probucol suppresses dietary fat induced stimulation of Aβ biosynthesis and attenuate availability of apo B lipoprotein-Aβ for secretion.
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Butterfield DA, Barone E, Mancuso C. Cholesterol-independent neuroprotective and neurotoxic activities of statins: perspectives for statin use in Alzheimer disease and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Pharmacol Res 2011; 64:180-6. [PMID: 21536132 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Statins, long known to be beneficial in conditions where dyslipidemia occurs by lowering serum cholesterol levels, also have been proposed for use in neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer disease. However, it is not clear that the purported effectiveness of statins in neurodegenerative disorders is directly related to cholesterol-lowering effects of these agents; rather, the pleiotropic functions of statins likely play critical roles. Moreover, it is becoming more apparent with additional studies that statins can have deleterious effects in preclinical studies and lack effectiveness in various recent clinical trials. This perspective paper outlines pros and cons of the use of statins in neurodegenerative disorders, with particular emphasis on Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Allan Butterfield
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
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Leduc V, Jasmin-Bélanger S, Poirier J. APOE and cholesterol homeostasis in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Mol Med 2011; 16:469-77. [PMID: 20817608 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2010.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Converging evidence from clinical and pathological studies indicate the presence of important relationships between the ongoing deterioration of brain lipid homeostasis, vascular changes and the pathophysiology of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). These associations include the recognition of cholesterol transporters apolipoprotein E (APOE), APOC1 and APOJ as major genetic risk factors for common AD and observations associating risk factors for cardiovascular disease such as high midlife plasma cholesterol, diabetes, stroke, obesity and hypertension to dementia. Moreover, recent clinical findings lend support to the notion that progressive deterioration of cholesterol homeostasis in AD is a central player in the disease pathophysiology and is, therefore, a potential therapeutic target for disease prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Leduc
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, 6875 Lasalle, Montreal (Verdun), Quebec, H4H 1R3, Canada
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Bruinsma IB, Karawajczyk A, Schaftenaar G, de Waal RMW, Verbeek MM, van Delft FL. A rational design to create hybrid β-sheet breaker peptides to inhibit aggregation and toxicity of amyloid-β. MEDCHEMCOMM 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c0md00213e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Butterfield DA. Atorvastatin and Aβ(1-40): not as simple as cholesterol reduction in brain and relevance to Alzheimer disease. Exp Neurol 2010; 228:15-8. [PMID: 21192930 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D Allan Butterfield
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, and Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
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Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) regulates perivascular macrophages and modifies amyloid pathology in an Alzheimer mouse model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:20816-21. [PMID: 21076037 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1005888107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is a high-density lipoprotein receptor that regulates cholesterol efflux from the peripheral tissues to the liver. SR-BI has been identified on astrocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells in Alzheimer's disease brain and has been shown to mediate adhesion of microglia to fibrillar amyloid-β (Aβ). Here we report that SR-BI mediates perivascular macrophage response and regulates Aβ-related pathology and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in an Alzheimer's mouse model. Reduction or deletion of SR-BI gene in heterozygous or homozygous deficient mice (SR-BI(+/-), (-/-)) resulted in a significant increase in perivascular macrophages in the brain. SR-BI deletion had no effect on apolipoprotein E or apolipoprotein AI levels in the mouse brain. Our analysis revealed increased levels of SR-BI expression in the brains of human amyloid precursor protein (Swedish, Indiana) transgenic mice (J20 line). To evaluate the role of SR-BI in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis, we inactivated one SR-BI allele in J20 transgenic mice. SR-BI reduction in J20/SR-BI(+/-) mice enhanced fibrillar amyloid deposition and cerebral amyloid angiopathy and also exacerbated learning and memory deficits compared with J20 littermates. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed localization of SR-BI on perivascular macrophages in tight association with Aβ deposits. Our data suggest that SR-BI reduction impairs the response of perivascular macrophages to Aβ and enhances the Aβ-related phenotype and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in J20 mice. These results reveal that SR-BI, a scavenger receptor primarily involved in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol transport, plays an essential role in Alzheimer's disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
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Biondi E. Prescription of lipophilic statins to Alzheimer's disease patients: some controversies to consider. Neurol Sci 2010; 32:195-201. [PMID: 20957505 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-010-0440-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common disorder causing cognitive decline in old age. It is a progressive and irreversible neuropathology with a diagnosis often missed or delayed. Cholesterol represents an important determinant of the physical state of biological membranes and in AD brains, specific changes in its membrane-ordering and Raft-organizing effects take place. A recent publication shows downregulation of Seladin-1 (selective Alzheimer's disease indicator, also called DHCR24), which catalyzes the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis in affected neurons in AD. Postmortem analysis of AD brains revealed a loss in membrane cholesterol content and this finding makes the therapeutical use of statins (especially the lipophilic ones) quite a lot controversial. Some clinical studies suggest that risk of Alzheimer's disease is substantially reduced in users of statins; however, because these studies are not randomized trials, they provide insufficient evidence to recommend statin family therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Biondi
- Facoltà di Scienze Biologiche, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123, Turin, Italy.
