Naturalistic follow-up of co-morbid substance use in schizophrenia: the West London first-episode study

Self-stigma, religiosity, and perceived social support in people with recent-onset psychosis in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Associations with symptom severity and psychosocial functioning

AIMS

Most evidence on psychosocial factors in recent-onset psychosis comes from high-income countries in Europe, Australia, Canada and the USA, while these factors are likely to differ under varying sociocultural and economic circumstances. In this study, we aimed to investigate associations of self-stigma, religiosity and perceived social support with symptom severity and psychosocial functioning in an Iranian cohort of people with recent-onset psychosis (i.e. illness duration of <2 years).

METHODS

We used baseline data of 361 participants (N = 286 [74%] male, mean age = 34 years [Standard Deviation = 10.0]) from the Iranian Azeri Recent-onset Acute Phase Psychosis Survey (ARAS). We included assessments of self-stigma (Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness, ISMI), religiosity (based on Stark & Glock), perceived social support (Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, MSPSS), symptom severity (Positive And Negative Syndrome Scale, PANSS) and psychosocial functioning (clinician-rated Global Assessment of Functioning Scale, GAF, and self-reported World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0, WHODAS 2.0). Descriptive analyses were employed to characterize the study sample. Covariate-adjusted ordinal and multivariable linear regression analyses were performed to investigate cross-sectional associations of baseline ISMI, religiosity and MSPSS with concurrent PANSS, GAF and WHODAS 2.0.

RESULTS

Higher self-stigma was associated with poorer self-reported functioning (B = 0.375 [95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.186, 0.564]) and more severe concurrent symptoms (B = 0.436 [95% CI: 0.275, 0.597]). Being more religious was associated with poorer clinician-rated functioning (OR = 0.967 [95% CI: 0.944, 0.991]), but with less severe symptoms (B = -0.258 [95% CI: -0.427, -0.088]). Stronger social support was associated with poorer clinician-rated (OR = 0.956 [95% CI: 0.935, 0.978]) and self-reported functioning (B = 0.337 [95% CI: 0.168, 0.507]).

CONCLUSION

This study shows that self-stigma, religiosity and perceived social support were associated with symptom severity and clinician-rated as well as self-reported psychosocial functioning in an Iranian cohort of people with recent-onset psychosis. The findings extend previous evidence on these psychosocial factors to one of the largest countries in the Middle East, and suggest that it may be worthwhile to develop strategies aimed at tackling stigma around psychosis and integrate the role of religiosity and social support in mental ill-health prevention and therapy.

Perspectives of young adults diagnosed with early psychosis using coordinated specialty care in Texas on substance use and substance use interventions

AIM

Despite known prevalence of substance use (SU) among young people experiencing early psychosis and increasing evidence for the relationship between certain substances (e.g., cannabis) and psychosis, there are no specialized interventions developed for effectively addressing substance use among young people participating in coordinated early psychosis services. This study elicited the perspectives of young people with early psychosis participating in Coordinated Specialty Care (CSC) programs about their substance use, including their motivations and concerns around their use, and their ideas on how to best support young people who are interested in reducing or quitting substance use.

METHODS

We recruited young adults (ages 18 to 30) from CSC programs across Texas through flyers sent to program staff inviting young persons willing to talk about substance use to engage in a 60-90 min person-centered, semi-structured, audio-recorded Zoom interview.

RESULTS

A total of 22 young adults were recruited and 18 completed an interview. Participants described mixed positive and negative responses to substance use, and while many understood the importance of discontinuing substance use, many expressed ambivalence related to social, contextual, mental and physical factors that motivated them to keep using. Participants desired practical substance use information, opportunities to explore their substance use ambivalence in supportive relationships, positive peer communities to support healthy choices, help engage, with work, school, and hobbies, and strategies for addressing psychological and physical pain that did not include substance use.

CONCLUSION

Study findings illuminate what motivates young people with early psychosis to initiate, continue, or cut back on substance use, and ideas for CSC practices for exploring substances and helping young people to reduce substance use.

Exploration of cannabis use and polygenic risk scores on the psychotic symptom progression of a FEP cohort

Cannabis use is highly prevalent in first-episode psychosis (FEP) and plays a critical role in its onset and prognosis, but the genetic underpinnings promoting both conditions are poorly understood. Current treatment strategies for cannabis cessation in FEP are clearly inefficacious. Here, we aimed to characterize the association between cannabis-related polygenic risk scores (PRS) on cannabis use and clinical course after a FEP. A cohort of 249 FEP individuals were evaluated during 12 months. Symptom severity was measured with the Positive and Negative Severity Scale and cannabis use with the EuropASI scale. Individual PRS for lifetime cannabis initiation (PRS_CI) and cannabis use disorder (PRS_CUD) were constructed. Current cannabis use was associated with increased positive symptoms. Cannabis initiation at younger ages conditioned the 12-month symptom progression. FEP patients with higher cannabis PRS_CUD reported increased baseline cannabis use. PRS_CI was associated with the course of negative and general symptomatology over follow-up. Cannabis use and symptom progression after a FEP were modulated by cannabis PRS, suggesting that lifetime initiation and use disorders may have partially independent genetic factors. These exploratory results may be the first step to identify those FEP patients more vulnerable to cannabis use and worse outcomes to ultimately develop tailored treatments.

An integrated substance use treatment model for young adults with first-episode psychosis: A naturalistic pilot evaluation

AIM

Approximately 50% of individuals with first-episode psychosis meet criteria for a substance use disorder and these concurrent disorders are associated with worse long-term outcomes. Psychosocial interventions, including motivational interviewing as well as cognitive and behavioural therapies, have shown some evidence for effective treatment in substance use disorders; however, there is a paucity of existing studies that have successfully examined these interventions in first-episode psychosis.

METHODS

Participants (n = 64) received the concurrent disorders intervention, which included individual support alongside participation in at least one of two groups: a 4-week Motivational Engagement group utilizing motivational interviewing (n = 59) and an 8-week Relapse Prevention Training group emphasizing skill acquisition, which some participants entered directly (n = 5) and some participants entered following completion of the Motivational Engagement group (n = 16).

RESULTS

Participants who completed the Motivational Engagement group (n = 59) demonstrated significantly increased motivation to change substance use (d = -.0.58; t = -3.02, p < .01) and significantly decreased substance use frequency (d = 0.65; t = 3.26, p < .01). For participants who completed the Relapse Prevention Training group (n = 21), substance use frequency significantly decreased (d = 0.92; t = 3.46, p < .01) and self-efficacy in one's ability to maintain substance use changes significantly increased (d = -0.85; t = -3.59, p < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot evaluation suggests that motivational interviewing and relapse prevention skills training are acceptable and feasible interventions in the treatment of substance use disorders in young adults with first-episode psychosis.

Cannabis use and clinical outcome in people with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders over 24 months of treatment

Cannabis use is associated with an unfavourable course of illness in schizophrenia, although several factors may confound this association. In this longitudinal study, we explored the influence of cannabis use on baseline symptom severity and treatment outcomes in 98 patients with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders treated with a long acting injectable antipsychotic over 24 months. Using mixed models for repeated measures, we compared visit-wise changes in psychopathology, social and occupational functioning and quality of life between recent/current cannabis users (n=45) and non-users (n=53). There were no significant group by time interactions for any of our outcomes, and with the exception of poorer functionality in cannabis users at baseline, no significant differences in these domains at baseline or month 24. Also, remission rates were similar. However, more cannabis users met our operationally defined relapse criteria compared to non-users, and more frequent cannabis use over the course of treatment, as assessed by positive urine toxicology testing, predicted relapse. Our results suggest that cannabis users do not have poorer treatment response than non-users in terms of symptom reduction over the 24 months of treatment. However, dose-related risk of relapse remains with ongoing cannabis use, possibly by directly reducing the threshold for psychotic breakthrough.