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Post-prandial lipid metabolism, lipid-modulating agents and cerebrovascular integrity: implications for dementia risk. ATHEROSCLEROSIS SUPP 2010; 11:49-54. [PMID: 20430703 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2010.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/08/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) is secreted as an apolipoprotein of nascent triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) derived from both liver and intestine, but is better recognized as the principal protein component of senile plaque in subjects with Alzheimer's disease. Recent studies suggest that exaggerated exposure to plasma Aβ can compromise cerebrovascular integrity, resulting thereafter in blood to brain delivery of plasma proteins including TRL-Aβ. Parenchymal deposits of Aβ show significant immunoreactivity to apolipoprotein B (apo B), consistent with the notion of lipoprotein-Aβ entrapment. In wild type mice chronically fed physiologically relevant diets, saturated fats (SFA) enhance chylomicron-Aβ concomitant with disturbances in blood-brain barrier integrity. Similarly, dietary cholesterol promotes cerebrovascular extravasation of apo B lipoprotein-Aβ. In this study, we investigated the effects of atorvastatin, pravastatin and probucol on dietary-fat induced disturbances in BBB function. Atorvastatin, a lipid soluble HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor prevented SFA induced parenchymal extravasation of apo B-Aβ at 28 days when incorporated into the diet at 20 mg/kg. In contrast, pravastatin a water soluble agent had no effect on BBB integrity at an equivalent dose. In cholesterol supplemented mice, probucol maintained BBB function and extravasation of apo B-Aβ was not evident. The findings suggest that some lipid-modulating agents may be effective in ameliorating the negative effects of saturated fats and cholesterol on cerebrovascular integrity.
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Bruinsma IB, Wilhelmus MMM, Kox M, Veerhuis R, de Waal RMW, Verbeek MM. Apolipoprotein E protects cultured pericytes and astrocytes from D-Abeta(1-40)-mediated cell death. Brain Res 2009; 1315:169-80. [PMID: 20034483 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/12/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is a common pathological finding in Alzheimer's disease and hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis of the Dutch type; in this latter condition it is caused by deposition of mutated amyloid beta protein (Abeta Glu22Gln; D-Abeta(1-40)). Previously, we found a dependence of the Abeta-mediated toxicity and apolipoprotein E (apoE) production by cultured pericytes on apoE genotype. Given their close association with the cerebrovascular wall both astrocytes and pericytes may be involved in CAA development, a process that includes Abeta deposition and clearance and that may be affected by interaction with locally produced apolipoprotein E (apoE). Although astrocytes are regarded as the major source of apolipoprotein E (apoE) in the brain, also pericytes produce apoE. In this study we compared the apoE production capacity, the effects of apoE on D-Abeta(1-40) internalization, D-Abeta(1-40) cell surface accumulation and the vulnerability for D-Abeta(1-40)-induced toxicity of either cell type in order to quantify the relative contributions of astrocytes and pericytes in the various processes that contribute to CAA formation. Strikingly, cultured astrocytes produced only 3-10% of the apoE amounts produced by pericytes. Furthermore, pericytes with the apoE epsilon4 allele produced three times less apoE and were more vulnerable to D-Abeta(1-40) treatment than pericytes without an epsilon4 allele. Such relations were not observed with astrocytes in vitro. Both pericytes and astrocytes, however, were protected from Abeta-induced cytotoxicity by high levels of pericyte-derived apoE, but not recombinant apoE. In addition, pericyte-derived apoE dose-dependently decreased both internalization of Abeta and Abeta accumulation at the cell surface in either cell type. The present data suggest that apoE produced by pericytes, rather than astrocyte-produced apoE, modulates Abeta cytotoxicity and Abeta removal near the vasculature in the brain. Furthermore, since apoE production in pericytes is genotype dependent, this may contribute to the apoE genotype-dependent development of CAA in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona B Bruinsma
- Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Poirier J. Apolipoprotein E represents a potent gene-based therapeutic target for the treatment of sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2008; 4:S91-7. [PMID: 18632009 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2007.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Judes Poirier
- McGill Centre for Studies in Aging and Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Bartzokis G, Lu PH, Geschwind DH, Tingus K, Huang D, Mendez MF, Edwards N, Mintz J. Apolipoprotein E affects both myelin breakdown and cognition: implications for age-related trajectories of decline into dementia. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62:1380-7. [PMID: 17659264 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2006] [Revised: 01/25/2007] [Accepted: 03/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Age-related myelin breakdown is most evident in later-myelinating white matter (LMwm) brain regions. This process might degrade cognitive processing speed (CPS) underlying age-related cognitive decline and the predominance of age as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) 4 allele is the second most important AD risk factor. We tested the hypothesis that ApoE4 accelerates age-related slowing in CPS through the process of myelin breakdown. METHODS Calculated transverse relaxation rates (R(2)), an indirect magnetic resonance imaging measure of myelin breakdown in LMwm, and measures of CPS were obtained in 22 ApoE4+ and 80 ApoE4-, healthy "younger-old" individuals. To assess specificity, contrasting early-myelinating white matter region and memory task were also examined. RESULTS The CPS versus LMwm R(2) remained significant in the ApoE4+ group even after age was statistically adjusted (r = .65, p = .001) and differed from the correlation observed in the ApoE4- group (Fisher's z test = 3.22, p < .002). No significant associations were observed with the contrast region and memory task in either ApoE subgroup. CONCLUSIONS A specific association between CPS and myelin breakdown in LMwm exists in asymptomatic "younger-old" individuals at increased genetic risk for AD. Although inferences of change over time and causality are limited by the cross-sectional study design, this finding lends support to the hypotheses that myelin breakdown underlies age-related slowing in CPS and that by altering the trajectory of myelin breakdown, ApoE alleles shift the age at onset of cognitive decline. Combined use of biomarkers and CPS measures might be useful in developing and targeting primary prevention treatments for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Bartzokis
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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Vuletic S, Riekse RG, Marcovina SM, Peskind ER, Hazzard WR, Albers JJ. Statins of different brain penetrability differentially affect CSF PLTP activity. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2007; 22:392-8. [PMID: 16960448 DOI: 10.1159/000095679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) and apolipoprotein E (apoE) are key proteins involved in lipoprotein metabolism in the peripheral circulation and in the brain. Several epidemiological studies suggested that use of 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) reduces risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the effects of statins of differing blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetrability on brain-derived molecules in cognitively normal individuals are largely unknown. METHODS To assess the effect of statins on these indices as a function of BBB penetration, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma PLTP activity and apoE concentration were measured in cognitively intact, modestly hypercholesterolemic adults randomly allocated to treatment with either pravastatin, which does not penetrate BBB (80 mg/day, n = 13), or simvastatin, which penetrates BBB (40 mg/day, n = 10). RESULTS Simvastatin significantly increased CSF PLTP activity (p = 0.005). In contrast, pravastatin had no such effect. In the pravastatin-treated group, CSF apoE concentration decreased significantly (p = 0.026), while the simvastatin-treated group showed a tendency towards lower CSF apoE levels, with CSF apoE concentration lowered in 8 of 10 subjects. CONCLUSION Our data indicate that statins differentially affect two key lipid transfer proteins in the brain, and that effect on PLTP activity depends on statin BBB penetrability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Vuletic
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
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Igbavboa U, Johnson-Anuna LN, Rossello X, Butterick TA, Sun GY, Wood WG. Amyloid beta-protein1-42 increases cAMP and apolipoprotein E levels which are inhibited by beta1 and beta2-adrenergic receptor antagonists in mouse primary astrocytes. Neuroscience 2006; 142:655-60. [PMID: 16904834 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.06.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2005] [Revised: 06/23/2006] [Accepted: 06/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) increases apolipoprotein E (apoE) levels in astrocytes which could alter lipid trafficking. The mechanism for the Abeta-induced increase in apoE levels is not well understood. It is well established that stimulation of beta-adrenergic receptors (betaARs) increases cAMP levels. Elevation of cAMP levels increases apoE abundance. The current study determined if Abeta(1-42) stimulation of cAMP and apoE levels could be inhibited by betaAR antagonists in astrocytes. We demonstrate that Abeta(1-42) but not the reverse protein Abeta(42-1) or Abeta(1-40) stimulated cAMP formation and this stimulation was inhibited by selective betaAR antagonists in mouse primary cortical astrocytes. Abeta(1-42) significantly increased apoE levels which were significantly inhibited by the betaAR selective antagonists with the greatest inhibition observed with the beta(2) antagonist. Separate lines of evidence have suggested that agonist-induced stimulation of betaARs and increases in apoE abundance may serve a neuroprotective role in astrocytes. Our results indicate a potential interaction between betaARs and apoE which may contribute to reducing Abeta(1-42) neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Igbavboa