Persistent cannabis use among young adults with early psychosis receiving coordinated specialty care in the United States

Persistent cannabis use among young adults with first episode psychosis (FEP), even those receiving early intervention services, has been associated with poor outcomes. In the United States (US), Coordinated Specialty Care (CSC) has been shown to be more effective at reducing symptoms, improving quality of life and increasing involvement in work or school, compared to typical care for FEP. However, little is known about the prevalence, course and outcomes for cannabis use in this real-world, clinical setting. This study examined the prevalence, course and outcomes of cannabis use categorized into three groups: no use, reduced use, and persistent use, among a sample of 938 CSC participants enrolled for at least 1 year. Prevalence of cannabis use was 38.8% at admission and 32.8% of the sample had persistent cannabis use at 1 year. At baseline, persistent cannabis users were more likely to be male (p < .001), white, non-Hispanic and black non-Hispanic (p = .001), have worse symptoms as measured by the GAF (p < .001), increased suicidality (p = .024), violent ideation (p = .008), and legal trouble (p = .006) compared with non-users. At 1 year, persistent users maintained worse symptoms compared with non-users (p = .021) while those who reduced use had significant improvement in symptoms compared with persistent users (p = .008). This study suggests that cannabis use is common among young adults enrolled in a CSC program in the US and that persistent cannabis users may have worse outcomes while reducing cannabis use may improve outcomes. These findings highlight the potential impact of secondary prevention in this population through reduction in cannabis use.

The impact of sex and cannabis on clinical features in first-admitted patients with psychosis

There is a scarcity of studies investigating the effect of sex on the clinical and treatment characteristics of first-admitted patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP). The reasons for using cannabis and the effect of cannabis on clinical features have not received enough attention either. We aim therefore, to investigate sex differences in the reasons for cannabis use and to determine the effects of sex, cannabis use and their interaction on clinical variables at admission and at discharge from the inpatient unit. 204 first-admitted FEPs in two inpatient units in Spain were included. The reasons for using cannabis were determined using the Dixon questionnaire. Clinical variables were compared between sexes and between cannabis users and non-users. Cannabis use was more frequent in males, but females were more likely to smoke cannabis to "feel relaxed". There was a main effect of sex on positive psychotic symptoms and antipsychotics dose and an interaction effect of cannabis and sex on global functioning at discharge .Our findings show sex differences in the reasons for cannabis use and in some clinical and treatment characteristics among FEP patients. More studies focusing on gender perspectives are needed to develop more individualized treatments.

Long-acting antipsychotic medication as first-line treatment of first-episode psychosis with comorbid substance use disorder

AIM

Substance use disorder (SUD) is highly prevalent among patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP) and associated with poor adherence and worst treatment outcomes. Although relapses are frequent in FEP, current literature on long-acting injectable antipsychotics (LAI-AP) use in FEP is scarce and studies often exclude patients with SUD.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the impact of LAI-AP as first-line treatment on psychotic relapses or rehospitalizations in FEP patients with comorbid SUD (FEP-SUD).

METHODS

This is a naturalistic, longitudinal, 3-year prospective and retrospective study on 237 FEP-SUD admitted in two EIS in Montreal, between 2005 and 2012. The patients were divided on the basis of first-line medication introduced, either oral antipsychotics (OAP, n = 206) or LAI-AP (n = 31). Baseline characteristics were compared using χ² test and analysis of variance, and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed on relapse and rehospitalization.

RESULTS

Compared to the OAP group, patients in the LAI-AP group presented worse prognostic factors (eg, history of homelessness). Despite this, the LAI-AP group presented a lower relapse rate (67.7% vs 76.7%), higher relapse-free survival time (694 vs 447 days, P = 0.008 in Kaplan-Meier analysis), and trends for reduced rehospitalization rates (48.4% vs 57.3%) and hospitalization-free survival time (813 vs 619 days, P = 0.065 Kaplan-Meier analysis). Of those receiving OAP as first-line, 41.3% were eventually switched to LAI-AP and displayed worst outcome in relapse and rehospitalization.

CONCLUSION

LAI-AP should be strongly considered as first-line treatment of FEP-SUD patients since this pharmacological option reduces the risk of relapse and rehospitalization even in the individuals with poor prognostic factors.

Very Long-Term Outcome of Community-Dwelling Patients With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders in Rural Greece

The objective of the present study was to measure the very long-term outcome in community-dwelling patients with a diagnosis of psychosis and to search for possible correlations of outcome with clinical factors. The sample included 55 psychotic patients with at least 15 years of disease duration (M = 32.1 years). For the estimation of the outcome, the Health of the Nations Outcome Scale and the Clinical Global Impression Scale were used. A total of 34.5% of the patients had a good outcome, whereas 27.3% had poor outcome. Outcome was found to be correlated to symptoms, and it was significantly worse in patients living with other severely mentally ill family members. In our study, outcome was good in more than a third of patients. Both symptoms and social functioning were associated with outcome. This study may have some implications for mental healthcare delivery.

Stopping cannabis use benefits outcome in psychosis: findings from 10-year follow-up study in the PAFIP-cohort

OBJECTIVE

To examine the long-term (up to 10 years) patterns related to cannabis use in a sample of patients with first episode of psychosis (FEP) and the effect that consumption might have on clinical, functioning, and neurocognition at long-term.

METHODS

Cannabis use was described in 209 FEP patients. Patients were divided into three groups according to cannabis use: persistent users, ex-users, and never-users. Groups were longitudinally (baseline and 10-year follow-up) compared on clinical, functional, and cognitive variables.

RESULTS

Clinical differences at 10-year follow-up were observed between persistent cannabis users and the other two groups (ex-users and never-users), showing persistent users more severe symptoms (BPRS: x²  = 15.583, P ≤ 0.001; SAPS: x²  = 12.386, P = 0.002) and poorer functionality (DAS: x²  = 6.067, P = 0.048; GAF: x²  = 6.635, P = 0.033). Patients who stopped cannabis use prior to the reassessment showed a similar pattern to those who had never consumed.

CONCLUSION

The use of cannabis could negatively affect the evolution of the psychotic disorder. Perhaps the negative effects caused by cannabis use could be reversed with the cessation of consumption. It is necessary to make an effort in the intervention toward an early withdrawal from the use of cannabis, since this could play an important role in the prognosis of the disease.

Impact of comprehensive treatment for first episode psychosis on substance use outcomes: A randomized controlled trial

Lifetime co-occurring substance use disorders are common at the time of presentation for treatment of a first episode of primary psychosis and persistent substance use disorder (SUD) leads to poorer outcomes. We assessed whether the NAVIGATE program, a coordinated specialty care service that includes optional substance abuse content reduced substance use compared to usual care in 404 individuals in the Recovery After Initial Schizophrenia Episode-Early Treatment Program (RAISE-ETP) study. Participants were randomized to two years of NAVIGATE (n = 223) or usual care (n = 181) and assessed monthly for substance use. At baseline, over one-half (51.7%) of the participants met criteria for a lifetime SUD, including over one-third with alcohol use disorder (36.4%) and with cannabis use disorder (34.7%). Contrary to our hypothesis, there was no treatment group by time interaction effect on days of self-reported substance use over the two-year follow-up. Participant exposure to the substance abuse component of the NAVIGATE program was low, suggesting that modifications to the program and training method for clinicians may be needed. Further research is needed to determine the most effective strategies for addressing substance use disorders in persons recovering from a first episode of psychosis.

Prevalence of comorbid substance use in schizophrenia spectrum disorders in community and clinical settings, 1990-2017: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Comorbidity is highly prevalent between substance use disorders (SUDs) and schizophrenia. This systematic review and meta-analysis estimated prevalence rates of SUDs in epidemiological and treatment-seeking patients diagnosed with schizophrenia or first episode psychosis.

METHODS

A literature search of Medline, EMBASE, PsycINFO and CINAHL databases was conducted from 1990 to 2017 inclusive. Prevalence of co-morbid SUDs and schizophrenia were extracted and odds ratios (ORs) were calculated using random effects meta-analysis. Combining like studies was dictated how authors reported substance use.

RESULTS

There were 123 included articles with a total sample size of 165,811 subjects that yielded six epidemiological studies, 11 national or state case-registry studies, 20 large cohort studies and 86 clinical studies using in- or out-patient samples. The prevalence of any SUD was 41.7%, followed by illicit drugs (27.5%), cannabis (26.2%), alcohol (24.3%) and stimulant use (7.3%). Meta-analysis showed the pooled variance of any SUD in males was 48% which was significantly higher than that for females with schizophrenia (22.1%, OR 3.43, 95% CI 3.01, 3.92). Patients with SUD had an earlier age of onset of schizophrenia. Meta-regression showed prevalence increased over time for illicit drugs but not for other substances, including alcohol.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis revealed that SUDs in schizophrenia is highly prevalent and rates have not changed over time. This indicates SUD are difficult to treat in this patient population and there is an urgent need for more informative studies to help develop better prevention, detection and treatment of SUDs in persons with schizophrenia and co-morbid disorders.

Impact of comorbid cannabis use on outcome in first episode psychosis

AIM

Comorbid cannabis abuse is common in patients with early psychosis. Little is known about the effect of stopping cannabis use on positive, negative and depressive symptoms. Few studies have controlled for multiple substance use that may mask the specific role that cannabis plays in symptom outcomes. The aim of this study was to investigate whether course and level of cannabis use negatively impacted early psychosis patient symptom profiles (positive, negative and depressive symptoms) over 24 months.

METHODS

One hundred and ninety-two patients admitted to an early psychosis intervention programme in a naturalistic setting were followed across three time periods: initial presentation, 12 and 24 months. Patients' clinical characteristics (substance use, positive/negative symptoms and depressive symptoms) were assessed at each time period.

RESULTS

There were no significant associations found between cannabis abuse and positive and negative symptoms. Continuation and discontinuation of cannabis use were not significant for cannabis or any other substance when compared to positive and negative symptoms. There was a significant interaction between cannabis and alcohol for depressive symptoms, where depressive symptoms were significantly higher in patients who abused cannabis without co-occurring alcohol abuse when compared to non-cannabis using patients.

CONCLUSION

The current study findings indicate a complex interaction between cannabis and alcohol use in a sample of early psychosis patients across 24 months. More research is needed into the association between ceasing cannabis use and long-term outcome for early psychosis patients. Of particular importance is the interaction between level of cannabis and alcohol use as it is related to symptom outcome in early psychosis patients.

Demographic and clinical correlates of substance use disorders in first episode psychosis

BACKGROUND

We assessed the prevalence and correlates of lifetime substance use disorders in people with first episode psychosis using the baseline data from the Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode (RAISE) Early Treatment Program study.

METHODS

Research staff assessed 404 first episode patients at 34 community mental health centers across the United States with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV for diagnoses of psychotic and substance use disorders. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationships between participant characteristics and lifetime substance use disorders, followed with generalized linear mixed-effects regression models to identify unique predictors of lifetime substance use disorders.

RESULTS

Approximately one-third of participants reported recent alcohol use (36.6%) and cannabis use (30.7%), and one half (51.7%) met criteria for any lifetime alcohol or drug use disorder. Lifetime substance use disorders were associated with male gender, White race, higher excited (hyperactivity, mood lability, impulsivity, hostility, and uncooperativeness), psychotic and depressive symptoms, less impaired cognition, and greater perceived stigma. Gender, race, and excited symptoms were the most consistent unique predictors of lifetime substance use disorders found in multivariate analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Half of first episode psychosis patients have co-occurring substance use disorders, which are associated with both more severe symptoms and greater perceptions of stigma. Programs aiming to serve these patients must have the skills and clinical strategies to help people with these unique characteristics.

Meta-analysis of neurocognition in young psychosis patients with current cannabis use

OBJECTIVE

Adult psychosis patients (i.e. over the age of 25 years) who are also lifetime cannabis users (CANN±) appear to exhibit superior cognition compared to never-using patients (CANN-). The objective of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the cognitive differences between CANN- and patients who currently use cannabis (CANN+) (i.e. during the CANN± patients' cannabis-using stage). Specifically, focusing on young patients under the age of 25 years, the typical stage of both psychosis- and cannabis-onset.

METHOD

Of the 308 studies identified through database searches and secondary referencing, 14 compared neurocognition of CANN+ and CANN- in young people with psychotic disorders (mean age between 15 and 45 years). Effect sizes were extracted using neurocognitive test performance between CANN+ and CANN- and random effects modelling was conducted on pooled ES and moderator analyses.

RESULTS

CANN+ performed worse on several cognitive domains (i.e. premorbid IQ, current IQ, verbal learning, verbal working memory, motor inhibition) compared to CANN-. The association between age and performance in CANN+ cognition was varied, with older age predictive of worse performance in processing speed, sustained attention, verbal memory, and better performance in verbal learning and very fluency. Of note, CANN+ outperformed CANN- in tests of conceptual set-shifting.

CONCLUSION

These results are consistent with previous findings indicating that CANN+ demonstrate poorer neurocognition than CANN-; and that this is exacerbated with increasing age. Our findings demonstrate significant cognitive differences between patients with CANN+ versus CANN- even at early-onset psychosis, which could suggest a different underlying mechanism towards psychosis for cannabis users.

The interaction of gender and cannabis in early phase psychosis

Cannabis is the third most common recreational drug used world-wide after tobacco and alcohol. Globally, cannabis legalization is becoming more common. In light of its known link to psychosis development, it is imperative that we are well-informed regarding the impact of cannabis on the course of psychosis, in both males and females. However, the majority of the work to date on the role of cannabis in psychosis outcomes has not had a gender focus, important when considering patient specific treatments. This review examines what is currently known, from gender focused studies, about the interaction of gender, cannabis use and psychotic disorders.

Cannabis use by people with severe mental illness – is it important?

Cannabis use is more common among people with severe mental illness than in the general population. It has detrimental effects on the course of the illness, physical health and social life of users, as well as being a financial burden on health services. It is important to understand why some people with severe mental illness continue to use cannabis, despite experiencing its effects on their condition. This article reviews research on the scale of cannabis use by such patients, the effects on the course of their illness, possible reasons to explain why they use it, and how they can be assessed in clinical settings, as well as providing some assessment tools to measure various characteristics related to cannabis use.

Specific impact of stimulant, alcohol and cannabis use disorders on first-episode psychosis: 2-year functional and symptomatic outcomes

BACKGROUND

Many studies have concluded that cannabis use disorder (CUD) negatively influences outcomes in first-episode psychosis (FEP). However, few have taken into account the impact of concurrent misuse of other substances.

METHODS

This 2-year, prospective, longitudinal study of FEP patients, aged between 18 and 30 years, admitted to early intervention programs in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, examined the specific influence of different substance use disorders (SUD) (alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines) on service utilization, symptomatic and functional outcomes in FEP.

RESULTS

Drugs and alcohol were associated with lower functioning, but drugs had a greater negative impact on most measures at 2-year follow-up. Half of CUD patients and more than 65% of cocaine or amphetamine abusers presented polysubstance use disorder (poly-SUD). The only group that deteriorated from years 1 to 2 (symptoms and functioning) were patients with persistent CUD alone. Outcome was worse in CUD than in the no-SUD group at 2 years. Cocaine, amphetamines and poly-SUD were associated with worse symptomatic and functional outcomes from the 1st year of treatment, persisting over time with higher service utilization (hospitalization).

CONCLUSION

The negative impact attributed to CUD in previous studies could be partly attributed to methodological flaws, like including polysubstance abusers among cannabis misusers. However, our investigation confirmed the negative effect of CUD on outcome. Attention should be paid to persistent cannabis misusers, since their condition seems to worsen over time, and to cocaine and amphetamine misusers, in view of their poorer outcome early during follow-up and high service utilization.