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Medical Center and Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, One Veterans Drive, Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA
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Blain JF, Poirier J. Cholesterol homeostasis and the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2006; 4:823-9. [PMID: 15853509 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.4.5.823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The past 4 years have seen a growing interest in cholesterol metabolism and its relationship to Alzheimer's disease. From the first report linking cholesterol and beta-amyloid metabolisms to the recent positive report on the use of atorvastatin (Lipitor, Pfizer Inc.), a cholesterol-lowering drug, in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease, this review examines the scientific progress pertaining to etiopathology of Alzheimer's disease over the past 15 years and the central role of lipids in this field of research. The role of key proteins involved in this metabolic pathway such as apolipoprotein E, lipoprotein lipase, caveolin, hydroxy-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A reductase, low-density lipoprotein receptors, cholesterol 24-hydroxylase, acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase and beta-amyloid are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Blain
- Douglas Hospital Research Centre, 6875 LaSalle Blvd, Verdun, Quebec, H4H 1R3, Canada.
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Panza F, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, Capurso C, Pichichero G, Capurso SA, Capurso A, Solfrizzi V. Lipid metabolism in cognitive decline and dementia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 51:275-92. [PMID: 16410024 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2005] [Revised: 11/25/2005] [Accepted: 11/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This review will focus on the current knowledge on circulating serum and plasma risk factors of cognitive decline of degenerative (Alzheimer's disease, AD) or vascular origin (vascular dementia, VaD) linked to cholesterol homeostasis and lipoprotein disturbances, i.e. total cholesterol (TC), 24S-hydroxy-cholesterol, lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), or apolipoprotein E (APOE). These measures linked to lipoprotein metabolism appear to be altered in AD, VaD, or predementia syndrome relative to controls, but with contrasting results. At present, several studies have demonstrated the dependence of APOE serum levels upon the APOE genotype, nonetheless serum APOE levels seems not to be a credible risk factor or a biochemical marker for AD instead of APOE genotyping. In fact, there was no consistent association of serum or plasma apoE protein levels with the disease when controlled for APOE genotype. In addition, there are some evidence that higher Lp(a) levels could be linked with AD, although there are studies suggesting an increased presence of low molecular weight apo(a) in AD, VaD, and frontotemporal dementia, that are associated with elevated Lp(a) levels. In fact, the apo(a) gene is highly polymorphic in length due to variation in the numbers of a sequence encoding the apo(a) kringle 4 domain, and plasma levels of Lp(a) are inversely correlated with apo(a) size. Furthermore, although serum/plasma levels of TC and 24S-hydroxycholesterol are not credible diagnostic markers for AD and cognitive decline, the current evidence suggests that they may be modifiable risk/protective factors. The prevailing wisdom is that high TC is a risk factor for dementia. However, the relationship between TC and dementia may vary considerably depending on when cholesterol is measured over the life course or, alternatively, in relation to the underlying course of the disease. Several observational studies have suggested that statins, which are effective in lowering cholesterol, may reduce the risk of dementia, but the results of these reports are inconclusive. Thus, more studies with long-term follow-up and serial assessments of TC are needed to further clarify the causal relationship between cholesterol and dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Panza
- Department of Geriatrics, Center for Aging Brain, Memory Unit, University of Bari, Italy.