The Effect of Substance Use on 10-Year Outcome in First-Episode Psychosis

Substance use is common in first-episode psychosis (FEP) and has been linked to poorer outcomes with more severe psychopathology and higher relapse rates. Early substance discontinuation appears to improve symptoms and function. However, studies vary widely in their methodology, and few have examined patients longitudinally, making it difficult to draw conclusions for practice and treatment. We aimed to investigate the relationship between substance use and early abstinence and the long-term course of illness in a representative sample of FEP patients. Out of 301 included patients, 266 could be divided into 4 groups based on substance use patterns during the first 2 years of treatment: persistent users, episodic users, stop-users and nonusers. Differences in clinical and functional measures during the follow-up period were assessed using linear mixed effects models for the analysis of repeated measures data. Patients who stopped using substances within the first 2 years after diagnosis had outcomes similar to those who had never used with fewer symptoms than episodic or persistent users. Both episodic and persistent users had lower rates of symptom remission than nonusers, and persistent users also had more negative symptoms than those who stopped using. Our findings emerge from one of very few long-term longitudinal studies examining substance use cessation in FEP with 10-year follow-up. The results convey hope that the detrimental effects of substance abuse on mental health may be significantly reversed if one stops the abuse in time. This can help patients who struggle with addiction with their motivation to embrace abstinence.

Smoking status and its relationship to demographic and clinical characteristics in first episode psychosis

Elevated rates of cigarette smoking are observed prior to the onset of psychosis and remain stable early in the illness. Cannabis use frequently co-occurs with cigarette smoking and is independently associated with distinct clinical outcomes. However, past research has not controlled for cannabis use in cigarette smokers with first episode psychosis (FEP), limiting conclusions on the unique relationship of cigarette smoking to the demographic and clinical profiles of these patients. The present study therefore aimed to: (1) Determine the prevalence and patterns of cigarette smoking and its co-use with cannabis in FEP, and (2) Examine the demographic, clinical, cognitive, and functional characteristics associated with cigarette smoking status, after adjusting for frequency of cannabis use. Patients entering specialized treatment for FEP (N = 140) were divided into groups according to their current smoking status: 66 non-smokers (0 cigarettes/day), 47 light/moderate smokers (1-19 cigarettes/day; M = 9.81, SD = 3.93), and 27 heavy smokers (≥20 cigarettes/day; M = 26.39, SD = 6.31). The prevalence of cigarette smoking was 53% and smoking status was highly associated with frequency of cannabis use. After adjusting for cannabis use, significant between-group differences emerged. Heavy smokers were older at program entry and had a later age of onset of psychosis than light/moderate and non-smokers. Non-smokers had more education, better neurocognitive performance, and higher levels of functioning than light/moderate and heavy smokers. Prospective, longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the clinical significance of tobacco use and factors that contribute to the initiation and continuation of smoking behaviours in FEP.

Symptomatic and functional outcomes of substance use disorder persistence 2 years after admission to a first-episode psychosis program

Substance use disorders (SUD) in first-episode psychosis (FEP) are highly prevalent and linked with poor outcomes. However, most longitudinal studies investigating their impacts in FEP have not reported proportions of patients who ceased SUD. Our aim was to examine the influence of SUD course on functional and symptomatic outcomes as well as service use in FEP. We performed a 2-year longitudinal study of 212 FEP patients, aged between 18 and 30 years, admitted to 2 early psychosis services in Montréal, Québec, Canada. We observed that cannabis was the first substance abused (42.9% at baseline), followed by alcohol (19.3%). The SUD rate decreased by approximately 30% during the first year. Patients with persistent SUD had worse functional outcomes (Quality of Life Scale, Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale, employment), more symptoms (Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale) and heavier service use (emergency and hospitalization). SUD persistence was associated with illness severity, homelessness and cluster-B personality. Those living with their parents and financially supported by them were more likely to cease SUD. Our results indicate that SUD course was more significant than having SUD at admission; persistent SUD was associated with worse outcomes. SUD decreased during a general early psychosis intervention program (with no specialized SUD treatment). An integrated, specialized approach targeting FEP patients with predictive factors of SUD persistence during the first years of treatment might increase SUD cessation and possibly improve outcomes.

Cannabis Use Is Associated With Increased Psychotic Symptoms and Poorer Psychosocial Functioning in First-Episode Psychosis: A Report From the UK National EDEN Study

OBJECTIVE

The use of cannabis during the early stage of psychosis has been linked with increased psychotic symptoms. This study aimed to examine the use of cannabis in the 12 months following a first-episode of psychosis (FEP) and the link with symptomatic course and outcome over 1 year post psychosis onset.

DESIGN AND SETTING

One thousand twenty-seven FEP patients were recruited upon inception to specialized early intervention services (EIS) for psychosis in the United Kingdom. Participants completed assessments at baseline, 6 and 12 months.

RESULTS

The results indicate that the use of cannabis was significantly associated with increased severity of psychotic symptoms, mania, depression and poorer psychosocial functioning. Continued use of cannabis following the FEP was associated with poorer outcome at 1 year for Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total score, negative psychotic symptoms, depression and psychosocial functioning, an effect not explained by age, gender, duration of untreated psychosis, age of psychosis onset, ethnicity or other substance use.

CONCLUSION

This is the largest cohort study of FEP patients receiving care within EIS. Cannabis use, particularly "continued use," was associated with poorer symptomatic and functional outcome during the FEP. The results highlight the need for effective and early intervention for cannabis use in FEP.

Association of cannabis use with hospital admission and antipsychotic treatment failure in first episode psychosis: an observational study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether cannabis use is associated with increased risk of relapse, as indexed by number of hospital admissions, and whether antipsychotic treatment failure, as indexed by number of unique antipsychotics prescribed, may mediate this effect in a large data set of patients with first episode psychosis (FEP).

DESIGN

Observational study with exploratory mediation analysis.

SETTING

Anonymised electronic mental health record data from the South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust.

PARTICIPANTS

2026 people presenting to early intervention services with FEP.

EXPOSURE

Cannabis use at presentation, identified using natural language processing.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

admission to psychiatric hospital and clozapine prescription up to 5 years following presentation.

MEDIATOR

Number of unique antipsychotics prescribed.

RESULTS

Cannabis use was present in 46.3% of the sample at first presentation and was particularly common in patients who were 16-25, male and single. It was associated with increased frequency of hospital admission (incidence rate ratio 1.50, 95% CI 1.25 to 1.80), increased likelihood of compulsory admission (OR 1.55, 1.16 to 2.08) and greater number of days spent in hospital (β coefficient 35.1 days, 12.1 to 58.1). The number of unique antipsychotics prescribed, mediated increased frequency of hospital admission (natural indirect effect 1.09, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.18; total effect 1.50, 1.21 to 1.87), increased likelihood of compulsory admission (natural indirect effect (NIE) 1.27, 1.03 to 1.58; total effect (TE) 1.76, 0.81 to 3.84) and greater number of days spent in hospital (NIE 17.9, 2.4 to 33.4; TE 34.8, 11.6 to 58.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabis use in patients with FEP was associated with an increased likelihood of hospital admission. This was linked to the prescription of several different antipsychotic drugs, indicating clinical judgement of antipsychotic treatment failure. Together, this suggests that cannabis use might be associated with worse clinical outcomes in psychosis by contributing towards failure of antipsychotic treatment.

Cannabis use in first episode psychosis: Meta-analysis of prevalence, and the time course of initiation and continued use

OBJECTIVES

Cannabis use is prevalent among people with first episode psychosis and the epidemiology of its use in early psychosis is unclear. We performed a meta-analysis of observational studies to determine; (1) the interval between age at initiation of cannabis use and age at onset of first episode psychosis, (2) the prevalence of cannabis use at time of first episode psychosis, and (3) the odds of continuing cannabis following treatment for first episode psychosis.

DATA SOURCES

Search of electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science and CINAHL for English-language papers using search terms (psychosis OR schizophrenia) AND (cannabis OR marijuana) IN (title OR keyword OR abstract), current to October 2014.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies were included if they reported on prevalence of current cannabis use in first episode psychosis cohorts. A total of 37 samples were included for meta-analysis.

DATA EXTRACTION

Rates of cannabis use in each sample were extracted to determine prevalence estimates. The age at initiation of regular cannabis and age at onset of psychosis were used to determine the length of cannabis use preceding psychosis. Prevalence estimates at first episode psychosis and various time points of follow-up following first episode psychosis were analysed to determine odds ratio of continuing cannabis use. Data synthesis was performed using random-effects meta-analyses.

RESULTS

The pooled estimate for the interval between initiation of regular cannabis use and age at onset of psychosis was 6.3 years (10 samples, standardised mean difference = 1.56, 95% confidence interval = [1.40, 1.72]). The estimated prevalence of cannabis use at first episode psychosis was 33.7% (35 samples, 95% confidence interval = [31%, 39%]). Odds of continued cannabis use between 6 months and 10 years following first episode psychosis was 0.56 (19 samples, 95% confidence interval = [0.40, 0.79]).

Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Although the link between cannabis use and development of psychosis is well established, less is known about the effect of continued versus discontinued cannabis use after the onset of psychosis. We aimed to summarise available evidence focusing on the relationship between continued and discontinued cannabis use after onset of psychosis and its relapse.

METHODS

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE for articles published in any language from the database inception date up until April 21, 2015 that included a sample of patients with a pre-existing psychotic disorder with a follow-up duration of at least 6 months. We used a combination of search terms for describing cannabis, the outcome of interest (relapse of psychosis), and the study population. We excluded studies if continued cannabis use or discontinued cannabis use could not be established. We compared relapse outcomes between those who continued (CC) or discontinued (DC) cannabis use or were non-users (NC). We used summary data (individual patient data were not sought out) to estimate Cohen's d, which was entered into random effects models (REM) to compare CC with NC, CC with DC, and DC with NC. Meta-regression and sensitivity analyses were used to address the issue of heterogeneity.

FINDINGS

Of 1903 citations identified, 24 studies (16 565 participants) met the inclusion criteria. Independent of the stage of illness, continued cannabis users had a greater increase in relapse of psychosis than did both non-users (dCC-NC=0·36, 95% CI 0·22-0·50, p<0·0001) and discontinued users (dCC-DC=0·28, 0·12-0·44, p=0·0005), as well as longer hospital admissions than non-users (dCC-NC=0·36, 0·13 to 0·58, p=0·02). By contrast, cannabis discontinuation was not associated with relapse (dDC-NC=0·02, -0·12 to 0·15; p=0·82). Meta-regression suggested greater effects of continued cannabis use than discontinued use on relapse (dCC-NC=0·36 vs dDC-NC=0·02, p=0·04), positive symptoms (dCC-NC=0·15 vs dDC-NC=-0·30, p=0·05) and level of functioning (dCC-NC=0·04 vs dDC-NC=-0·49, p=0·008) but not on negative symptoms (dCC-NC=-0·09 vs dDC-NC=-0·31, p=0·41).

INTERPRETATION

Continued cannabis use after onset of psychosis predicts adverse outcome, including higher relapse rates, longer hospital admissions, and more severe positive symptoms than for individuals who discontinue cannabis use and those who are non-users. These findings point to reductions in cannabis use as a crucial interventional target to improve outcome in patients with psychosis.

FUNDING

UK National Institute of Health Research.

Association between rostral prefrontal cortical activity and functional outcome in first-episode psychosis: a longitudinal functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

BACKGROUND

Few biomarkers can be used easily and noninvasively to measure clinical condition and future outcome in patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP). To develop such biomarker using multichannel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), cortical function in the prefrontal cortex was longitudinally measured during a verbal fluency task.

METHODS

Sixty-nine fNIRS measurements and 77 clinical assessments were obtained from 31 patients with FEP at baseline, 6-month, and 12-month follow-ups. Sixty measurements were obtained from 30 healthy controls matched for age, sex, and premorbid IQ. We initially tested signal changes for 12 months, and then investigated the relationship between fNIRS signals and clinical assessments.

RESULTS

Signal changes from baseline to 12-month follow-up were not evident in any group. Patients with FEP had significant positive correlation coefficients between 6-month fNIRS signals and the 12-month Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) score in the left middle frontal gyrus (FDR-corrected p=.0016-.0052, r=.65-.59). fNIRS signals at the 12-month follow-up were associated with 12-month GAF score in the bilateral superior and middle frontal gyri (FDR-corrected p=.00085-.018, r=.72-.55), and with the difference between baseline and 12-month GAF scores in the right superior frontal gyrus (FDR-corrected p=.000067-.00012, r=.80-.78). These associations were significant even after controlling for demographic variables. No association between baseline fNIRS signals and later GAF scores was found.

DISCUSSION

fNIRS measurement can potentially be used as a biomarker to aid sequential assessment of neuro-clinical conditions through the early stage of psychosis.

Antipsychotic efficacy in psychosis with co-morbid cannabis misuse: A systematic review

The prevalence of cannabis use in patients with psychotic mental illness is known to be high and is suspected to exacerbate symptoms and worsen prognosis. We aimed to evaluate evidence of antipsychotic efficacy in reducing the burden of psychotic symptoms and cannabis use in individuals with psychotic mental illness and co-morbid cannabis use. A systematic review was conducted of antipsychotic treatment in those with psychotic mental illness and co-morbid cannabis use. Quality of evidence for each study and outcomes were rated using the 'GRADE' approach. Twenty-two studies were identified: 13 experimental and 9 observational, including a total sample of 1543 patients, 761 of whom had a diagnosed cannabis use disorder. The most frequent antipsychotics compared were risperidone, olanzapine and clozapine with olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol. No clear differences between antipsychotics were demonstrated. Future studies are needed to confirm whether clozapine is superior to other antipsychotics in reducing cannabis use.

Treating Depressive Symptoms in Psychosis: A Network Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Non-Verbal Therapies

AIMS

The aim of this study was to examine whether non-verbal therapies are effective in treating depressive symptoms in psychotic disorders.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, Psychinfo, Picarta, Embase and ISI Web of Science, up to January 2015. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing a non-verbal intervention to a control condition in patients with psychotic disorders, whilst measuring depressive symptoms as a primary or secondary outcome, were included. The quality of studies was assessed using the 'Clinical Trials Assessment Measure for psychological treatments' (CTAM) scale. Cohen's d was calculated as a measure of effect size. Using a Network Meta-analysis, both direct and indirect evidence was investigated.

RESULTS

10 RCTs were included, of which three were of high quality according to the CTAM. The direct evidence demonstrated a significant effect on the reduction in depressive symptoms relative to treatment as usual (TAU), in favor of overall non-verbal therapy (ES: -0.66, 95% C.I. = -0.88, -0.44) and music therapy (ES: -0.59, 95% C.I. = -0.85, -0.33). Combining both direct and indirect evidence, yoga therapy (ES: -0.79, 95% C.I. = -1.24, -0.35) had a significant effect on depressive symptoms, and occupational therapy (ES: 1.81, 95% C.I. = 0.81, 2.81) was less effective, relative to TAU. Exercise therapy did not show a significant effect on depressive symptoms in comparison to TAU (ES: -0.02 95% C.I. = -0.67, 0.62). Due to inconsistency of study evidence, the indirect effects should be interpreted cautiously.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-verbal therapies appear to be effective in reducing depressive symptomatology in psychotic disorders, in particular music therapy and yoga therapy.