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Vuletic S, Peskind ER, Marcovina SM, Quinn JF, Cheung MC, Kennedy H, Kaye JA, Jin LW, Albers JJ. Reduced CSF PLTP activity in Alzheimer's disease and other neurologic diseases; PLTP induces ApoE secretion in primary human astrocytes in vitro. J Neurosci Res 2005; 80:406-13. [PMID: 15795933 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) plays a pivotal role in cellular lipid efflux and modulation of lipoprotein metabolism. PLTP is distributed widely in the central nervous system (CNS), is synthesized by glia and neurons, and is active in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The aims of this study were to test the hypothesis that patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) have altered PLTP-mediated phospholipid transfer activity in CSF, and to examine the potential relationship between PLTP activity and apolipoprotein E (apoE) levels in CSF. We assessed PLTP activity and apoE concentration in CSF of patients with probable AD (n = 50), multiple sclerosis (MS; n = 9), other neurologic diseases (n = 21), and neurologically healthy controls (n = 40). PLTP activity in AD was reduced compared to that in controls (P < 0.001), with approximately half of the AD patients with PLTP activity values below all controls. Patients with MS had lower PLTP activity than AD patients (P < 0.001). PLTP activity was highly correlated with PLTP mass, as estimated by Western blot (r = 0.006; P < 0.01). CSF PLTP activity positively correlated with apoE concentration in AD (R = 0.435; P = 0.002) and controls (R = 0.456; P = 0.003). Anti-apoE immunoaffinity chromatography and Western blot analyses indicated that some CSF PLTP is associated with apoE-containing lipoproteins. Exogenous addition of recombinant PLTP to primary human astrocytes significantly increased apoE secretion to the conditioned medium. The findings of reduced PLTP activity in AD CSF, and the observation that PLTP can influence apoE secretion in astrocytes suggest a potential link between alterations in the brain lipid metabolism and AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Vuletic
- Department of Medicine, Northwest Lipid Metabolism and Diabetes Research Laboratories, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109-4517, USA
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Lambert JC, Mann D, Richard F, Tian J, Shi J, Thaker U, Merrot S, Harris J, Frigard B, Iwatsubo T, Lendon C, Amouyel P. Is there a relation between APOE expression and brain amyloid load in Alzheimer's disease? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76:928-33. [PMID: 15965197 PMCID: PMC1739723 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2004.048983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been proposed that, independent of the epsilon4 allele, APOE promoter polymorphisms (-491 A/T and -219 G/T) may be risks factor for Alzheimer's disease by modulating APOE expression. OBJECTIVE To measure the level of APOE expression in Alzheimer's disease. METHODS Brains were obtained at necropsy from 114 patients with early and late onset sporadic Alzheimer's disease in Greater Manchester (UK) during years 1986 to 2001. Total RNA was extracted from 84 brains. Purified lymphocytes were obtained from fresh blood from 16 probable Alzheimer cases from Lille (France). APOE and beta-actin gene expression was determined by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in brain and lymphocytes. RESULTS An inverse correlation between APOE expression level and A beta loads was observed. As previously described and extended to 114 cases here, an association between the -219 TT genotype and a higher level of parenchymal A beta deposition was found, irrespective of APOE epsilon4 allele status. This effect was more pronounced in older individuals, whereas higher A beta load appeared more closely related to epsilon4 in the younger age group (cut off point at the median age at death (72.5 years)). The -219 TT genotype was associated with a decrease in APOE expression. There was a 60% decrease in APOE expression in lymphocytes from probable Alzheimer cases v controls (p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS In the oldest individuals, reduced APOE expression, modulated in part by -219 G/T polymorphism, may influence risk and constitute a determinant A beta load in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-C Lambert
- Unité INSERM 508, Institut Pasteur de Lille, BP 245, 1 rue du professeur Calmette, 59019 Lille cédex, France.