Does tobacco use cause psychosis? Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Although the association between psychotic illness and cigarette smoking is well known, the reasons are unclear why people with psychosis are more likely to smoke than are the general population. We aimed to test several hypotheses. First, that daily tobacco use is associated with an increased risk of psychotic illness in both case-control and prospective studies. Second, that smoking is associated with an earlier age at onset of psychotic illness. Finally, that an earlier age at initiation of smoking is associated with an increased risk of psychosis. We also aimed to derive an estimate of the prevalence of smoking in patients presenting with their first episode of psychosis.

METHODS

We searched Embase, Medline, and PsycINFO and selected observational studies in which rates of smoking were reported in people with psychotic disorders, compared with controls. We calculated the weighted mean difference for age at onset of psychosis and age at initiation of smoking. For categorical outcomes, we calculated odds ratios from cross-sectional studies and risk ratios from prospective studies.

FINDINGS

Of 3717 citations retrieved, 61 studies comprising 72 samples met inclusion criteria. The overall sample included 14 555 tobacco users and 273 162 non-users. The prevalence of smoking in patients presenting with their first episode of psychosis was 0·57 (95% CI 0·52-0·62; p<0·0001). In case-control studies, the overall odds ratio for the first episode of psychosis in smokers versus non-smokers was 3·22 (95% CI 1·63-6·33), with some evidence of publication bias (Egger's test p=0·018, Begg's test p=0·007). For prospective studies, we calculated an overall relative risk of new psychotic disorders in daily smokers versus non-smokers of 2·18 (95% CI 1·23-3·85). Daily smokers developed psychotic illness at an earlier age than did non-smokers (weighted mean difference -1·04 years, 95% CI -1·82 to -0·26). Those with psychosis started smoking at a non-significantly earlier age than did healthy controls (-0·44 years, 95% CI -1·21 to 0·34).

INTERPRETATION

Daily tobacco use is associated with increased risk of psychosis and an earlier age at onset of psychotic illness. The possibility of a causal link between tobacco use and psychosis merits further examination.

FUNDING

NIHR Maudsley Biomedical Research Centre.

Prevalence, patterns, associated factors and severity of substance use among psychotic patients in southern Thailand

Co-occurring substance use in psychotic patients causes many subsequences including increased illness severity, decreased medication compliance, higher relapse rates, more hospitalizations, and legal problems. We aim to investigate the prevalence, patterns, associated factors and severity of substance use risk among psychotic patients in southern Thailand. Psychotic out-patients were screened with the Alcohol, Smoking, Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST) for their history of substance use in the past three months and categorized as None-to-Low Risk (NLR) or Moderate-to-High Risk (MHR) levels. Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine the associated factors of substance use risk-level. The associations between substance use risk-level and emotional and behavioural symptoms, functional status and family functional status were examined using multivariate linear regression analysis. Of 663 participants screened, 322 (48.6%) used at least one substance in the past three months. Tobacco was the most common substance used (47.2%). The factors associated with a higher risk of any substance use were male gender, young age group, low level of education, being employed and being diagnosed with schizophrenia. A higher number of emotional and behavioural symptoms was significantly associated with higher substance use risk-level. In conclusion, the prevalence of substance use in psychotic patients was high and associated with their emotional and behavioural symptoms. Recommendations for implementation of screening and early intervention programs of substance-related problems in psychotic patients are important for preventing unwanted outcomes.

Recovery: revisão sistemática de um conceito

O conceito de recovery tem sido descrito em artigos como um estado de recuperação ou restabelecimento de funções psíquicas, físicas e sociais no funcionamento cotidiano. O objetivo do artigo é analisar concepções terminológicas em diferentes metodologias investigativas e a evolução paradigmática da noção de recovery. Pesquisa bibliográfica sistemática na base Pubmed com as palavras "recovery + schizophrenia", limitada a dois anos retrospectivos e a artigos completos gratuitos. Dezenove artigos foram analisados. A maioria destes busca associações entre dada característica e recovery, poucos são aqueles que discutem a sua concepção de forma que se distinga de termos comuns como "cura" e "reabilitação". Recovery como um estado em que o portador de transtorno mental grave possa sentir-se criador de seus caminhos tende a estar presente em estudos com metodologia qualitativa e em revisões bibliográficas, em que a medida de recovery deixa de relacionar-se à ausência de sintomas e passa a priorizar o quão participativa pode ser a vida de um indivíduo apesar da doença. Alguns estudos quantitativos vislumbram essa diferença conceitual. Em pesquisas qualitativas ocorre expansão na concepção de recovery e nas formas de promovê-lo.

Reasons for cannabis use in first-episode psychosis: does strength of endorsement change over 12 months?

BACKGROUND

Why patients with psychosis use cannabis remains debated. The self-medication hypothesis has received some support but other evidence points towards an alleviation of dysphoria model. This study investigated the reasons for cannabis use in first-episode psychosis (FEP) and whether strength in their endorsement changed over time.

METHODS

FEP inpatients and outpatients at the South London and Maudsley, Oxleas and Sussex NHS Trusts UK, who used cannabis, rated their motives at baseline (n=69), 3 months (n=29) and 12 months (n=36). A random intercept model was used to test the change in strength of endorsement over the 12 months. Paired-sample t-tests assessed the differences in mean scores between the five subscales on the Reasons for Use Scale (enhancement, social motive, coping with unpleasant affect, conformity and acceptance and relief of positive symptoms and side effects), at each time-point.

RESULTS

Time had a significant effect on scores when controlling for reason; average scores on each subscale were higher at baseline than at 3 months and 12 months. At each time-point, patients endorsed 'enhancement' followed by 'coping with unpleasant affect' and 'social motive' more highly for their cannabis use than any other reason. 'Conformity and acceptance' followed closely. 'Relief of positive symptoms and side effects' was the least endorsed motive.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients endorsed their reasons for use at 3 months and 12 months less strongly than at baseline. Little support for the self-medication or alleviation of dysphoria models was found. Rather, patients rated 'enhancement' most highly for their cannabis use.

Effects of a brief intervention for substance use on tobacco smoking and family relationship functioning in schizophrenia and related psychoses: a randomised controlled trial

Surveys indicate that substance use is prevalent in populations with schizophrenia. Family members may be able to support brief interventions (BI). We conducted a randomised controlled trial with 6-month follow-up among adult patients with schizophrenia and related psychoses who were referred to two hospitals in southern Thailand. Patients with psychosis were screened using the Alcohol Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). 169 participants (all at moderate substance risk on the ASSIST) were randomised to receive simple advice (the clinics' treatment-as-usual, TAU condition), or single-session brief intervention (BI), or a single-session BI with family support (BI-FS). Given observed substance use, the primary outcome was the ASSIST tobacco smoking involvement score (SIS). Secondary outcomes were cigarettes smoked per day, change motivation (Taking Steps from the Stages of Change and Treatment Eagerness Scale), and DSM-IV Axis V Global Assessment of Relational Functioning (GARF). At follow-up, BI-FS participants reported a lower SIS (mean difference, -2.82, 95% confidence interval [CI] -4.84 to -0.81; Glass' effect size [Δ] = 0.57, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.95), smoked fewer cigarettes per day (mean difference -3.10, 95% CI -5.45 to -0.74; Δ = 0.56, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.94), had greater change motivation (mean difference 3.05, 95% CI 0.54 to 5.57; Δ = 0.41, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.79) and GARF (mean difference 6.75, 95% CI 1.57 to 11.93; Δ = 0.54, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.92). The BI-FS group also had better relational functioning in comparison to those receiving BI only (mean difference 5.44, 95% CI 0.20 to 10.67; Δ = 0.46, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.84). In schizophrenia and related psychoses, a brief intervention supported by a family member reduces smoking involvement, cigarette smoking intensity, and increases change motivation and relational functioning.

Systematic meta-analysis of outcomes associated with psychosis and co-morbid substance use

OBJECTIVE

To compare the symptoms and social function of patients with psychosis and current substance use to those with psychosis and no history of substance use.

METHOD

The databases EMBASE, MEDLINE and PsycINFO were searched for peer-reviewed publications in English that reported the characteristics of patients with psychotic illness who were current substance users and those who had never used substances. The searches yielded 22 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis was used to compare four key outcome variables: positive symptoms, negative symptoms, depression and social function - and three secondary outcomes: violence, self-harm and hospital admissions.

RESULTS

Current substance-using patients were significantly younger than non-substance-using patients and were more likely to be male, but did not differ in age at onset of psychosis or in their level of education. Current substance users had higher ratings of positive symptoms and were more likely to have a history of violence. Older studies reported a stronger association between current substance use and positive symptoms than more recently published studies. Current substance users did not differ from non-users on measurements of negative symptoms, depressive symptoms, social function, self-harm, or the number of hospital admissions.

CONCLUSION

Current substance users with psychosis may have more severe positive symptoms than patients who have never used substances, but this result should be interpreted with caution because of demographic differences between substance users and non-substance users.

Impact of substance use disorder on presentation and short-term course of schizophrenia

The aim of the present study was to compare a cohort of schizophrenia patients with substance use disorder (SUD) with a similar cohort of schizophrenia patients without SUD with regard to sociodemographic variables, clinical variables, psychopathology, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, treatment outcome, and side effect profile of drugs. A total of 143 consecutive inpatients with ICD-10 DCR diagnosis of schizophrenia were included after obtaining informed consent. Patients were evaluated by a semistructured data sheet and Maudsley Addiction Profile. They were then rated by Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale, Calgary Depression Scale, Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale, and Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale at presentation, three weeks, and six weeks. At three weeks and six weeks, they were also evaluated by UKU Side Effect Rating Scale. Substance abuse was detected in 63.6% schizophrenia patients. Nicotine was the commonest substance followed by cannabis and alcohol. Substance users had longer untreated illness and more depressive symptoms at presentation and six-week follow-up. Dual diagnosis patients had difficulty in abstraction at three and six weeks but not at presentation. Schizophrenia patients with SUD had more depressive symptoms. SUD appeared to mask abstraction difficulties at presentation. Schizophrenia patients with SUD should be carefully assessed for presence of depression.

One year follow-up of alcohol and illicit substance use in first-episode psychosis: does gender matter?

Longitudinal studies on first-episode psychosis (FEP) patients have shown a decrease of substance use disorders (SUDs) over the first years of illness, but there has been less focus on the gender aspect. The present study examines stability of alcohol and illicit substance use, with specific focus on gender, in a one year follow-up investigation of 154 FEP patients (91 men, 63 women) in Oslo, Norway, using criteria for DSM-IV substance use disorder diagnosis, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT). The results show that cannabis was the most frequently used illicit substance at both times. Significantly more men (34%) than women (13%) had a current illicit SUD at baseline. At follow-up, the rate of illicit SUDs was significantly reduced in men (18%) but not in women (11%). There were no significant gender differences in the rate of current alcohol use disorders (AUD) (men 14%; women 8%) at baseline, and no significant reduction in AUD in any of the genders at follow-up. At follow-up, total AUDIT and DUDIT scores were reduced in men only. In conclusion, the high and persistent rate of SUDs, particularly of cannabis, among men and women during the first year of treatment for psychosis should be addressed in the clinical management of the patients. Female FEP patients who are also substance users may be particularly vulnerable in this regard and warrant closer attention.

Do former substance users with psychosis differ in their symptoms or function from non-substance users? A systematic meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To compare the symptoms and function of patients with psychosis who have ceased using substances to those who have psychosis but do not have a history of substance use.

METHOD

The databases EMBASE, MEDLINE and PsycINFO were searched for peer-reviewed publications in English reporting the characteristics of patients with psychotic illness who had stopped using substances and those who had never used substances. The searches yielded 20 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Four key outcome variables - positive symptoms, negative symptoms, depression and global function - and four other outcome measures reported in five or more studies were examined using meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Former substance-using patients were significantly younger than non-substance-using patients and were more likely to be male, but did not differ in age at onset of psychosis or in their level of education. There were no significant differences between former substance users and non-substance users in ratings of positive symptoms, negative symptoms, depression or global function. Among first-episode patients there was a trend towards former substance users having less severe depressive symptoms than non-substance users. In contrast, among non-first-episode patients, former substance users had significantly more depressive symptoms than non-substance users. In studies rated as being of higher quality, former substance users had significantly less severe positive symptoms than non-substance users.

CONCLUSION

The absence of significant differences between the two groups suggests that a history of substance use is not a poor prognostic indicator for patients who are able to stop using substances.

Treatment engagement of psychotic patients with a mobile mental health unit in rural areas in Greece: a five-year study

Objectives. Treatment of psychotic disorders is impended by high rates of disengagement from mental health services and poor adherence to antipsychotic medication. This study examined the engagement rates of psychotic patients with a community mental health service during a 5-year period. Methods. The Mobile Mental Health Unit of Ioannina and Thesprotia (MMHU I-T) delivers services in remote, rural, mountainous areas using the resources of the primary care system. Clinical and demographic information for patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and related psychoses was obtained from the medical records of our unit. Results. A total of 74 psychotic patients initially engaged in treatment with our unit. In half of cases treatment was home-based. With the exclusion of patients who died or discharged, engagement rates were 67.2%. Statistical analysis was performed for 64 patients, and no differences were found between engaged and disengaged patients regarding clinical and demographic parameters. All engaged patients regularly refilled their antipsychotic prescriptions. Conclusion. Engagement rates in our study were comparable to previous research, involving urban settings and shorter follow-up duration. Community mental health teams may ensure treatment continuation for psychotic patients in deprived, remote areas. This is important for low-income countries, affected by economic crisis, such as Greece.

A multimodal approach to investigate biomarkers for psychosis in a clinical setting: the integrative neuroimaging studies in schizophrenia targeting for early intervention and prevention (IN-STEP) project

Longitudinal clinical investigations and biological measurements have determined not only progressive brain volumetric and functional changes especially around the onset of psychosis but also the abnormality of developmental pathways based on gene-environment interaction model. However, these studies have contributed little to clinical decisions on their diagnosis and therapeutic choices because of subtle differences between patients and healthy controls. A multi-modal approach may resolve this limitation and is favorable to explore the pathophysiology of psychosis. The integrative neuroimaging studies for schizophrenia targeting early intervention and prevention (IN-STEP) is a research project aimed at exploring the pathophysiological features of the onset of psychosis and investigating possible predictive biomarkers for the clinical treatment of psychosis. Since 2008, we have adopted blood sampling, neurocognitive batteries, neurophysiological assessment, structural imaging, and functional imaging longitudinally for help-seeking ultra-high-risk (UHR) individuals and patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP). Here, we intend to introduce the IN-STEP research study protocol and present preliminary clinical findings. Thirty-seven UHR individuals and 30 patients with FEP participated in this study. Six months later, there was no difference in objective and subjective scores between the groups, which suggests that young people having symptoms and functional deficits should be cared for regardless of their history of psychosis according to their clinical stages. The rate of transition to psychosis was 7.1%, 8.0%, and 35.3% (at 6, 12, and 24months, respectively). Through this research project, we expect to clarify the pathophysiological features around the onset of psychosis and improve the prognosis of psychosis through clinical application.