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Boyd-Kimball D, Castegna A, Sultana R, Poon HF, Petroze R, Lynn BC, Klein JB, Butterfield DA. Proteomic identification of proteins oxidized by Aβ(1–42) in synaptosomes: Implications for Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res 2005; 1044:206-15. [PMID: 15885219 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.02.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2004] [Revised: 02/23/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Protein oxidation has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and can lead to loss of protein function, abnormal protein turnover, interference with cell cycle, imbalance of cellular redox potential, and eventually cell death. Recent proteomics work in our laboratory has identified specifically oxidized proteins in AD brain such as: creatine kinase BB, glutamine synthase, ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L-1, dihydropyrimidase-related protein 2, alpha-enolase, and heat shock cognate 71, indicating that a number of cellular mechanisms are affected including energy metabolism, excitotoxicity and/or synaptic plasticity, protein turnover, and neuronal communication. Synapse loss is known to be an early pathological event in AD, and incubation of synaptosomes with amyloid beta peptide 1-42 (Abeta 1-42) leads to the formation of protein carbonyls. In order to test the involvement of Abeta(1-42) in the oxidation of proteins in AD brain, we utilized two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, immunochemical detection of protein carbonyls, and mass spectrometry to identify proteins from synaptosomes isolated from Mongolian gerbils. Abeta(1-42) treatment leads to oxidatively modified proteins, consistent with the notion that Abeta(1-42)-induced oxidative stress plays an important role in neurodegeneration in AD brain. In this study, we identified beta-actin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and dihydropyrimidinase-related protein-2 as significantly oxidized in synaptosomes treated with Abeta(1-42). Additionally, H+-transporting two-sector ATPase, syntaxin binding protein 1, glutamate dehydrogenase, gamma-actin, and elongation factor Tu were identified as increasingly carbonylated. These results are discussed with respect to their potential involvement in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debra Boyd-Kimball
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Membrane Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0055, USA
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Hutter-Paier B, Huttunen HJ, Puglielli L, Eckman CB, Kim DY, Hofmeister A, Moir RD, Domnitz SB, Frosch MP, Windisch M, Kovacs DM. The ACAT inhibitor CP-113,818 markedly reduces amyloid pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2004; 44:227-38. [PMID: 15473963 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2004] [Revised: 07/28/2004] [Accepted: 08/17/2004] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) accumulation in specific brain regions is a pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have previously reported that a well-characterized acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) inhibitor, CP-113,818, inhibits Abeta production in cell-based experiments. Here, we assessed the efficacy of CP-113,818 in reducing AD-like pathology in the brains of transgenic mice expressing human APP(751) containing the London (V717I) and Swedish (K670M/N671L) mutations. Two months of treatment with CP-113,818 reduced the accumulation of amyloid plaques by 88%-99% and membrane/insoluble Abeta levels by 83%-96%, while also decreasing brain cholesteryl-esters by 86%. Additionally, soluble Abeta(42) was reduced by 34% in brain homogenates. Spatial learning was slightly improved and correlated with decreased Abeta levels. In nontransgenic littermates, CP-113,818 also reduced ectodomain shedding of endogenous APP in the brain. Our results suggest that ACAT inhibition may be effective in the prevention and treatment of AD by inhibiting generation of the Abeta peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Hutter-Paier
- JSW-Research Forschungslabor GmbH, Institute of Experimental Pharmacology, Rankengasse 28, 8020 Graz, Austria
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