Medication adherence mediates the impact of sustained cannabis use on symptom levels in first-episode psychosis

Both medication non-adherence and co-morbid cannabis abuse are associated with poor clinical outcome in first episode psychosis (FEP). The nature of interaction between adherence to medication and continued cannabis use remains unexplored. The objectives of this study were to examine variation in medication adherence associated with cessation or continuation of cannabis use, and to determine the impact of interaction between cannabis use and adherence to medication on symptom outcome at 12 months. From a consecutive patient cohort (N=192) with a DSM-IV diagnosis of a FEP, 62 patients who met DSM-IV criteria for a currently active cannabis abuse disorder were followed up for one year. Complete data on repeated measures of medication adherence, symptoms, and cannabis use were available for 48 of the 62 patients. Twenty-eight patients (58.7%) continued while 20 (41.2%) stopped cannabis use after entering treatment. While both groups were relatively non-adherent at six months, 25/28 (92%) of the former group became adherent compared to 8/20 (40%) of those who stopped cannabis use (p<.01). While there was no overall effect of continued cannabis use on symptom levels at 12 months, after controlling for medication adherence patients with continuous cannabis use had significantly higher level of symptoms (F(1,30)=2.74, p=0.03). FEP patients with an active cannabis use disorder may make a choice of either stopping cannabis and not taking medications or continuing cannabis but becoming more adherent to medications, adherence to medication appears to help both groups but continuous users remain at higher risk of poor symptom outcome even while on medication.

Does giving up substance use work for patients with psychosis? A systematic meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the extent to which ceasing the use of cannabis or other substances reduces the symptoms and social disability associated with psychotic illness.

METHODS

The electronic databases CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE and PsycINFO were searched for peer-reviewed publications in English that report data about the characteristics of current and former substance-using patients diagnosed with psychotic illnesses. The searches yielded 328 articles, of which 23 studies met the inclusion criteria. Four key outcome variables; positive symptoms, negative symptoms, ratings of depression and global function, and five other measures of outcome that were reported in five or more studies were examined using meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Current substance-using patients were significantly younger than former substance-using patients (standardised mean difference (SMD) = -0.38), but did not differ in age at onset of psychosis, sex, level of education or marital status. Current substance users had higher scores on rating scales of positive symptoms (SMD = 0.29) and depression (SMD = 0.36), and lower scores on global function (SMD = -0.26) when compared with former substance users. There was a significant improvement in the ratings of positive symptoms, mood and global function among patients who stopped using substances during the first episode of psychosis, while improvements in the symptoms of patients with a more established psychotic illness did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that substance use contributes to both the symptoms and the burden of disability experienced by patients with psychosis. Patients in the early stages of psychotic illness should be informed about the benefits of giving up substances earlier, rather than later in the illness. Psychiatric services should regard the treatment of substance use as an integral part of the treatment of psychotic disorders.

Antipsychotic treatment of adolescent dual diagnosis patients

BACKGROUND

A diagnosis of schizophrenia requires development of a pharmacotherapy regimen that balances many factors in the therapeutic decision-making process. Patient age and the presence or absence of comorbid chemical dependency represent two factors. Comorbid chemical dependency can have a profound impact on the successful treatment of schizophrenia, making patients with dual diagnoses of schizophrenia and chemical dependence a uniquely challenging population. There is little information regarding treatment of schizophrenia and chemical dependence in the pediatric population. Existing data from pediatric and adult populations may facilitate a well-guided and knowledgeable approach to treating pediatric dual diagnosis patients.

METHODS

A review of the literature for medication trials evaluating antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia in childhood and adolescence as well as antipsychotic use in the treatment of the dual diagnoses of schizophrenia and chemical dependence was done. Databases for Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, and PsycInfo were searched using the terms "addiction," "adolescence," "childhood," "dual diagnosis," "schizophrenia," and "substance abuse." Results were limited to English-language articles.

RESULTS

Seven articles were identified related to psychotic disorders and substance abuse in pediatric populations. Psychosis measurement instruments included the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, and Clinical Global Impression. Mean improvements were insignificant in most cases. Medication trials included clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and molindone. Trial safety concerns included metabolic effects, increased prolactin levels, and akathisia. One study with random assignment to olanzapine was discontinued early because of substantial weight gain without evidence of superior efficacy. Clozapine treatment was associated with more adverse drug events.

CONCLUSION

There is a great need for more research and use of available data to develop safe and effective treatment guidelines for childhood and adolescent dual diagnosis patients. When appropriate decisions are made regarding treatment of patients with comorbid schizophrenia and chemical dependence, both conditions may benefit with increased remission.

The effect of cannabis use and cognitive reserve on age at onset and psychosis outcomes in first-episode schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Cannabis use is associated with a younger age at onset of psychosis, an indicator of poor prognosis, but better cognitive function, a positive prognostic indicator. We aimed to clarify the role of age at onset and cognition on outcomes in cannabis users with first-episode schizophrenia as well as the effect of cannabis dose and cessation of use.

METHODS

Ninety-nine patients without alcohol or substance abuse other than cannabis were divided into lifetime users and never-users of cannabis and compared on measures of premorbid function, cognition, and clinical outcome.

RESULTS

Cannabis users demonstrated better cognition at psychosis onset, which was explained by higher premorbid IQ. They also showed better social function and neither measure changed over the subsequent 15 months. Cannabis users had an earlier age at onset of psychosis, and there was a strong linear relationship between age at first cannabis use and age at onset of both prodromal and psychotic symptoms. Cannabis use spontaneously declined over time with 3-quarters of users giving up altogether. Later age at first cannabis use predicted earlier cessation of use and this in turn was linked to fewer positive psychotic symptoms and days in hospital during the first 2 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabis use brings forward the onset of psychosis in people who otherwise have good prognostic features indicating that an early age at onset can be due to a toxic action of cannabis rather than an intrinsically more severe illness. Many patients abstain over time, but in those who persist, psychosis is more difficult to treat.

The differential effect of illicit drug use on cognitive function in first-episode psychosis and healthy controls

OBJECTIVE

Illicit drug use can result in impairment in cognitive function in healthy individuals. Individuals with a psychotic disorder also show a deficit in cognitive function. Drug use may simply contribute to the characteristic cognitive deficit found in psychosis or alternatively result in a 'double deficit'. This study aims to investigate the association between drug use and cognitive function at the first-episode of psychosis and in community-matched controls.

METHOD

One hundred and seventy-seven patients at the first episode of psychosis completed a battery of neuropsychological tests. Those that had used drugs in the previous year (n = 80) were compared with those who had not used drugs in the previous year (n = 97). A subsample of the first-episode psychosis patients were compared with community-matched controls (n = 110) according to drug-use status.

RESULTS

Patients with a first episode of psychosis who had used drugs performed equally to those who had not used drugs on neuropsychological tests. In contrast, healthy controls who had used drugs in the previous year performed worse on tests of executive function and working memory compared with those controls that had not used drugs.

CONCLUSION

There are differential associations of illicit drug misuse with cognitive function for first-episode psychosis patients and healthy controls.

Depressive symptoms in first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

Depressive symptoms in 'non-affective' first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders (FES) are common, but poorly understood, resulting in a range of conceptual and clinical management issues. This study had three aims: (i) to determine the prevalence of moderate to severe depressive symptoms (defined as a Clinical Global Impressions Scale-Bipolar Disorder (CGI-BP depression) score >3) in a large representative sample of FES patients; (ii) to compare the clinical and functional characteristics of FES patients with and without these depressive symptoms at service entry; and (iii) to compare the characteristics of FES patients with and without persistent depressive symptoms.

METHODS

Medical file audit methodology was employed to collect information on 405 patients with FES treated at the Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre (EPPIC), Melbourne, Australia.

RESULTS

26.2% (n=106) of the patients had moderate to severe depression at service entry. At service entry and at discharge, those with depressive symptoms had greater insight into their illness but did not differ from those without depressive symptoms in terms of severity of overall psychopathology. Substance use was significantly less common in those with depressive symptoms at service entry and at discharge. Of those who were depressed at baseline, 14.2% (n=15) continued to have moderate to severe depressive symptoms at discharge.

DISCUSSION

Depressive symptoms are common in patients with FES. Understanding the nature and characteristics of depression in FES has important clinical implications for both early intervention and treatment.